Northern goshawks are considered "management indicators" in many national forests. They are considered "sensitive to change", and their well being often can provide clues to problems with habitat change.
Goshawks, like other accipiters, depend upon vocalizations for communication in their forested habitats. They are especially vocal during courtship and nesting. Both sexes make equally varied sounds, however, the female's sounds are deeper and louder, while male goshawks tend to have higher and less powerful voices. There are also several specific calls, or wails, given by goshawks.
As nestlings, young goshawks may use a "whistle-beg" call as a plea for food. It begins as a ke-ke-ke noise, and progresses to a kakking sound. The chick may also use a high pitched "contentment-twitter" when it is well fed.
As adults, goshawks vocalize by way of wail-calls, which consist of "ki-ki-ki-ki" or "kak, kak, kak". This call varies with the action it represents. A "recognition-wail" is made by both males and females when entering or leaving the nest. A "food-transfer" call, which is harsh sounding, is made by males to demand food from the female.
Northern goshawks also use postures and other physical cues to communicate.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Because northern goshawks are threatened in some areas, conservation measures to protect them may negatively impact the logging industry.
Northern goshawks have been used for centuries in falconry. More importantly, northern goshawks help to control populations of small mammal pests.
Positive Impacts: controls pest population
Northern goshawks are important as predators in the ecosystems in which they live, especially to small mammal and bird populations. They are also host to internal and external parasites, including lice, cestods and trematodes.
Northern goshawks are carnivorous, mainly consuming birds, mammals, invertebrates, and reptiles of moderate to large size. Individual prey items can weigh up to half the weight of the goshawk. The content of an individual goshawks diet depends upon the environment in which that goshawk live. The average diet consists of 21 to 59 percent mammals and 18 to 69 percent birds, with the remaining percentages being made up of reptiles and invertebrates. Some common prey include snow-shoe hares, red squirrels, ground squirrels, spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, and blue grouse. Northern goshawks sometimes cache prey on tree branches or wedged in a crotch between branches for up to 32 hours. This is done primarily during the nestling stage.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; insects
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
Northern goshawks are found throughout the mountains and forests of North America and Eurasia. In North America they range from western central Alaska and the Yukon territories in the north to the mountains of northwestern and western Mexico. They are typically not found in the southeastern United States.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: holarctic
Northern goshawks can be found in coniferous and deciduous forests. During their nesting period, they prefer mature forests consisting of a combination of old, tall trees with intermediate canopy coverage and small open areas within the forest for foraging. During the cold winter months they migrate to warmer areas, usually at lower elevations.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: taiga ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; mountains
There is little data on life span and survival of goshawks. The average survival, based upon small banding return samples, is 10.7 months. Maximum lifespan has also been neglected in research, but it is believed to be at least 11 years. Females have a higher rate of survival, mainly due to their larger body mass, which gives them an advantage during the winter months.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 19.8 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 11 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 10.7 months.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 196 months.
Northern goshawks are the largest species of the genus Accipiter. Males generally weigh between 630 and 1100 grams, average 55 cm in length, and have a wingspan ranging from 98 to 104 centimeters. Females are slightly larger, weighing, on average, between 860 and 1360 grams, and having a wingspan of 105 to 115 centimeters and an average length of 61 cm.
All accipiters, including northern goshawks, have a distinctive white grouping of feathers which form a band above the eye (the superciliary). In goshawks this band is thick and more pronounced than in the other members of the species. The eye color of adult goshawks is red to reddish-brown, in juveniles eye color is bright yellow.
The colorings of adult male and female northern goshawks range from slate blue-gray to black. Their backs, wing coverts, and heads are usually dark, and their undersides are white with fine, gray, horizontal barring. Their tails are light gray with three or four dark bands.
A juvenile northern goshawk's coloring is quite different than that of the adult. Their backs, wing coverts, and heads are brown, and their undersides are white with vertical brown streaking.
Range mass: 631 to 1364 g.
Range length: 55 to 61 cm.
Range wingspan: 98 to 115 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
There are few natural predators of goshawks. Great horned owls, hawks and eagles, martens, eagle owls, and wolves, have been known to prey upon goshawks, particularly nestlings, during times of low food availability.
Northern goshawks are formidable birds and will attack trespassers in their nesting territories.
Known Predators:
While not endangered, northern goshawks are listed in Appendix II of the CITES agreement, which means that they can be traded between countries under certain circumstances, but would be threatened by uncontrolled trade. Northern goshawks are also protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
Timber harvesting is a major threat to northern goshawk populations. In recent years, several states such as Michigan, Washington and Idaho have listed northern goshawks as a Species of Concern and have increased conservation efforts focused on these birds.
US Migratory Bird Act: protected
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: special concern
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
When courting a mate, female goshawks will attract males in the area by either performing dramatic aerial displays and vocalizing, or by perching in the nesting area and vocalizing. Once a mate has been found, the two goshawks begin to construct or repair their nest. During this time, the pair will copulate many times a day, sometimes as many as 518 times per clutch.
Male and female goshawks typically maintain a life-long pair bond and only upon death will they seek out a new mate.
Mating System: monogamous
Northern goshawks breed once per year between early April and mid-June, with peak activity occurring at the end of April through May. A mating pair of northern goshawks begins to prepare their nest as early as two months before egg laying. Typically, the nest is located in an old growth forest, near the trunk of a medium to large tree and near openings in the forest such as roads, swamps, and meadows. Their nests are usually about one meter (39.4 inches) in diameter and one-half to one meter (19.7 to 39.4 inches) in height and are made of dead twigs, lined with leafy green twigs or bunches of conifer needles and pieces of bark.
The typical clutch size is two to four eggs, which are laid in two to three day intervals. The eggs are rough textured, bluish-white in color and measure 59x45 millimeters (2.3 x 1.8 inches) in size. The clutch begins to hatch within 28 to 38 days of laying. Incubation of the eggs is primarily the female's job, but occasionally the male will take her place to allow the female to hunt and eat. Nestlings stay at the nest until they are 34 to 35 days old, when they begin to move to nearby branches in the same tree. They may begin to fly when they are 35 to 46 days old. Juvenile fledglings may be fed by their parents until they are about 70 days old.
Breeding interval: Northern goshawks breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Breeding usually occurs between early April and mid-June, with peak activity occurring at the end of April through May.
Range eggs per season: 2 to 4.
Range time to hatching: 28 to 38 days.
Range fledging age: 34 to 35 days.
Average time to independence: 70 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 to 3 minutes.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 to 3 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
Average eggs per season: 3.
Female goshawks do the majority of egg incubation, but occasionally males will incubate the eggs to allow the female to hunt and eat. After the clutch has hatched, the female will not leave the nesting area until the nestlings are 25 days old. During this time the male is the primary provider of food for the female and her nestlings. When the nestlings reach 25 days old, the female will leave them for periods of time to hunt with the male.
When nestling goshawks reach 35 to 42 days old, they begin to move to branches close to the nest. Soon after this, practice flights begin to occur. Often fledglings participate in "play" which is thought to allow them to practice hunting skills which will be needed throughout their lives.
Young goshawks tend to remain within 300 m of the nest until their flight feathers have fully hardened, at approximately 70 days. During this time fledglings still rely upon their parents for food. Full departure from the nest is often abrupt, though, and 95% of young goshawks become self reliant within 95 days of hatching.
Young goshawks reach sexual maturity as early as one year after hatching.
Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
Winter visitor.
Although closely related to the common Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s Hawks, the Northern Goshawk is encountered far less frequently. This is North America’s largest ‘bird hawk’ at 20-26 inches in length, and may be distinguished by its more familiar relatives by its larger size, grey-streaked breast, and dark cheek patch. Like most species of raptors, females are larger than males. The Northern Goshawk breeds in the Canadian sub-arctic, the northern tier of the United States, and at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains south to central Mexico. This species may be found in its breeding range all year long, although some individuals move south into the mid-Atlantic, Ohio River valley, and Great Plains in winter. This species also inhabits northern Eurasia south the Mediterranean, Central Asia, and China. Northern Goshawks inhabit dense evergreen or mixed evergreen and deciduous forests. Like all ‘bird hawks,’ this species is equipped with the long tail and short, broad wings needed to hunt birds (on the ground, in trees, or in flight) from the air. Unlike most bird hawks, however, this species also takes Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) in addition to avian prey. Large numbers of Northern Goshawks may wander far south of their normal range during winter in years when hare and grouse populations are low. With the aid of binoculars, Northern Goshawks may be seen perched in trees while scanning for prey. However, they are often more easily seen in the air while moving between perches or while actively hunting. As this species hunts by sight, it is only active during the day.
Although closely related to the common Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s Hawks, the Northern Goshawk is encountered far less frequently. This is North America’s largest ‘bird hawk’ at 20-26 inches in length, and may be distinguished by its more familiar relatives by its larger size, grey-streaked breast, and dark cheek patch. Like most species of raptors, females are larger than males. The Northern Goshawk breeds in the Canadian sub-arctic, the northern tier of the United States, and at higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains south to central Mexico. This species may be found in its breeding range all year long, although some individuals move south into the mid-Atlantic, Ohio River valley, and Great Plains in winter. This species also inhabits northern Eurasia south the Mediterranean, Central Asia, and China. Northern Goshawks inhabit dense evergreen or mixed evergreen and deciduous forests. Like all ‘bird hawks,’ this species is equipped with the long tail and short, broad wings needed to hunt birds (on the ground, in trees, or in flight) from the air. Unlike most bird hawks, however, this species also takes Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) in addition to avian prey. Large numbers of Northern Goshawks may wander far south of their normal range during winter in years when hare and grouse populations are low. With the aid of binoculars, Northern Goshawks may be seen perched in trees while scanning for prey. However, they are often more easily seen in the air while moving between perches or while actively hunting. As this species hunts by sight, it is only active during the day.
The northern goshawk opportunistically feeds on a wide diversity of prey items that varies by region, season, and availability. Though the list of potential prey species is extensive, a few taxa are particularly prevalent in most diets [48]. Diet options may be narrower in northerly latitudes, where fewer prey species are available, than in lower latitudes [40,43].
Prey species prevalent in the diet of northern goshawks throughout their range [48] Mammals Tree squirrels Abert's squirrel (Sciurus aberti), eastern gray squirrel (S. carolinensis), Douglas's squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasii), red squirrel (T. hudsonicus), northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus)Ground squirrels
Belding's ground squirrel (Spermophilus beldingi), golden-mantled ground squirrel (S. lateralis), Richardson's ground squirrel (S. richardsonii), Townsend's ground squirrel (S. townsendii) Lagomorphs cottontails (Sylvilagus spp.), jackrabbits (Lepus spp.), snowshoe hare Birds Phasianidae dusky grouse (Dendragapus obscurus), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), spruce grouse (Falcipennis canadensis) Corvidae American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), Steller's jay (C. stelleri), gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis), Picidae American three-toed woodpecker (Picoides dorsalis), black-backed woodpecker (P. arcticus), hairy woodpecker (P. villosus), northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus),Williamson's sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus) Turdidae American robin (Turdus migratorius)Regional diet summaries are available from the Great Lakes [7,43], South Dakota [47], the central Rocky Mountains [26], and eastern Oregon [17].
Prey habitat and availability: Managing for prey species is a major component of habitat recommendations for the northern goshawk (e.g., see [40]). Northern goshawk populations may experience reduced fitness and reproduction, greater interspecific competition for food, and greater susceptibility to predators when food resources are limited [26]. Several reviews emphasize the importance of both prey abundance and availability when determining suitable northern goshawk habitat. In other words, prey need to be both present and huntable, with availability determined by stand structure [24,26].
For information on habitat preferences of northern goshawk prey species, see the following reviews from the Southwest [10,40,53] and central Rocky Mountains [26] or FEIS reviews for the following species: Abert's squirrel, Townsend's ground squirrel, eastern cottontail, black-tailed jackrabbit, snowshoe hare, ruffed grouse, gray jay, and black-backed woodpecker.
A review of the effects of fire on raptor populations suggests that direct mortality from fire is rare [30]. Adult northern goshawks are highly mobile and consequently are probably able to flee an approaching fire. Mortality from fire is most likely to occur during the breeding season when nestlings are unable to flee an approaching fire [30]. One wildlife biologist in western Montana thought a high-severity wildfire in August might have killed 2 northern goshawk nestlings observed 2 weeks prior to the fire [31].
Fire in the spring and summer may disrupt the breeding of northern goshawks.
All About Birds provides a distributional map of the northern goshawk.
States and provinces:
United States: AK, AZ, CA, CO, CT, DE, IA, ID, IL, IN, KS, KY, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MT, NC, ND, NE, NH, NJ, NM, NN, NV, NY, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, UT, VT, WA, WI, WV, WY
Canada: AB, BC, MB, NB, NF, NL, NS, NT, NU, ON, PE, QC, SK, YT (as of 2012 [34])
Mexico [48]
The lack of scientific information predicting the positive or negative consequences of fire management on the northern goshawk has legal, scientific, and social ramifications for land management agencies attempting to implement national fire programs [45]. Managers may not have many action options to protect northern goshawks in wildfire situations, but forest management activities (e.g., prescribed fire, thinning) aimed at fuels reduction and restoring historic stand structure are widespread in areas inhabited by northern goshawks. Many agencies suggest or require the designation of a buffer around nest trees when treatments occur, but there is some debate over the appropriate buffer size and the effectiveness of this approach, particularly because northern goshawks rely on a large landscape to meet life history needs [17,26,48]. One review critiques the buffer concept because the designation of buffers of a specific size around nests forces a predetermined restriction on all forest types—which may not be appropriate—gives the impression that management is not required beyond the buffer, and ignores the multiple scales at which northern goshawks use a landscape [17]. Reynolds and others [40] recommend avoiding or minimizing direct negative impacts on individual northern goshawks by restricting treatments or activities in the breeding season, particularly when females are incubating and/or young are immobile.
Because current FIRE REGIMES and forest conditions may fall outside of the range of historic variability in some parts of the range of northern goshawks, several sources suggest thinning and/or prescribed fire to restore historical stand characteristics and/or improve habitat for northern goshawks and their prey [13,14,26,35,40,53] and to make forests more resilient to high-severity wildfires [35]. In some cases, there is concern that mechanical and/or prescribed fire treatments aimed at converting dense forests to more open stands may result in a loss of habitat for species that use mature forest, like the northern goshawk [10,49]. On the other hand, some evidence suggests that avoiding treatment in areas to protect habitat for northern goshawks may have unintended negative consequences, particularly in the presence of high-severity fire. For example, in a mixed-conifer forest on the Plumas National Forest, northern California, managers left areas designated as protected northern goshawk habitat untreated during a fuels reduction treatment. When a wildfire burned through the region, fire severity in untreated areas was higher than in treated areas, resulting in significantly higher mortality of canopy trees (P less than 0.001) [21].
One review offers management recommendations for maintaining northern goshawk habitat in several Southwest FIRE REGIMES. In areas that experience infrequent fire, managers could create small openings that mimic wind events and other small-scale disturbances that historically maintained a diverse stand structure across the landscape. Such actions would provide a variety of interspersed stand structures that would support habitat for a wide range of prey species. In areas experiencing mixed-severity FIRE REGIMES, limiting large openings to small portions of a home range can help prevent fragmentation and ensure that enough mature forest habitat and canopy cover are available for both northern goshawks and their prey. In areas experiencing high-severity fire, northern goshawks may require relatively large home ranges (>9,900 acres (4,000 ha)) to ensure enough mature forest is available to provide adequate prey. Northern goshawks may also benefit from a range of seral to climax plant communities. Given the creation of large openings, rate of forest development, and tree longevity in areas experiencing high severity fire, the proportion of the landscape in various structural stages would likely vary. Management plans in these areas would require a scope of hundreds of years and landscape-level planning [23].
For information on combining management goals to include both habitat for the northern goshawk and fuels reduction projects that improve overall ecosystem function and resiliency to high-severity wildfire, see the following sources: [13,14,23,26,35,40,53]. For information regarding using fire and silvicultural techniques to restore fire-adapted ecosystems in the Southwest, see: [23,40,53].
Northern goshawk use of treated areas: Northern goshawks have been documented occurring and breeding in areas treated for fuels reduction and/or restoration, but their response to these treatments has not been well studied. The anecdotal information presented below suggests that northern goshawks may tolerate fuels reduction activities taking place in the breeding season, but use of treated areas is variable in subsequent years. It is not clear if non-use of a treated area is due to the physical disturbance during the breeding season or the resulting changes in local stand structure. It should also be noted that the lack of northern goshawk detections at particular nests does not mean territory abandonment; use of multiple nests in a territory is common and nests may not be detected by biologists (see Nest and nest side fidelity). The information presented here is largely anecdotal and limited in scope, and may not be representative of northern goshawk response to fuels reduction and restoration treatments throughout their range.
Two fuels reduction treatments occurred in northern goshawk territories in mixed ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests on the Bitterroot National Forest, western Montana. The prescriptions for both treatments left 30 to 40 acres (12-16 ha) untreated immediately surrounding known northern goshawk nests. The prescription also retained 80 to 100 feet²/acre basal area of canopy trees in the postfledging family area. Thinning in one territory containing 3 known nests occurred in 2006 and 2007. A nest successfully fledged young during the 2 years of treatments. No known nesting occurred in the territory in 2008 or 2011, but young were fledged from the territory in 2009, 2010, and 2012, with 2 different nests used. Thinning in a 2nd northern goshawk territory occurred after the northern goshawk breeding season in 2011. Northern goshawks successfully fledged young in 2011 prior to thinning, and in 2012 after thinning [31].
In southwestern Montana, the US Bureau of Land Management conducted a major thinning project to remove ladder fuels in Douglas-fir forest. Low-severity surface fires and pile burning were used to consume slash on the ground. Prior to treatment, the area consisted of a structurally diverse, multiaged stand with a large component of large, mature trees. The treatment resulted in a more "park-like" and open structure, though most of the mature trees were left standing. One female goshawk twice tolerated the activities associated with this project, continuing to incubate despite the presence of an active skid trail within 98 feet (30 m) of her nest the 1st year of treatment, and a burning slash pile within 66 feet (20 m) of her nest the 2nd year of treatment. In both instances, the female did not abandon incubation duties and young were successfully fledged. However, nest location shifted between the 2 years, with the pair building a new nest in a "leave" tree remaining after the thinning occurred. Northern goshawks were not detected nesting in the treated area again, though an adjacent, untreated territory was occasionally occupied [27].
One active northern goshawk nest was discovered during a selection-harvest fuels reduction treatment in 1993 in a mixed-conifer forest on the Bitterroot National Forest, western Montana. After this discovery, a small island of trees was left surrounding the nest, and approximately 100 feet²/acre basal area of canopy trees was left in the surrounding unit. The female continued incubating, and 2 young hatched while the treatments were conducted. Though the nest successfully fledged young that year, it was not used by northern goshawks in subsequent years, presumably because of the reduction in overstory canopy cover. The nest was used by great horned owls and Cooper's hawks after treatment [31].
In mixed-conifer forests on the Lolo National Forest, western Montana, northern goshawks were detected in treated (low-severity fires and selection harvest) and untreated "old growth" stands at frequencies similar to those found throughout the area [11]. One biologist observed northern goshawks nesting for 2 years within thinned lodgepole pine forests on the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, southwestern Montana [27].
Because of their broad distribution, northern goshawks occur in plant communities that experience a wide range of FIRE REGIMES, including FIRE REGIMES characterized by low-severity, mixed-severity, or stand-replacement fire. Return intervals may be short to long. In the western United States, fire creates a landscape mosaic capable of supporting northern goshawk populations. Northern goshawks and their prey have historically had exposure and adapted to forest conditions maintained by a variety of FIRE REGIMES, including nonlethal surface, mixed-severity, mosaic, and stand-replacement fire [23]. However, several reviews discuss how FIRE REGIMES within the range of the northern goshawks have shifted away from historic patterns due to fire exclusion and other anthropogenic practices [10,12,23,30,32,40,51]. Changes in the frequency and severity of fire have resulted in shifts in forest composition and structure, which may impact northern goshawks and their prey [26]. Documented forest changes that may result from fire exclusion and other anthropogenic practices include reduced stand structural diversity [32], increased stand density [12,32,40,51], increased understory density [12,40], and changes in species composition [40,51]. Such forest structural and compositional changes may limit the mobility and hunting success of northern goshawks [19] and cause changes to prey populations and diversity [12,19,40]. In some cases, forest structural and compositional changes may increase the probability of high-severity fires [40,51], which would reduce the amount of mature forest on the landscape [10,40], eliminate nesting habitat, and create forest openings larger than what occurred historically [19]. Though these forest changes are generally discussed in the literature as reducing habitat for northern goshawks, it is possible that forest changes in some areas may improve habitat for northern goshawks.
One review discusses how several FIRE REGIMES typical of Southwestern forests may have influenced northern goshawk populations in the region. Nonlethal, low-severity surface fires in ponderosa pine forests would "clean" the forest, providing suitable foraging habitat and open canopies that enabled northern goshawks to successfully access prey. Large trees would eventually die from lightning, disease, or insects and provide snags or coarse woody debris, habitat features important to northern goshawk prey. These fires would gradually consume downed logs, but not before the logs contributed to habitat for prey species and added organic matter to the soil. The small openings left would allow for the regeneration of new trees. Mixed-severity FIRE REGIMES in relatively moist coniferous forests would create larger openings (>4 acres (2 ha)), greater amounts of coarse woody debris, and multiple canopy layers compared to less severe fires. These fires could create openings of all sizes, leading to a mosaic of forest structural conditions across the landscape. Large openings would likely not provide ideal northern goshawk foraging habitat, but the edges of these openings might be used. Large forest openings may have been historically important for maintaining seral quaking aspen stands, an important component of many northern goshawk home ranges in this region. Forests maintained by high-severity fires may have limited value as northern goshawk habitat because they result in large (>24 acres (10 ha)) openings and/or an even-aged structure across a large landscape [23]. For management recommendations pertaining to these and other FIRE REGIMES throughout the range of the northern goshawk, see Fire Management Considerations.
The Fire Regime Table summarizes characteristics of FIRE REGIMES for vegetation communities in which northern goshawks may occur. Follow the links in the table to documents that provide more detailed information on these FIRE REGIMES. Northern goshawks also occur in geographic areas not covered by the Fire Regime Table, including a variety of boreal plant communities in Alaska and Canada, as well as forested plant communities in Mexico. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
FEIS also provides reviews of many of the prey species important to the life history and habitat use of northern goshawks. See FEIS reviews for additional information—including information on FIRE REGIMES and fire effects on species including: Abert's squirrel, Townsend's ground squirrel, eastern cottontail, black-tailed jackrabbit, snowshoe hare, ruffed grouse, gray jay, and black-backed woodpecker.
As of this writing (2012), there was little documentation of the indirect effects of fire on northern goshawk individuals or populations. Presumably, the occurrence, extent, and severity of fire could have major impacts on small- and large-scale forest structure which in turn may affect the suitability of an area for life history activities such as breeding and foraging. Effects may be positive or negative and could vary regionally.
A review of the effects of fire on raptor populations suggests that the most significant effect is the modification and/or destruction of habitat. Habitat losses can include small-scale losses like an individual nest tree or a roost site or large-scale losses like the elimination of a foraging area [30]. However, fire may also modify the landscape in ways that improve habitat for northern goshawks (e.g., the creation of a mosaic of stand structures).
Northern goshawk populations have long been exposed to wildfire as a natural disturbance process [23], and some sources suggest that northern goshawks can adjust to changing environmental conditions [10,26]. Northern goshawks exhibit some life history characteristics that make them adaptable to landscape disturbances such as fire. They maintain a large breeding territory that contains several nest sites, so if one nest site is altered or destroyed, they may have other nearby options (see Nest and nest site fidelity). Though most sources report the use of mature forests for nesting, northern goshawks occasionally nest in areas with few trees or in small forest patches [10]. Northern goshawks use a variety of forest structures when foraging [23,26], and though they often rely heavily on mature forest while foraging [3,10,17], they also forage in young forests, edges, and openings [10,17,43] (see Foraging habitat).
Indirect fire effects on nesting: Fire may consume northern goshawk nests, nest stands, and/or breeding territories. A review suggests that stand-replacement wildfire could reduce the suitability of an area for northern goshawk nesting and create forest openings larger than what occurred historically [19].
Two biologists working with northern goshawks in Montana provided observations of fire effects on northern goshawk nesting. It should be noted that these observations are anecdotal and may not be representative of northern goshawk response to fire throughout its range.
One biologist studied northern goshawk nest and territory occupancy over many years in lodgepole pine forests on the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, southwestern Montana. A stand-replacing wildfire in 2007 burned 2 historical northern goshawk territories, though the territories were not occupied in the years prior to the fire. The fire resulted in a reduction of suitable nesting habitat, leaving a patchy distribution of unburned forest amidst largely open meadows. Three and 4 years after the fire, northern goshawks nested in an unburned patch of forest midway between the historical territories. These observations show that northern goshawks can shift to remaining suitable nesting stands even when stand-replacing fire has consumed most of the vegetation in an area [27].
A 2nd biologist observed that high-severity wildfires occurring in mixed-conifer forests on the Bitterroot National Forest, western Montana, in August of 2000 consumed 2 known northern goshawk territories and several nests, 1 of which was active 2 weeks prior to the fire. The young in this nest were presumed dead, though it is possible they were able to fly well enough to escape the area. The landscapes surrounding both territories experienced extensive stand-replacement fire, and local biologists described the territories as unsuitable for northern goshawk nesting in the years following fire [31].
Low-severity fires may result in nest abandonment, though not always immediately. In one area on the Bitterroot National Forest, western Montana, a low-severity fire in August of 2000 consumed most of the forest understory but left the overstory intact. The fire killed most of the trees in the sapling and intermediate layers as well as many Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in the overstory via bole scorch, but almost all of the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) survived. Douglas-fir beetles (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) began causing overstory canopy mortality by 2002, with many trees exhibiting red needles by the summer of 2003. Northern goshawks nested in the stand prior to fire and continued to nest and successfully fledge young in the stand for several years after the fire, though biologists found a new and different active nest each year from 2001 to 2004. The nesting area was eventually abandoned; none of the 4 known nests were active in 2005, 2006, or 2007, though it is possible that other nests were constructed in the area and not found. Local biologists suspected the area was abandoned because canopy closure decreased as overstory mortality increased [31].
In another area on the Bitterroot National Forest, western Montana, burned by low-severity fire in 2000, a northern goshawk nest tree was killed, but much of the surrounding nest stand was not killed. The nest was abandoned and eventually fell out of the tree. In other instances where nest stands were burned by low-severity fire in 2000, the canopies around the nests gradually thinned out as surrounding trees died, and the nests were not used again. However, in all instances, biologists were unable to determine if northern goshawks left the area completely or if they shifted to unlocated nests within the territory [31].
Indirect fire effects on foraging: The effect of fire on foraging habitat likely varies with fire severity and extent across a landscape. For example, an extensive, high-severity fire that results in major canopy and understory mortality may result in poor habitat for some prey species for many years after fire. The dense regeneration that may follow stand-replacing fire in some forest types (e.g., lodgepole pine) may inhibit the ability of northern goshawks to detect prey. A fire that creates a mosaic of forest structures and openings may offer northern goshawks a variety of foraging opportunities and provide habitat for a wide range of prey species. Since open understories may enhance the detection of prey items, low-severity fires that consume the understory but maintain a live overstory may create foraging opportunities [3,40,43]. The impact of fire on foraging habitat may be greater in the breeding season, when northern goshawks are tied to a nest and breeding territory, than in the winter, when individuals are more flexible in how far and where they travel to forage and use a wider range of habitats (see Foraging habitat).
Northern goshawk occurrence in burned areas: To date (2012), the documentation of northern goshawks occurring in burned areas is rare and largely incidental, making generalizations difficult. Between 1 and 3 years after a low- to moderate-severity prescribed fire in northern Arizona, one northern goshawk was detected during winter point counts [38,39]. One northern goshawk was detected on the ecotone between burned and unburned lodgepole pine forest 8 years after a high-severity wildfire in north-central Colorado [44]. In mixed-conifer forests on the Lolo National Forest, western Montana, one northern goshawk responded to a playback call in the breeding season in an area treated approximately 10 years previously by a low-severity "ecosystem burn" aimed at retaining the stand's old growth characteristics [11]. In central Alaska, a northern goshawk was killed by an American marten in boreal forest burned approximately 25 years previously. The forest was in a midsuccessional stage of dense tree regeneration, though some severely burned lowlands were in an earlier shrub-sapling stage. Mature forest in the area was primarily black spruce (Picea mariana) and tamarack (Larix laricina) [36]. Three years after mixed-severity wildfires in a ponderosa pine forest in Arizona, researchers detected 2 northern goshawks in an unburned area adjacent to burned forest while conducting point counts in the nonbreeding season. Northern goshawks were not detected in any area (unburned, moderately burned, severely burned) in the breeding season or in severely or moderately burned forest in the nonbreeding season [8].
Description: The northern goshawk is a large forest hawk with long, broad wings and a long, rounded tail. Females average 24 inches (61 cm) in length, 41 to 45 inches (105-115 cm) in wingspan, and 30 to 45 ounces (860-1,264 g) in mass, while the smaller males average 22 inches (55 cm) in length, 39 to 41 inches (98-104 cm) in wingspan, and 22 to 39 ounces (631-1,099 g) in mass [48].
Adult northern goshawks are brown-gray to slate-gray on top. The head has a black cap and a pronounced white superciliary line. Underparts are light gray with some black streaking. The tail is dark gray above with 3 to 5 inconspicuous broad, dark bands, and sometimes a thin white terminal band. Juveniles are generally brown on top and have brown streaking on the chest [48].
Adult (left) and juvenile (right) northern goshawks. Photos by Jack Kirkley.Life span: Based on band recoveries at trapping sites, the maximum life span of wild northern goshawks is at least 11 years [48]. One review reports a captive northern goshawk living 19 years [26].
Age at first breeding: Northern goshawks may breed as subadults (1-2 years old), young adults (2-3 years old), or adults (≥3 years old). Females are more likely than males to breed at a young age [48].
Home range: In North America, home range in the breeding season ranges from 1,400 to 8,600 acres (570-3,500 ha) [48]. Home range size varies depending on sex [26,48], season [48], local prey availability, climate [7], and habitat characteristics [7,26,48]. The male's home range is generally larger than the female's. Within a home range, individuals often have core-use areas that include the nest and primary foraging areas. Outside of a nesting area, the home range of a breeding pair may not be defended and may overlap with the home range of adjacent pairs. The shape of a home range may vary from circular to linear or may be discontinuous, depending on local habitat characteristics [48].
Nesting phenology: Northern goshawk pairs occupy nesting areas from February to early April. Some pairs may remain in their nesting areas year-round. Nest construction may begin as soon as individuals return to their territories. Eggs are laid anywhere from mid-April to early May. Cold, wet springs may delay incubation. Incubation varies from 28 to 37 days. Nestlings move from nests to nearby branches when they are around 34 to 35 days of age. Their first flight from the nest tree ranges from 35 to 36 days for males and 40 to 42 days for females. They reach independence approximately 70 days from hatching. Most fledglings disperse from the nest area between 65 and 90 days after hatching, with females dispersing later than males [48].
Clutch size: Northern goshawks usually produce one clutch per year. Clutch size is usually 2 to 4, but occasionally 1 or 5 eggs. Because northern goshawk chicks hatch asynchronously, older, larger nestlings may attack smaller, younger nestlings [48].
Northern goshawk female with young.Nest success and productivity: Northern goshawk nest success and productivity vary and may be limited by prey availability [6,46,48], weather [26,48], predation [7,26], disease [26], habitat features [24], and disturbance from timber harvest or other human activities [26,48].
In North America, nest success usually ranges from 80% to 94%, with most successful nests producing an average of 2.0 to 2.8 fledglings. Unsuccessful nests usually fail early in the breeding season, before or soon after laying. Weather, particularly cold temperatures in the spring and exposure to low temperatures and rain, may cause egg and chick mortality. Once chicks reach 3 weeks of age, nests rarely fail. Productivity may differ between years in the same study area and among landscapes within a limited geographic area. The availability of prey strongly affects nest occupancy and productivity. The age of the female may also affect productivity; pairs with a younger female may produce fewer fledglings than pairs with an older female. If food resources are low, siblicide and cannibalism may occur [48].
Nest description: The northern goshawk constructs a nest of thin sticks, forming a bowl lined with tree bark and greenery. Nests are usually placed on large horizontal limbs against the trunk, or occasionally on large limbs away from the bole. A variety of tree species is used for nesting [48].
Northern goshawk nest in western Montana.Nest site: Northern goshawks build nests in both deciduous and coniferous trees. They typically use the largest tree in a nest stand. Nest height varies by tree species and regional tree characteristics. The size and structure of a nest tree may be more important than species. Northern goshawks occasionally build nests on dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) clumps and rarely in dead trees [48]. Several reviews provide lists of specific tree species used by northern goshawks for nesting throughout their range [48] and in the Great Lakes region [7] and central Rocky Mountains [26].
Nest and nest site fidelity: Northern goshawks may use the same nest for consecutive years, but they usually alternate between 2 or more nests within a nest area. They may maintain as many as 8 alternate nests within a nest area. It is thought that most nest sites are occupied from 1 to 3 years, though some may be occupied much longer. Though the importance of alternate nest maintenance is not completely understood, it is hypothesized that nest switching reduces exposure to diseases and parasites. This behavior complicates the determination of nest-site fidelity because it is difficult for biologists to locate all alternative nests [48]. A synthesis of 5 studies correlating nest occupancy with habitat features found a consistently positive relationship between closed-canopy forests with large trees and northern goshawk nest occupancy. Occupancy rates were reduced by removing forest cover in the home range, which thereby resulted in reduced productivity because there were fewer active breeding territories [24].
Dispersal: Natal dispersal of the northern goshawk had not been well studied as of this writing (2012). One review notes that very few (24 of 452) fledglings in an Arizona study were recruited into the local breeding population, and mean natal dispersal distance was 9.1 (SD 5.1) miles (14.7 (SD 8.2) km) (range 2.1-22.6 miles (3.4-36.3 km)) [26]
Mate fidelity: Northern goshawks may show high mate fidelity. A study from northern California found that over 9 years, 72% of the adults located in subsequent years (18 of 25 instances) retained the mate from the previous year [18].
Density: Northern goshawk populations occur at low densities compared to many bird species [43]. One review reports that regular territory dispersion is a consistent characteristic of northern goshawk populations that likely results from territorial behavior. In North America, mean nearest neighbor distances range from 1.9 to 3.5 miles (3.0-5.6 km) [26], and density estimates range from less than 1 to 11 pairs per 100 km². Densities in the range of 10 to 11 occupied nests per 100 km² were reported for 3 study areas in Arizona, California, and the Yukon. However, nest density across a landscape is difficult to determine and often based on either assumed censuses of breeding pairs or the distribution of nearest neighbor distances. Because most searches for nests are conducted in what is predetermined to be "suitable" habitat, reported densities may not accurately reflect the number of territories per unit area. Surveys may also be incomplete or inaccurate [26].
Migration: The northern goshawk is considered a partial migrant. Some individuals, particularly those that inhabit northern latitudes, may migrate long distances. Other individuals make short winter movements to lower elevations and/or more open plant communities. Food availability in the winter may influence the degree to which individuals or populations migrate [40,48].
Predation and mortality: Northern goshawks are vulnerable to predation from red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), American martens (Martes americana) [48], fishers (M. pennanti) [7], wolverines (Gulo gulo) [48], coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and northern raccoons (Procyon lotor) [40]. It is likely that other mammals prey on nestlings and/or adults [48]. In the Great Lakes region, great horned owls were the most common nest predator [7]. Other potential sources of northern goshawk mortality include starvation, disease, shooting, trapping, poisoning, and collisions with vehicles [48].
Interspecific competition: Reduction and fragmentation of mature forest habitat may favor early-successional competitors such as red-tailed hawks and great horned owls and reduce occupancy of an area by northern goshawks [26]. One study from California found great horned owls, long-eared owls (Asio otus), spotted owls (Strix occidentalis), red-tailed hawks, and Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii) occupying traditional northern goshawk nests or nest stands, but the territories were usually not abandoned entirely by northern goshawks. In 3 instances, however, northern goshawks moved out of their traditional nest stand after it was occupied by spotted owls [51].
Great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) using a nest formerly used by northern goshawks.Population dynamics: Factors limiting northern goshawk populations may include food availability [10,26,40,48], availability of nest sites [40], and territoriality [26]. Food availability is more of an issue in northern latitudes, where northern goshawks are more dependent on populations of few species (e.g., snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)). There is less evidence of population fluctuations in response to food in lower latitudes, where a greater variety of prey species are available [40,43]. See Population status for more information on how stand and landscape characteristics may influence northern goshawk populations.
Federal legal status: The Queen Charlotte subspecies of the northern goshawk is listed as Threatened [50].
Other status: Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, though recent changes in status may not be included.
Other management information:
Population status: Trends in northern goshawk populations are difficult to assess for several reasons. Northern goshawks are secretive and consequently difficult to survey. Many studies have small sample sizes and are temporally and/or spatially limited in scope. Methodology in some studies may be biased and methods, analyses, and interpretation vary between studies [43]. Attempts to assess the status of northern goshawk populations have not found strong evidence supporting population declines, though most studies were not designed to detect population changes [10,26]. Populations may also vary regionally; some managers in New England suspect northern goshawk populations may be increasing due to widespread reforestation in the region, but they lack definitive data to support this hypothesis [15].
Northern goshawks exhibit some life history characteristics that facilitate adaptation to landscape change. They maintain a large breeding territory that contains several nest sites, so if one nest site is altered or destroyed, they may have other nearby options (see Nest and nest site fidelity). Though most sources report the use of mature forests for nesting, northern goshawks occasionally nest in areas with few trees or in small forest patches [10]. Similarly, they forage over large areas, using open areas and a variety of forest structures (see Foraging habitat). Several sources suggest that they adjust to changing environmental conditions [10,26]. Northern goshawks also show plasticity in migration strategy, allowing individuals to seasonally avoid areas where habitat has been degraded [26].
Landscape management decisions can influence the success of individuals or pairs of northern goshawks and northern goshawk populations. One review asserts that the primary threat to northern goshawk populations is the modification of forest habitats by management and natural disturbances [10]. Though it is difficult to assess the population status of northern goshawks, managers have raised concerns over destruction and/or modification of northern goshawk habitat via natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Natural disturbances that may impact northern goshawk habitat include severe wildfires [10], insect outbreaks [17], and drought [40]. Diseases, parasites, exposure, and predation tend to impact individuals rather than populations [10]. Potential anthropogenic threats to northern goshawk habitat include silvicultural treatments that result in forest fragmentation, creation of even-aged and/or monotypic stands, potential increase in acreage of young age classes, and loss of tree species diversity [43]. Other anthropogenic threats to northern goshawk populations include fire suppression activities [17,40], livestock grazing, exposure to toxins and chemicals [40], and timber harvest [10,17,26,40].
Timber harvest: The impact of timber harvest on northern goshawks is much debated in the literature, and centers mostly on the loss of mature forest. Though many believe that extensive habitat modification due to timber harvest is detrimental to northern goshawk populations, a lack of research across a gradient of tree-harvest intensities precludes a clear demonstration of negative effects [10]. Furthermore, few studies have investigated northern goshawk habitats in forests not managed for timber harvest [26].
Forest management for timber extraction can directly impact the structure, function and quality of both nesting and foraging habitat by removing nests and nest trees, modifying or removing entire nest stands, and removing the canopy and mature trees, snags, and downed wood that support prey populations [26]. The loss of important habitat features could impact both the ability of northern goshawks to access prey items (e.g., inability to hunt in areas of dense tree regeneration) and limit prey populations [40]. Reduction and fragmentation of habitat may also favor early-successional competitors and predators such as red-tailed hawks and great horned owls [26]. Indirect impacts of timber harvest on nesting may vary; breeding densities may be lowered or individuals may move to adjacent, undisturbed areas [48]. The threshold at which landscape-altering projects render an area unsuitable to northern goshawks likely varies spatially and/or temporally [26]. However, one source suggests that in some cases (e.g., the inland Pacific Northwest), nonharvest forestry may be just as detrimental to northern goshawk nesting habitat as aggressive, maximum-yield forestry [17].
The following sources provide information on reducing potential negative impacts of timber harvest on northern goshawk individuals and populations: [9,48].
Management actions to benefit northern goshawks: Managers and researchers offer many suggestions for managing forested landscapes to benefit northern goshawk populations. These recommendations include stand-level treatments like maintaining large trees, snags, and large downed logs [40] and larger-scale suggestions such as maintaining and enhancing mature forests [10,15,26,40], limiting forest fragmentation [26], and maintaining a mosaic of structural stages [17,26,40]. Several authors suggest managing at multiple scales [17,26,40]. However, because stand and landscape characteristics, as well as management objectives, vary throughout the range of northern goshawks, no management plan or prescription can encompass the variety of conditions northern goshawks might encounter [40]. For example, in the western United States, 78% of the habitat occupied by nesting northern goshawks occurs on federally managed lands, while in the eastern United States, most forested areas are privately owned [10]. Several sources offer regional recommendations for managing forests for northern goshawk habitat, including recommendations for New England [15], the Great Lakes [7], the Black Hills region of South Dakota [47], the central Rocky Mountains [26], west-central Montana [12], the western United States [24], the southwestern United States [40], the inland Pacific Northwest [17], and California [42]. Several sources offer recommendations for silvicultural and other physical treatments (e.g., forest restoration, understory thinning, prescribed fire) to increase the availability of mature forest and/or restore historical stand conditions to improve habitat for northern goshawks and their prey [10,26,32,40,48]. See Fire Management Considerations for more information on this topic.HABITAT:
Northern goshawk habitat includes a variety of forest types and stand structures, depending on geographic location and life history activities. The northern goshawk's large home ranges and ability to move great distances mean that it may encounter a variety of habitats over a short period. In addition to nesting habitat, northern goshawks need foraging habitat in both the breeding and nonbreeding seasons and in postfledging areas where young learn to hunt but are protected from predators [43]. Habitat selection may be shaped by landscape structure and pattern and/or occupancy by other raptors [43]. In general, as the scale of analysis increases (i.e., from stand to landscape), northern goshawks use more diverse habitats and show less preference for specific habitat features [3,10,17,43]. Northern goshawks appear to use a wider range of habitats during the nonbreeding season than the breeding season [3].
In general, northern goshawks appear to prefer relatively dense forests [24,25,47] with large trees [3,24] and relatively high canopy closures [3,24,25,47]. A review noted that 9 of 12 radio telemetry studies from the western United States found northern goshawks selected stands with higher canopy closures, larger trees, and more large trees than found in random stands. But northern goshawks still used stands with a wide range of structural conditions [24]. The use of forests with relatively large trees and high canopy closures may be related to increased protection from predators, increased food availability, limited exposure to cold temperatures and precipitation early in the breeding season, limited exposure to high temperatures in the summer nestling period, high mobility due to a lack of understory structure, and less competition from other raptor species that inhabit more open habitats [3].
The relatively large body size and wingspan of the northern goshawks limit its use of young, dense forests where there is insufficient space in and below the canopy to facilitate flight and capture of prey. There are also few suitably large trees for nesting in young, dense forests [40].
Breeding habitat: Northern goshawk habitat use may be most selective during the breeding season, mostly due to strong preferences for nest placement [43,48].
Nest stand: Forest stands containing nests are often small, ranging from approximately 24 to 247 acres (10-100 ha) [48]. Tree species composition is highly variable among nest sites both within a region and a across the range of the northern goshawk [40]. Northern goshawks nests are often found in mature or late-successional forests [3,15,17,43,48] with high canopy closures [9,17,43,47,48] and large trees [43,48] but relatively open understories [26,43,48]. However, due to frequent bias in northern goshawk nest detection methods, the selection of mature forest over other forest successional stages has been demonstrated in only a few studies [43].
Northern goshawks nested in this conifer forest in western Montana.
Though northern goshawks are most often documented nesting in late-successional forests, they sometimes nest in younger, more open forests. For example, in dry areas of the West such as the Great Basin, northern goshawks nested in high-elevation shrubsteppe habitats supporting small, highly fragmented stands of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) [52]. In a conifer plantation in western Washington, 3 northern goshawk pairs nested in younger, denser stands than previously reported for the region; nest sites were composed of 40- to 54-year-old, second-growth conifer stands with high live tree and snag densities [9].
Northern goshawk nest sites are often located near water [43,47,52], though some studies have shown no association between nest sites and water [26,43] and the presence of water is not considered a habitat requirement [48]. The function of open water during nesting is unknown [43].
Nest sites often are located close to forest openings or other open areas [12,15,26,43,47], which may increase nest access, serve as travel corridors, support open-habitat prey species, or reduce flight barriers to fledglings [48]. However, one study from west-central Montana noted that the number of young fledged per nest was negatively correlated with the size of the nonforested openings near the nest (P≤0.05) [12].
Slope and aspect may influence microclimate conditions important to northern goshawk nesting. Northern goshawk nests are often located at the base of moderate slopes [48] and tend to be on gentle rather than steep terrain [15]. However, there may be no relationship between nesting and slope in areas with low topographic relief, like the Great Lakes region [7]. One study from west-central Montana found that 82.6% of occupied nests were located on north slopes [12]. Preferred aspects may vary regionally; one review noted that in southern parts of the range, northern goshawks nest areas typically had northerly aspects, while nest areas in interior Alaska had southerly aspects [26].
Postfledging family areas: A postfledging area represents the area of concentrated use for a northern goshawk family from the time the young leave the nest until they are no longer dependent on the adults for food. Northern goshawks typically defend this area as a territory. Postfledging family areas provide hiding cover and prey for fledglings to develop hunting skills. They typically contain patches of dense trees, developed herbaceous and/or shrubby understories, and habitat attributes that support prey, such as snags, downed logs, and small openings. Postfledging family areas range in size from 300 to 600 acres (120-240 ha) [40].
Wintering habitat: Northern goshawk breeding habitat has been studied much more intensively than nonbreeding habitat. In general, northern goshawks use a wider range of habitats during the nonbreeding season than during the breeding season [48]. One review reports that northern goshawks in northern Arizona may select winter foraging sites based on forest structure rather than prey abundance, similar to selection in the breeding season [26] (see Foraging habitat). In some regions, northern goshawks appear to remain near breeding areas throughout the year [3,7,43], though there is considerable annual variation and variation between sexes in nonbreeding habitat use [3]. In at least some landscapes, northern goshawks forage in late-successional forest habitats throughout the year [3,24]. However, some northern goshawks move to low-elevation, open plant communities (e.g., woodlands) in the winter [3,24].
Foraging habitat: Northern goshawks forage by ambush and perching in vegetation to scan for prey items. They occasionally hunt by flying rapidly along forest edges and across openings [26]. Ideal foraging habitat includes space under the canopy to allow for flight, abundant trees perches, and available prey [53]. Preferred perches while hunting are low (usually <3 feet (1 m)), bent-over trees or saplings. Plucking perches where northern goshawks consume prey are usually located in dense vegetation below the main forest canopy and are often upslope and fairly close to the nest in the breeding season [48].
Northern goshawks forage over large areas and encounter a variety of forest structures [23,26] and plant communities [48] when foraging. In the breeding season, a foraging area may encompass 5,400 acres (2,200 ha) surrounding the postfledging family area [40]. Northern goshawks may rely heavily on mature forest while foraging [3,10,17] but may also forage in younger forests, edges, and openings [10,17,26,43]. An open understory may enhance the detection of potential prey [3,40,43].
Prey abundance may be an important feature of foraging habitat, but several sources stress the importance of prey availability [3,5,22,26,40,53], which is often linked to vegetative structure that allows northern goshawks to hunt successfully [3]. For example, over 2 breeding seasons in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in northern Arizona, 20 adult northern goshawks did not select foraging sites based on prey abundance; abundance of some prey was lower in selected sites than what was generally available. Northern goshawks instead selected foraging sites that had higher canopy closure (P=0.006), greater tree density (P=0.001), and greater density of trees >16.0 inches (40.6 cm) DBH (P<0.0005) than what was generally available. The authors concluded that above a minimal prey threshold, northern goshawks may select sites with favorable structure over those with abundant prey. However, they also suggested that their results only apply to foraging habitat selection within an established home range. Prey abundance may be an important factor when northern goshawks initially establish a home range [5].
In the Great Lakes region, male northern goshawks primarily foraged in mature upland conifer and upland deciduous stands, but other stand types were used and may be important to prey production [7]. In lodgepole pine (P. contorta) and quaking aspen forest in south-central Wyoming, the kill sites of male northern goshawks in the breeding season were more related to stand structure and aspect than prey abundance. Males returned most often to sites with more mature forests (P=0.0), gentler slopes (P=0.011), lower ground cover of woody plants (P=0.023), and greater densities of trees (P<0.089) and conifers (P<0.14) ≥9 inches (23 cm) but ≤15 inches (38 cm) DBH. Average canopy closure at kill sites was 52.8%. Kill sites were often associated with small openings; average distance to the nearest open area was 152.2 feet (46.4 m). The author noted that several prey species were often associated with forest edges. The results of this study suggest that the high density of large trees allowed northern goshawks to approach prey unseen, while the low density of understory vegetation allowed northern goshawks to see potential prey items. At the landscape scale, male northern goshawks intensively used large areas of conifer forests interspersed with small openings in proximity to nests. They used a variety of habitats, from narrow patches of quaking aspen in drainages surrounded by sagebrush (Artemisia) and grassland to areas dominated by conifer forests [22].
Roosting habitat: Northern goshawks roost alone in the tree canopy and may use several sites for roosting. In the early nesting phase, female northern goshawks roost on the nest while brooding young [48]. In California, roost tree species and roosting stand characteristics varied by season, which the authors hypothesized was in response to changes in prey abundance and availability [42].
Landscape features: Northern goshawks use large landscapes for many life history activities, though it is difficult to make broad generalizations about the importance of landscape features to northern goshawk populations. Studies and reviews highlight the importance of landscape features such as the presence of large areas of mature forest [10,15,26,40], a mosaic of forest structural stages [17,25,26,40], limited forest fragmentation [26,51], and large patch sizes [9,43,51].
The scientific name of northern goshawk is Accipiter gentilis Linnaeus (Accipitridae) [1,2]. Subspecies recognized by the American Ornithologists' Union (5th edition) [1] include:
Accipiter gentilis atricapillus (Wilson), northern goshawk
Accipiter gentilis laingi (Taverner), Queen Charlotte goshawk
Some scientists recognize an additional subspecies, Accipiter gentilis apache Van Rossem, as inhabiting parts of the southwestern United States and Mexico, though this subspecies is not recognized by the American Ornithologists' Union or the US Fish and Wildlife Service [10,26,48].
Les especies d'aves con nome común en llingua asturiana márquense como NOA. En casu contrariu, conséñase'l nome científicu o de la SEO.
El ferre o azorNOA (Accipiter gentilis) ye una especie d'ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae.[2] N'España, el so estáu de caltenimientu defínese como una especie d'esmolición menor (LC).[3]
Ye de tamañu medianu (mide ente 48 y 58 cm; abondo asemeyáu a un buzacu) y la forma del so cuerpu aseméyase a un gran ferre palomberu (Falco peregrinus), anque la especie ta venceyada coles águiles. El so valumbu ye d'ente 100 y 120 cm, y como en toles aves rapaces, el machu ye de menor tamañu que la fema.[4] Los mozos presenten tonos claros: acoloratáu enriba y mariellu con grandes llurdios de color pardu escuru na zona de baxo. Los adultos tienen una coloración parda ceniza, de tonos buxos y coritos na rexón cimera, ente que les partes inferiores son ablancazaes horizontalmente barraes n'escuru. Tienen dos enllordies blanques percima de los sos grandes güeyos y l'iris ye mariellu o naranxa; estes postreres carauterístiques son dalgunes de les más evidentes diferencies faciales colos ferres, qu'escarecen d'estos llurdios y que los sos iris son escuros.
El azor ye una ave especializada na caza d'ecosistemes arbóreos; les sos ales resulten curties pal so tamañu, y tienen los estremos arrondaos; coles mesmes, la so cola ye proporcionalmente llarga, y barrada con 4 o 5 franxes escures. Estes carauterístiques déxen-y una gran movilidá y capacidá de maniobra nun ambiente con muncha vexetación, y les sos ales curties torguen que choque escontra la foresta del monte de mou que ye a volar ensin problemes nun ambiente trupu. Estes carauterístiques cinexétiques diéron-y el so valor dende l'antigüedá como ave predileuta en cetrería pa cazar nel monte.[5]
El azor (lo mesmo que les águiles) nun mata a les sos preses esnucándoles col picu como faen los ferres palomberos sinón que fáenlo cola sola presión de les sos garres.
Habita en montes trupos, tanto d'llanura como de monte, y ye raro que salga a campu abiertu. Alcuéntrase n'Europa, Asia y América septentrional. Apaez per tola península ibérica, sobremanera pel norte; sicasí, nun habita nes islles Baleares.
Añera nos árboles.[4] Nel ñeru deposita de 3 a 4 güevos (más raramente de 1 a 5) nun intervalu d'unos tres díes. Guaria la fema, que ye alimentada pol machu mientres el periodu qu'aquella dura, ye dicir ente 36 y 41 díes. Nes críes el plumaxe apaez ente los 18 y 38 díes; a los 40 díes aproximao salen del ñeru y a los 45 faen el so primer vuelu puramente dichu, algamando un eleváu grau d'independencia a los 70 díes.
El azor ye un terrible cazador del monte: escuerre les sos preses velozmente ente los árboles esnalando baxo con gran habilidá. Caza distintes especies d'aves (cuervos, palombos, tordos, perdices, etc) y tamién pequeños mamíferos (coneyos, llebres, esguiles, mures, etc), llagartos ya inseutos. Aveza a cazar a la chisba, posáu nuna talaya o llugar privilexáu dende au poder reparar el so territoriu y alcontrar a les sos posibles preses ensin ser vistu; una vegada alcontrada, ataca siguiendo'l so ángulu muertu, de normal dende embaxo nel casu d'un ave en vuelu, o a ras de suelu si la so presa ta nel suelu. Taramiella les sos preses nel llugar onde les atrapó.
Ye una ave diurna discreta y abondo malo de ver, inclusive más que'l so pariente de menor tamañu, el ferre (Accipiter nisus).
Conócense ocho subespecies d'Accipiter gentilis :[2]
. Les especies d'aves con nome común en llingua asturiana márquense como NOA. En casu contrariu, conséñase'l nome científicu o de la SEO. El ferre o azorNOA (Accipiter gentilis) ye una especie d'ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae. N'España, el so estáu de caltenimientu defínese como una especie d'esmolición menor (LC).
Tetraçalan (lat. Accipiter gentilis) - əsl qırğı cinsinə aid heyvan növü. Azərbaycanda təhlükədə olan quşlar siyahısına daxil edilmişdir.[1]
(III - VU). Həssas, sayı azalmaqda olan növdür.
Qarğadan iridir. Bel tərəfi qonur-boz, qarın tərəfi isə açıq rənglidir və üzərində nazik köndələn tünd zolaqlar var. Gözləri və ayaqları sarıdır .
Arealı genişdir: Avropa, Asiya, Şimal-Qərbi Afrika, Madaqaskar, Şimali Amerika. Azərbaycanda Talış və Şərqi Qafqaz dağ meşələrində yayılıb .
Hündür ağaclardan ibarət meşə quşudur. Daimi cütləri olur. Hər cüt yuva sahəsi seçir, oraya qonşu cütləri buraxmır. Hündür ağacda (10-15 m) yuva tikir. Şam ağacını xoşlayır. Berkut qartal (Aquila chrisaetus) kimi güclü yırtıcının yuvasını zəbt edə bilir. Eyni cütün sahəsində 2-3 yuva olur, hər il birində nəsil verir. Aprelin axırlarında 2-3 ədəd yaşıl çalarlı ağ yumurta verir. Dişi quş 32 gün kürt yatır, erkək onu yemləyir. Yem üçün yuvasından 5-6 km uzağa qədər uça bilir. Kannibalizmi güclüdür. Avqust ayında hər yuvada 1-2 bala pərvazlanır.
XX əsrə qədər adi saylı olub. XX əsrdə azalmağa başlayıb. 1950-ci illərdən sonra populyasiyasının sıxlığı azalıb nadir olub. XXI əsrin əvvəlində 55 cüt idi, indi isə 25 cütdən çox deyil. Son 10 ildə 36,4 % azalıb.
Zərərli yırtıcı hesab edilib ovlanması, ovçu quş kimi istifadə etmək üçün balalarının yuvadan götürülüb ələ öyrədilməsi, meşələrin qırılması, yem bazasının zəifləməsi və zəhərlənməsi, səs-küyün çoxalması.
Ovlanması qadağandır. Beynəlxalq ticarəti yasaqdır, Zaqatala və İlisu Dövlət Təbiət Qoruqlarında, Hirkan, Altıağac, Şahdağ və Göy-göl Milli Parklarında nəzarət altında saxlanılır. Azərbaycan Respublikasının və Naxçıvan MR-in Qırmızı kitablarına daxil edilib. CİTES, Bern və Bonn konvensiyalarına daxildir.
Yem bazasının qorunub saxlanılması, yuva sahəsindən ağac kəsilməsinin qarşısının alınması.
Əsl qırğı cinsinə aid növlər A. gentilis • A. nisus • A. poliogaster • A. trivirgatus • A. griseiceps • A. toussenelii • A. tachiro • A. soloensis • A. francesii • A. trinotatus • A. novaehollandiae • A. fasciatus • A. albogularis • A. rufitorques • A. haplochrous • A. henicogrammus • A. poliocephalus • A. princeps • A. melanoleucus • A. henstii • A. meyerianus • A. castanilius • A. butleri • A. brevipes • A. luteoschistaceus • A. imitator • A. erythropus • A. minullus • A. gularis • A. nanus • A. erythrauchen • A. cirrocephalus • A. brachyurus • A. rhodogaster • A. madagascariensis • A. ovampensis • A. rufiventris • A. badius • A. superciliosus • A. collaris • A. striatus • A. chionogaster • A. ventralis • A. erythronemius • A. cooperii • A. gundlachi • A. bicolor • A. virgatus
Tetraçalan (lat. Accipiter gentilis) - əsl qırğı cinsinə aid heyvan növü. Azərbaycanda təhlükədə olan quşlar siyahısına daxil edilmişdir.
Ar sparfell voan(Daveoù a vank), pe gwazsparfell (liester : gwazsparfelled, gwazsparfilli)[1], a zo ur spesad evned-preizh, Accipiter gentilis an anv skiantel anezhañ.
Anvet e voe Falco gentilis (kentanv) da gentañ-penn (e 1758)[2] gant an naturour svedat Carl von Linné (1707-1778).
Ar spesad a gaver an dek isspesad anezhañ[3] :
a vo kavet e Wikimedia Commons.
Ar sparfell voan(Daveoù a vank), pe gwazsparfell (liester : gwazsparfelled, gwazsparfilli), a zo ur spesad evned-preizh, Accipiter gentilis an anv skiantel anezhañ.
Anvet e voe Falco gentilis (kentanv) da gentañ-penn (e 1758) gant an naturour svedat Carl von Linné (1707-1778).
L'astor o falcó perdiguer (Accipiter gentilis) és un ocell de rapinya semblant a l'esparver i molt emprat en falconeria.
Aprofita els nius de còrvids o d'aligots per a niar. Pon 3 o 4 ous que cova durant 35-41 dies. Els petits encara necessitaran 35-40 dies per a volar.[1]
Perfectament camuflat en un arbre, es llança amb increïble perícia, entre branques i troncs, per caçar altres ocells (faisans, gaigs, còrvids, galls fers, perdius, aviram, etc.) i petits mamífers (conills, esquirols, talps, llebres, etc.).
Viuen als boscos fins a uns 2.000 m d'altitud i, de fet, als Països Catalans, es troba en quasi tota mena de bosc, fins i tot en els més frondosos, on no té cap dificultat per circular a gran velocitat.
A l'estiu, viuen al nord d'Europa i d'Àsia, i a la tardor baixen cap al sud i a l'Àfrica del Nord. També habita les regions temperades de Nord-amèrica.
Volen veloçment, amb un ràpid batre d'ales, o bé planen. És bastant sedentari i, igual que l'àliga daurada, es queda a la muntanya mentre dura l'hivern.
La seua supervivència es troba amenaçada per la destrucció dels boscos dels quals depenen les seues preses i ell mateix. De fet, aquesta va ésser una de les tres causes de la seua extinció al Regne Unit al llarg del segle XIX (les altres foren el col·leccionisme d'exemplars i la seua cacera per part dels guardaboscos per ser considerada una feristela). Actualment, ha tornat a aquell país per polítiques de reintroducció, exemplars vinguts del continent i d'altres escapats d'activitats de falconeria. Així, per exemple, ha esdevingut una espècie nombrosa a Northumberland.
L'astor o falcó perdiguer (Accipiter gentilis) és un ocell de rapinya semblant a l'esparver i molt emprat en falconeria.
Mae'r Gwalch Marth (Accipiter gentilis) yn aderyn rheibiol sy'n gyffredin trwy rannau helaeth o ogledd Ewrop, Asia a Gogledd America.
Yn y rhannau lle mae'r gaeafau'n arbennig o oer mae'n mudo tua'r de, ond mewn rhannau eraill, megis Gorllewin Ewrop, mae'n aros o gwmpas ei diriogaeth trwy'r flwyddyn.
Mae'n nythu mewn coed, ac yn hela adar, hyd at faint Ffesant ac anifeiliad hyd at faint Ysgyfarnog ambell dro. Mae'n medru symud yn gyflym drwy'r coed i ddal adar cyn iddynt wybod ei fod yno. Gellir adnabod y Gwalch Marth o'i gynffon hir ac adenydd gweddol fyr a llydan, sy'n ei alluogi i symud yn gyflym trwy'r coed. Mae'r ceiliog yn llwydlad ar ei gefn a llinellau llwyd ar y fron, tra mae'r iâr yn fwy llwyd tywyll gyda llai o liw glas ar y cefn. Gellir cymysgu rhwng y Gwalch Marth a'r Gwalch Glas ar brydiau, ond mae'r Gwalch Marth yn aderyn mwy o faint. Fel gyda'r Gwalch Glas, mae'r iâr yn fwy na'r ceiliog. Mae'r ceiliog rhwng 49 a 56 cm o hyd a 93–105 cm ar draws yr adenydd. Er fod y mesuriadau yma yn weddol debyg i iâr Gwalch Glas, mae'r Gwalch Marth yn edrych yn aderyn mwy. Mae'r iâr yn fwy o lawer, 58–64 cm o hyd a 108–127 cm ar draws yr adenydd, tua'r un faint a Bwncath.
Credir fod y Gwalch Marth wedi diflannu o Gymru erbyn y 19g, ond fod adar wedi eu rhyddhau yn ddiweddarach gan hebogwyr a'r rheini wedi ail-sefydlu'r boblogaeth. Mae wedi manteisio ar y fforestydd a blannwyd gan y Comisiwn Coedwigaeth, sy'n cynnig digon o le i nythu, ac mae'n debyg fod tua can pâr yn nythu yng Nghymru bellach, a'r nifer yn cynyddu.
Jestřáb lesní (Accipiter gentilis) je středně velký druh dravce z čeledi jestřábovitých (Accipitridae).
Jestřáb lesní je největší druh rodu Accipiter.[3] Samice dosahuje přibližně velikosti káně (délka těla 58–64 cm, rozpětí křídel 108–120 cm), samec je zhruba o třetinu menší (délka těla 49–56 cm, rozpětí křídel 90–105 cm). Hmotnost samce se pohybuje mezi 517–1170 g, samice v rozmezí 820–1509 g. Má krátká zakulacená křídla a dlouhý ocas, umožňující rychlé manévrování a prudké otočky v hustém lese. Svrchu je modrošedý (samec) nebo šedohnědý (samice), zespodu bílý, jemně černě proužkovaný. Temeno a tváře tmavé, kontrastující s výrazným bílým nadočním proužkem. Mladý pták je svrchu hnědý a zespodu béžově bílý s řídkým hnědým čárkováním. Nohy jsou žluté, duhovka dospělého oranžová až červená, mladého bledě nažloutlá.
V Evropě může být zaměněn s podobným, ale výrazně menším krahujcem obecným. V letu se liší o něco delšími a špičatějšími křídly, oblejšími cípy ocasu, širším kořenem ocasu a více vyčnívající hlavou, vsedě jsou důležitým rozpoznávacím znakem nohy, které jsou u jestřába lesního přibližně 3x silnější.[2][4][5]
Mimo hnízdní období se téměř neozývá, na hnízdišti vydává pronikavé „kekekekekekekekeke“.
Jestřáb lesní má holarktický typ rozšíření v lesním pásmu severní polokoule. Je převážně stálý nebo potulný, pouze nejsevernější populace jsou zčásti tažné. V průběhu 19. a 20. století došlo v Evropě k výraznému poklesu stavů, zapříčiněnému hlavně intenzivním pronásledováním a od 50. let 20. století také používáním pesticidů.[5] V posledních desetiletích evropská populace mírně narůstá, v roce 2004 v Evropě hnízdilo více než 160 000 párů.[6] Žije skrytě v lesích, hlavně ve vzrostlých jehličnatých porostech, za potravou občas zaletuje i do otevřené krajiny.
V ČR hnízdí na celém území, spíše v lesnaté kulturní krajině, v nesouvislých lesích v podhůřích a v lužních lesích než uvnitř hlubokých lesů v horách. Nejvýše vystupuje v Jeseníkách do 1200–1300 m n. m. a na Šumavě do 1150 m. Celková početnost se i přes zákonnou ochranu nadále snižuje; v letech 1985–89 v ČR hnízdilo 2000–2800 párů a v letech 2001–03 1800–2500 párů.[7]
Živí se hlavně ptáky a savci, výjimečně požírá i plazy, bezobratlé a mršiny. Složení potravy se liší dle ročního období a místní nabídky. Na jaře a v létě loví hlavně lesní druhy ptáků, na podzim a v zimě v potravě postupně roste podíl savců, hlavně drobných hlodavců, a přibývá též ptáků otevřené krajiny.[5]
Na hnízdech v Polsku bylo z 1539 kusů kořisti 94 % ptáků, nejčastěji sojka (19 %), holubovití (18 %), drozdovití (14 %) a datlovití (6 %).[8] Na hnízdech v ČR byli zjištěni holubovití (hlavně holub hřivnáč a holub domácí; 30,1 %), krkavcovití (nejčastěji sojka; 16,9 %), drozdovití (nejvíce drozd zpěvný; 21,9 %), ostatní pěvci (5,9 %), dravci (2,3 %), sovy (3,7 %), veverka (3,2 %). Podíl drobné lovné zvěře (kachna divoká, koroptev polní, bažant obecný, zajíc polní) dosahoval celkem 11 %.[5] Ve Walesu tvořili potravu jestřábů v průběhu hnízdního období z 87 % ptáci a ze 13 % savci; z ptáků převažovali holub domácí, holub hřivnáč, vrána, havran, straka, sojka, drozd brávník, drozd zpěvný a kos černý, ze savců veverka popelavá a králík divoký.[9] V původnějších podmínkách severní Evropy jsou hlavní potravou lesní kurové.[5]
Denní spotřeba potravy odpovídá 14 % tělesné hmotnosti. Loví většinou na volnějších místech v lese, méně i na otevřených prostranstvích mimo les. Kořist vyhlíží za letu nevysoko nad porostem nebo vsedě z pozorovatelny a chytá ji po prudkém výpadu do napřažených pařátů.[5]
Hnízdí jednotlivě a teritoriálně. Páry jsou stálé a trvale udržují i stejný domovský okrsek o rozloze přibližně 5 km². Obvykle od března, ale někdy i koncem zimy nebo již na podzim předvádí nad hnízdištěm svatební lety, během kterých několikrát mocně udeří křídly a následně kolmo vzletí s roztaženými křídly a ocasem.
Hnízdo je na vysokých stromech, u kmene i v rozsoše silnějších větví, většinou v odlehlejších částech starých porostů, ale někdy i zcela nekryto. V ČR bylo nejčastěji zjištěno na jehličnanech (smrku, jedli, borovici) ve výšce 15–20 m. V revíru obvykle buduje několik hnízd, která nepravidelně střídá. Stavebním materiálem jsou větve, kotlinka je vystlána trávou, stonky nebo kousky kůry. Hnízdo staví oba ptáci. Hnízdí 1x ročně od března do května. Snůška čítá 2–4 (1–5) světle nazelenale modrých nebo světle šedých vajec o rozměrech 57,2 × 45,1 mm a hmotnosti kolem 51 g. Snášena jsou obvykle ve dvoudenních intervalech a sezení začíná nejspíš od snesení prvního vejce. Inkubace trvá 35–40 dnů, sedí převážně samice, které samec 1–2x denně přináší potravu a přitom ji na hnízdě střídá, aby se mohla proletět. Své hnízdo si prudce brání a útočí přitom i na větší druhy dravců. Mláďata jsou prvních 8–10 dnů zahřívána samicí, která jim také trhá potravu přinášenou samcem, později loví oba rodiče. Denně jsou mláďata krmena 3–5x. Hnízdo opouštějí po 36–40 dnech, v 43 dnech dosahují vzletnosti a krmena jsou až do stáří 70 dnů, poté z hnízdního revíru mizí. Pohlavní dospělosti dosahují zpravidla ve 2. roce, ale někdy již v průběhu 1. roku života.
Hnízdní úspěšnost je 73 %, velká část ztrát je způsobena přímým pronásledováním (vybírání hnízd, odstřel). Úmrtnost v prvním roce života je 80 %, ve druhém 50 % a v dalších letech 40 %. Nejvyšší známý věk okroužkovaného ptáka je 19 let.[5]
Jestřáb lesní je myslivci považován za škodnou zvěř a byl proto po staletí intenzivně pronásledován a odchytáván do zvláštních pastí, tzv. jestřábích košů. Negativní vliv na populace drobné zvěře nebyl nikdy vědecky prokázán, určité škody může místy působit na domácí drůbeži, lze jim však předcházet preventivní ochranou drůbeže. Patří mezi druhy často používané v sokolnictví. V ČR je dle vyhlášky č. 395/1992 Sb. zvláště chráněn jako ohrožený druh.[5]
Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu jestřáb lesní ve Wikimedia Commons
Galerie jestřáb lesní ve Wikimedia CommonsJestřáb lesní (Accipiter gentilis) je středně velký druh dravce z čeledi jestřábovitých (Accipitridae).
Duehøgen (Accipiter gentilis) er en stor høg, der er udbredt som ynglefugl over store dele af den nordlige halvkugle, inklusive Skandinavien. Den lever fortrinsvis i skove, men kan også ses i åbne landskaber om vinteren. Dens bytte er især fugle og pattedyr i størrelse fra solsort op til fasan eller hare. I Danmark findes duehøgen især i skove på mere end 100 ha. Den er standfugl her.[1]
Duehøgen har mørkebrun overside med et gråligt anstrøg. Brystet er hvidligt med mange mørkebrune bølgelinjer. Vingerne er forholdsvis korte og halen lang. De to køn er ens af udseende, men hunnen er betydeligt større end hannen. Hannen måler fra halespids til næbspids omkring 54 cm og hunnen omkring 64 cm. Vægten af de danske fugle er i gennemsnit for hanner 875 gram og for hunner 1380 gram. Ungfugle afviger meget i udseende fra de gamle fugle. Deres underside er gulbrunlig med mørkebrune længdepletter.[2]
Det kan især være svært at skelne hannen af duehøg fra hunnen af spurvehøg, som dog er mindre. Spurvehøgens gennemsnitsvægt er 140 gram for hannen og 260 gram for hunnen.[2]
Hunnen begynder allerede i januar eller begyndelsen af februar at kalde på en mage med et giak-giak. Det er især hannen der står for redebygningen. Reden fores til slut med friske grankviste, der undertiden må hentes langvejs fra. Parringerne foregår sideløbende med redebygningen. Fra redebygningens begyndelse til ungerne er omtrent fuldvoksne, en periode på ca. fem måneder, er det udelukkende hannen, der skaffer føden til parret. Duehøgen benytter ofte den samme rede flere år i træk, men den kan også skifte mellem flere reder. Rederne placeres højt til vejrs i et træ, ofte i en bøgeskov.
I Danmark begynder æglægningen fra slutningen af marts til midten af april, hvert æg lægges med 3 dages mellemrum. Rugetiden er 35-41 dage, og der er 3-4 æg i det normalt enlige kuld. Det er først og fremmest hunnen, der ruger. I de første 16-18 dage kan hannen dog også ruge, ligesom den ruger når hunnen fortærer det bytte som hannen har hjembragt. Hunnen fælder i redetiden, mens hannen først fælder efter yngletiden. Hvis hannen skulle dø i tiden hvor hunnen ruger, må hunnen opgive kuldet på grund af sult, med mindre der kommer en anden han til, hvilket undertiden observeres. Når ungerne er omkring 25 dage gamle, er fødebehovet størst og hannen bringer på dette tidspunkt bytte hjem ca. fem gange dagligt. Ungerne flyver fra reden efter omkring 40 dage, men er først helt uafhængige efter omkring 70 dage.[2]
I Danmark er byttet især ringduer, kragefugle og andre mellemstore fugle, men også pattedyr som egern og mus kan udgøre en betydelig del af føden. Den er desuden udsat for illegal jagt.[1]
Frem til midten af 1800-tallet var duehøgen en almindelig ynglefugl i det meste af Danmark, men som følge af massiv bekæmpelse var bestanden allerede i starten af 1900-tallet kraftigt reduceret. I 1960 var bestanden af duehøg i Danmark nede på ca. et hundrede par. Duehøgen blev fredet i 1967. I 2011 blev bestanden opgjort til at være 270 par.[1]
Duehøgen (Accipiter gentilis) er en stor høg, der er udbredt som ynglefugl over store dele af den nordlige halvkugle, inklusive Skandinavien. Den lever fortrinsvis i skove, men kan også ses i åbne landskaber om vinteren. Dens bytte er især fugle og pattedyr i størrelse fra solsort op til fasan eller hare. I Danmark findes duehøgen især i skove på mere end 100 ha. Den er standfugl her.
Der Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) ist ein Greifvogel, der zur Familie der Habichtartigen (Accipitridae) gehört. Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Art umfasst die arktischen bis subtropischen Zonen der Holarktis. Habichte ernähren sich überwiegend von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Vögeln und Säugetieren bis zu einem Gewicht von etwa 1,0 kg. Die Art ist nicht gefährdet.
Der Naturschutzbund Deutschland und der Landesbund für Vogelschutz in Bayern haben den Habicht zum „Vogel des Jahres 2015“ in Deutschland gewählt.[1]
Habichte sind mittelgroße Greifvögel; die Körperlänge beträgt 46–63 cm, die Spannweite 89–122 cm. Das Gewicht liegt zwischen 0,52 kg bei den kleinsten Männchen und 2,2 kg bei den größten Weibchen. Die große Spanne ist auf die deutliche Größen- und Gewichtszunahme von Südwesten nach Nordosten und den starken reversen Geschlechtsdimorphismus bezüglich der Körpergröße zurückzuführen. Das Weibchen ist etwa so groß wie ein Mäusebussard, das Männchen („Terzel“) ist deutlich kleiner. So wogen beispielsweise im Osten Deutschlands adulte Männchen im Mittel 724 g, adulte Weibchen 1133 g, die Flügellänge betrug bei adulten Männchen aus demselben Gebiet im Mittel 314 mm, bei Weibchen 353 mm.[2]
Die Flügel sind relativ kurz, breit und an ihren Spitzen gerundet, der Schwanz ist relativ lang. Diese Merkmale sind typisch für die überwiegend waldbewohnenden Vertreter der Gattung Accipiter, sie ermöglichen keine extremen Fluggeschwindigkeiten, jedoch eine hohe Wendigkeit auf engem Raum. Ausgewachsene (adulte) Habichte sind auf der Oberseite schiefergraubraun, auf der Unterseite weiß mit einer dunkelbraunen Querbänderung. Jungvögel sind bis zur ersten Mauser oberseits bräunlich, auf der Unterseite hellgelb, gelb, beige, orange oder lachsfarben mit einer senkrechten Tropfen- oder Strichzeichnung.
Das Großgefieder zeigt in allen Kleidern eine deutliche Bänderung auf weißem bis beigebraunem, bei Jungvögeln auf gelblichem Grund. Die Beine sind gelb, ebenso die Wachshaut des Schnabels. Die Iris der Augen ist bei Jungvögeln hellgelb und färbt sich mit zunehmendem Alter in dunkelgelb, orange oder kirschrot. Dies ist aber vom Individuum abhängig, ein sechsjähriger Habicht kann also dunklere Augen haben als ein zwölfjähriger.
Die Gefiederzeichnung ist bei den Geschlechtern sehr ähnlich, adulte Männchen sind auf der Oberseite etwas dunkler und mehr blaugrau als adulte Weibchen und zeigen eine etwas kontrastreichere Kopfzeichnung.
Habichte rufen fast ausschließlich in Horstnähe. Häufigster Ruf ist ein scharfes, oft gereihtes „gik, gik, gik“ („Gickern“), das allgemein bei Erregung, z. B. bei Störungen geäußert wird und besonders häufig während der Balz von Januar bis März zu hören ist.[3] Diese Rufe sind bei ruhigem Wetter mehrere Hundert Meter weit hörbar. Der Kontaktruf zwischen den Brutpartnern ist ein kurzes, nicht sehr auffallendes „gjak“, das zum Beispiel einer Beuteübergabe oder der Ablösung bei der Brut vorausgeht. Falls der Partner nicht sofort reagiert, wird leise „gegickert“ oder ähnlich wie die Jungvogel langgezogen „hiiäh“ gerufen. Bei der Kopulation rufen beide Partner ein relativ hohes, gereihtes „wirr, wirr, wirr“. Sehr auffallend sind auch die lauten Bettelrufe der Jungvögel nach dem Ausfliegen, die wie „hiiiiääh“ oder „klijäh“ klingen („lahnen“) und ebenfalls häufig wiederholt werden.
Habichte besiedeln in mehreren Unterarten die Nadelwälder der Taiga und der Gebirge (die sogenannten boreomontanen Wälder) sowie die Wälder der gemäßigten und der mediterranen Zone der gesamten Paläarktis, in Nordamerika ist das Vorkommen überwiegend auf die boreomontanen Wälder beschränkt. In der westlichen Paläarktis fällt die nördliche Verbreitungsgrenze mit der nördlichen Grenze der borealen Nadelwälder (Taiga) in Skandinavien, Finnland und Russland zusammen, im Süden reicht die Verbreitung im Westen bis Nordafrika, weiter östlich bis Griechenland, Kleinasien und den Norden Irans.
Die für ein Vorkommen des Habichts zwingend erforderlichen Habitatvoraussetzungen beschränken sich in Europa auf einen für die Horstanlage geeigneten (über ca. 60 Jahre alten) Baumbestand und ein ausreichendes Angebot mittelgroßer Vögel und Säugetiere. Innerhalb ihres europäischen Verbreitungsgebietes besiedeln Habichte daher Wälder aller Art und Größe. Der Habicht kommt hier sowohl in großen, geschlossenen Waldgebieten wie auch in der offenen Kulturlandschaft vor, wenn dort zumindest einzelne Feldgehölze vorhanden sind.
Aus Gründen, die bisher unklar sind, ist das Vorkommen des Habichts in Nordamerika auf naturnahe Wälder beschränkt, er gilt dort als stenöker Bewohner von Urwäldern, vergleichbar etwa mit dem Status des Auerhuhns in Mitteleuropa.
Urbane Populationen
Der Habicht ist eine von zurzeit weltweit mindestens 20 Greifvogelarten, die auch in oder im Umfeld von Städten (urbanen Habitaten) leben. Die Besiedlung urbaner Habitate durch Habichte ist ein relativ neues Phänomen, bis Ende der 1960er Jahre gab es entsprechende Beobachtungen nur sporadisch. Die urbanen Populationen sind bisher auf Europa beschränkt, zurzeit sind derartige Populationen aus Berlin, Köln, Saarbrücken, Hamburg und Kiew bekannt.
Die Abgrenzung der in der Paläarktis vorkommenden Unterarten ist komplex und wird in der Wissenschaft intensiv diskutiert. Die Übergänge zwischen den Unterarten sind meist fließend. Je nach Autor unterscheiden sich Anzahl und geographische Abgrenzung der Unterarten daher oft erheblich. Die folgende Darstellung basiert im Wesentlichen auf dem Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas (Band 4, 1989).
Insgesamt werden zurzeit zehn Unterarten anerkannt, davon drei in Nordamerika:
Insgesamt ist in der Paläarktis entsprechend der Bergmann'schen Regel eine deutliche Größen- und Gewichtszunahme des Habichts von Südwesten nach Nordosten festzustellen.
Habichte erjagen ihre Beutetiere überwiegend aus dem bodennahen Flug oder vom Ansitz aus in einem kurzen, schnellen und sehr wendigen Verfolgungsflug direkt auf dem Boden oder im bodennahen Luftraum. Dabei werden natürliche Strukturen wie Hecken, Bäume, im Siedlungsraum aber auch Häuser sehr geschickt für einen gedeckten Anflug genutzt. Seltener werden aus dem hohen Kreisen heraus im Sturzflug Vögel im freien Luftraum oder in Bodennähe angejagt. Im Frühjahr und Sommer suchen Habichte systematisch in höherer Vegetation und auf Bäumen nach Nestern und erbeuten so zahlreiche nestjunge Vögel. Bei kleineren Vogelarten wird dabei häufig das ganze Nest mit Inhalt gegriffen, die leeren Nester sind dann häufig an den Rupfplätzen zu finden. Auch die Jagd zu Fuß wurde bei Habichten beobachtet, dabei werden zum Beispiel Maulwürfe erbeutet, auf dicht bewachsenen Inseln werden so auch brütende Stockenten geschlagen.
Die Beute wird mit den Füßen (Fängen) gegriffen und getötet, die Krallen der sehr kräftigen ersten und zweiten Zehe werden dabei so lange in die Beute gebohrt, bis diese aufhört, sich zu bewegen. Im Zusammenwirken mit den relativ langen Beinen ermöglicht diese Tötungsmethode dem Habicht die Nutzung von vergleichsweise sehr großen und wehrhaften Beutetieren.
Habichte ernähren sich in ihrem gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet fast ausschließlich von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Vögeln und Säugetieren. Eher selten, z. B. im Winter, gehen sie auch an Aas. Im Süden des Verbreitungsgebietes werden auch Reptilien regelmäßig erbeutet. Amphibien, Fische und Wirbellose werden von Habichten sehr selten als Nahrung genutzt. Das Gewicht der Beutetiere beträgt zwischen 5 g und 3,5 kg, in Mitteleuropa reicht das Beutespektrum bei Vögeln vom Goldhähnchen bis zu Gänsen, bei Säugern von Mäusen bis zu erwachsenen Kaninchen und halbwüchsigen Hasen. Kleine bis mittelgroße Greifvögel und Eulen werden regelmäßig erbeutet, in Mitteleuropa vor allem Sperber und Turmfalken, aber auch Mäusebussarde und Milane, nestjung oder eben flügge werden auch noch Fischadler und Schreiadler geschlagen. Überwiegend werden jedoch Tiere mit einer Körpermasse von 0,05–1,0 kg genutzt, in Mitteleuropa vor allem Tauben, Drosseln, Rabenvögel und Hühnervögel. In der Taiga Skandinaviens und Russlands dominieren in der Nahrung Raufußhühner, daneben spielen Ringeltauben, Rabenvögel und Eichhörnchen eine wichtige Rolle.
Die Größe des Aktionsraums ist unter anderem abhängig vom Geschlecht, Alter, Status (verpaart, unverpaart) des untersuchten Individuums, außerdem von der Jahreszeit und dem lokalen Nahrungsangebot. In Hamburg beflogen Männchen zur Brutzeit eine Fläche von im Mittel 8,6 km2,[14] in Schleswig-Holstein 13–55 km2,[15] in Arizona/USA 18 km2[16] und in Alaska/USA 39,8 km2.[17]
Außerhalb der Brutzeit umfassten Reviere von Männchen in Schleswig-Holstein 5–64 km2, von Weibchen im selben Gebiet 16–59 km2.[15] In Mittelschweden beflogen Männchen im Winter eine Fläche von im Mittel 51 km2 (18–80 km2), Weibchen im Mittel 62 km2 (32–92 km2).[18] In Nordfinnland schließlich waren die winterlichen Home-ranges von adulten Männchen im Mittel 88 km2 groß (79 bis 97 km2), von jugendlichen (juvenilen) Männchen 110 km2 (50–170 km2), von adulten Weibchen 69 km2 (48–94 km2), von juvenilen Weibchen 67 km2 (31–103 km2).[19] Die Übersicht zeigt die deutliche Zunahme der Reviergröße mit zunehmendem Breitengrad, diese Zunahme hat sicher ihren Grund in der nach Norden vor allem im Winter stark abnehmenden Beutetierdichte.
Habichte sind monogam und streng territorial. Das Revier wird durch häufiges „gickern“ (vgl. Lautäußerungen) und durch Schauflüge markiert. Bei diesen Schauflügen werden in geradem Flug die Flügel langsam tief nach unten und wieder nach oben geschlagen. Dringen fremde Artgenossen in das Revier ein, wird zuerst durch Rufe versucht, den Eindringling zu vertreiben, anschließend durch Annäherung und weitere Rufe. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Greifvögeln erfolgen direkte Angriffe mit Körperkontakt bei Habichten im Rahmen territorialer Auseinandersetzungen offenbar nur als allerletztes Mittel. Vermutlich ist dies darauf zurückzuführen, dass eine solche Auseinandersetzung wegen der auf die schnelle Tötung von relativ großen Wirbeltieren spezialisierten Füße und Krallen für beide Parteien mit einem erheblichen Risiko verbunden ist.
Habichte bauen große, voluminöse Nester (Horste) ausschließlich auf Bäumen. Das Mindestalter der für den Horstbau genutzten Bäume liegt bei etwa 60 Jahren. Innerhalb größerer Waldgebiete bevorzugt der Habicht Altholzbestände mit fast 100 % Kronenschluss, diese Bestände sind im Sommer in Bodennähe wegen des geringen Lichteinfalls oft sehr dunkel. Für den Horstbau werden meist die dominanten Bäume eines Bestandes genutzt, bevorzugt an einer kleinen Schneise oder an einem Weg. Die Horste werden, meist im Wechsel mit weiteren Horsten innerhalb des Brutreviers, oft über Jahre benutzt.
Mit Beginn der Balz wird der zur Brut gewählte Horst mit grünen Zweigen aufgebaut, diese Begrünung wird bis ins späte Nestlingsalter fortgesetzt. Habichte machen eine Jahresbrut, die Eiablage erfolgt in Mitteleuropa meist Mitte März bis Mitte April, die Gelegegröße beträgt ein bis fünf, meist zwei bis vier Eier. Die Eier sind ungezeichnet und blassgrün bis blassblau. Die Jungvögel schlüpfen nach einer Brutzeit von 37 bis 39 Tagen. Im Vergleich zu anderen Greifvogelarten (z. B. den Echten Adlern der Gattung Aquila, Bussarden oder Weihen) sind nestjunge Habichte untereinander sehr friedlich, Verluste durch Geschwistertötungen sind daher sehr selten. Die Jungvögel sind mit etwa 40–45 Tagen flügge. Sie verlassen drei bis sechs Wochen nach dem Ausfliegen das elterliche Revier.
Die Art ist in Mitteleuropa Standvogel, Jungvögel zeigen eine ungerichtete Dispersion. Die Ansiedlungsentfernungen zum Geburtsort liegen in Mitteleuropa meist unter 30 km.
Da Habichte häufig jagdlich genutzte Arten wie den Fasan sowie Hausgeflügel und Brieftauben erbeuten, wurden sie in weiten Teilen ihres Verbreitungsgebietes von Jägern und Kleintierzüchtern verfolgt. Innerhalb Europas wurde die Art in Großbritannien ausgerottet (letzte Bruten 1893 und 1938–1951, Wiederbesiedlung ab 1965, 1991 wurden dort wieder 230 Paare gezählt), in den übrigen Ländern wurden die Bestände bis Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts drastisch reduziert, eine vollständige Ausrottung erfolgte jedoch in keinem weiteren Land. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Greifvogelarten (vor allem Seeadler (Haliaeetus albicilla), Sperber (Accipiter nisus) und Wanderfalke (Falco peregrinus)) war der Habicht durch die europaweite Anwendung von DDT bis Anfang der 1970er Jahre kaum betroffen. Nach der Unterschutzstellung des Habichts etwa ab Anfang der 1970er Jahre war in vielen Teilen Europas wie auch Deutschlands eine deutliche Bestandszunahme zu verzeichnen, beispielsweise in den Niederlanden, Nordrhein-Westfalen sowie in Brandenburg und Berlin. Die Anzahl der Brutpaare wird in Deutschland für das Jahr 2014 auf 11.500–16.500 (davon etwa 100 in der Stadt Berlin),[20] für Österreich im Jahr 2000 auf 2000–2300 und für die Schweiz für 1995 auf 1400–1600 geschätzt.[21]
Da der Habicht auch Hausgeflügel erbeutet, sind im Volksmund Namen wie Stoßvogel, Stoßfalk, Hühnerräuber, Hühnerfresser, Hühnerstößer, Hühnerhabicht, Hühnergeier, Hennenhacht oder auch geflügelter Teufel für die Art entstanden.[22]
Außerdem haben sich im Laufe der Jahrhunderte einige abergläubischen Praktiken etabliert, um diesen von Tauben und Hühnern fernzuhalten. Diese sind bzw. waren von Region zu Region unterschiedlich. In der Oberpfalz beispielsweise sollte das Ausreißen von drei Habichtfedern, die man anschließend in eine andere Gemeinde brachte, das eigene Geflügel vor seinen Angriffen schützen.
In Westfalen dagegen sollte es helfen, wenn man neben das junge Federvieh einen blanken Kessel setzte.
Andere Rituale sind an die Osterfeiertage gebunden: Wer an Karfreitag die Hühner durch einen hölzernen Reifen ließ, schützte sie gleichfalls vor dem Habicht. Komplizierter ist ein anderes überliefertes Ritual: Von allen auf dem Ostertisch stehenden Speisen musste etwas rund um den Hof gestreut werden, und dazu war folgender Spruch aufzusagen:
Ähnlich wie auch für Eulen überliefert, sollte auch ein erjagter Habicht, der an der Stalltür aufgehängt wurde, den Hof vor Hexen schützen und andere Greifvögel fernhalten.[23]
Die Stammburg der Habsburger, die Habsburg im Schweizer Kanton Aargau, soll nach einer Legende von ihrem Erbauer Habichtsburg genannt worden sein, als sich ein Habicht auf dem Schlossgemäuer niederließ. Wahrscheinlicher ist jedoch eine Benennung nach dem altdeutschen Wort „hab“/„haw“ als Bezeichnung für „Flussübergang“.
Die Flagge der Azoren führt einen Habicht. Er verweist darauf, dass sich der Name der Inseln von seiner portugiesischen Bezeichnung Açor ableitet. Allerdings beruht diese auf einem Fehler. Die Seeleute, die den Inseln ihren Namen gaben, hatten Mäusebussarde (Buteo buteo) auf den Inseln vorgefunden. Habichte kommen auf den Azoren nicht vor.
Der Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) ist ein Greifvogel, der zur Familie der Habichtartigen (Accipitridae) gehört. Das Verbreitungsgebiet der Art umfasst die arktischen bis subtropischen Zonen der Holarktis. Habichte ernähren sich überwiegend von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Vögeln und Säugetieren bis zu einem Gewicht von etwa 1,0 kg. Die Art ist nicht gefährdet.
Der Naturschutzbund Deutschland und der Landesbund für Vogelschutz in Bayern haben den Habicht zum „Vogel des Jahres 2015“ in Deutschland gewählt.
O esparvero perdiguero[1] u azor[1] (Accipiter gentilis (L., 1758)), ye un au de presa de mida meyana d'a familia Accipitridae. Anque en aragonés diz que un d'os nombres más extensos ye «esparvero perdiguero», no se tracta d'un verdader «esparver» y no ye si que parient remoto d'os esparvers propiament ditos.
O plomache d'ista especie ye caracteristicament griso per alto en os adultos, con a tripa y partes més baixas d'o cuerpo de color blanca plena de rayetas horizontals de color negra. En os exemplars inmaduros, ixas mesmas rayetas i son más discontinuas, estando marrons fuscas y eventualment presentando-se como malletas marrons y més a sobén verticals, con o fundo de tot per debaixo de l'animal marrón claret per cuentas de blanco. Asinas, os azors chovens se fan fácils ta destinguir d'os adultos. Totz os exemplars tienen una francha clara per alto d'os uellos que, en chunto con os iris naranchas u royos ells fan destinguidors d'os suyos parients os falcons.
Como altras especies d'o chenero Accipiter, os azors cazan en a selva (las menos vegadas en espacios opiertos), y per as alas que tienen més curtas y d'extremos arronchadetz que no en altras aus de presa, son maniobradors y hábils volando per entre a vechetación. Como en a suya parient l'Accipiter nisus, l'azor tiene predilección per os muixons y os radedors.
Habitan per tot Europa, dende Escandinavia dica las costas mediterranias, anque en a Peninsula Iberica ye un animal exquivo y poco numeroso, estando més frequent en as selvas d'o norte, de clima més humedo y d'influencia atlantica, y tansament present en as selvas xerofilas de tipo mediterranio. No s'ha puesto documentar a suya presencia en as Islas Balears.
En Aragón pareix que i predomina o nombre «azor», de radiz latina («acceptor») y homologo con altras luengas romances d'a Peninsula, como o castellano («azor»), l'astur-leyonés («azor») y o galaico-portugués («açor»), per el que puede considerar-se un termino de destribución plenament iberorromance occidental. Manimenos, en bells puntos de l'aria aragonesofona d'a Comunidat Autonoma, se i documenta como forma popular «esparvero perdiguero» en A Perdiguera[1] y Salas Altas[1] (Semontano de Balbastro), en Solipueyo[1] (val d'A Fueva) y Buerba[1] (val de Vió) en o Sobrarbe, y en Esdolomada[1] (baixa Ribagorza), con una curiosa destribución que, per casualidat u no, cubre qualques comarcas de l'aria oriental, y que clarament s'alinia con a denominación popular de bellas altras especies, parients de luent d'istes animals, en o chenero Buteo, anque fendo-les un aprecio como si se les atribuise d'estar cazadors habituals (u cosa asinas) de perdices.
En bellas publicacions, a demés, se i cita como nombre popular en Aragón a forma «astor»,[2] que coincide con a fonetica d'ista parola en catalán per el que podría estar un termino que no s'hese documentato si que en municipios catalanofonos de l'aria oriental.
Exemplar choven pre-adulto, con a color terrosa
Exemplar choven en o suelo
Video d'una captura
Adulto disecato
Aligons en o niedo.
Niedo alto en un favo
Museum specimen
L'astor de las palombas (Accipiter gentilis) es un rapaç de talha mejana de la familha dels Accipitridae, que compren tanben las aglas e los busacs. Una espècia pròcha es l'esparvièr d'Euròpa.
Los ausèls mai menaçats en Euròpa (fr)
(sul sit de lUnion Europèa — directiva ausèls —) :
Ang hilagang lawin (Accipiter gentilis), ay isang ibon ng biktima sa pamilya Accipitridae, na kinabibilangan din ng iba pang mga nabubuhay na raptors sa araw, tulad ng mga agila, buzzards at harriers. Bilang isang species sa genus Accipiter, ang goshawk ay madalas na itinuturing na isang "totoong lawin". Ang siyentipikong pangalan ay Latin; Ang Accipiter ay "lawin", mula sa accipere, "upang maunawaan," at gentilis ay "marangal" o "magiliw" dahil sa lamang ang maharlika ay pinahihintulutan na lumipad goshawks para sa falconry.
Ang unang species na ito ay inilarawan sa ilalim ng kasalukuyang pang-agham na pangalan ni Linnaeus sa kanyang Systema naturae noong 1758.
Ang lathalaing ito na tungkol sa Ibon ay isang usbong. Makatutulong ka sa Wikipedia sa nito.
O esparvero perdiguero u azor (Accipiter gentilis (L., 1758)), ye un au de presa de mida meyana d'a familia Accipitridae. Anque en aragonés diz que un d'os nombres más extensos ye «esparvero perdiguero», no se tracta d'un verdader «esparver» y no ye si que parient remoto d'os esparvers propiament ditos.
O plomache d'ista especie ye caracteristicament griso per alto en os adultos, con a tripa y partes més baixas d'o cuerpo de color blanca plena de rayetas horizontals de color negra. En os exemplars inmaduros, ixas mesmas rayetas i son más discontinuas, estando marrons fuscas y eventualment presentando-se como malletas marrons y més a sobén verticals, con o fundo de tot per debaixo de l'animal marrón claret per cuentas de blanco. Asinas, os azors chovens se fan fácils ta destinguir d'os adultos. Totz os exemplars tienen una francha clara per alto d'os uellos que, en chunto con os iris naranchas u royos ells fan destinguidors d'os suyos parients os falcons.
Como altras especies d'o chenero Accipiter, os azors cazan en a selva (las menos vegadas en espacios opiertos), y per as alas que tienen més curtas y d'extremos arronchadetz que no en altras aus de presa, son maniobradors y hábils volando per entre a vechetación. Como en a suya parient l'Accipiter nisus, l'azor tiene predilección per os muixons y os radedors.
Habitan per tot Europa, dende Escandinavia dica las costas mediterranias, anque en a Peninsula Iberica ye un animal exquivo y poco numeroso, estando més frequent en as selvas d'o norte, de clima més humedo y d'influencia atlantica, y tansament present en as selvas xerofilas de tipo mediterranio. No s'ha puesto documentar a suya presencia en as Islas Balears.
L'astor de las palombas (Accipiter gentilis) es un rapaç de talha mejana de la familha dels Accipitridae, que compren tanben las aglas e los busacs. Una espècia pròcha es l'esparvièr d'Euròpa.
Acipitro esas mez-granda rapt-ucelo en la familio Acipitraro di genro sparviero, qua vivas en foresto e do havas korta larja ali e granda kaudo. Ol chasas prefere leporo.
Lu havas blankatra bando apud l'okulo.
L' altore (o astore o altori) (Accipiter gentilis) hè un acellu chì faci partita di a famiglia di l'Accipitridae.
Esistenu parechje sottuspezie d'altore:
Ci hè una sottuspezia d'altore chì hè endemica di a Corsica è di a Sardegna: Accipiter gentilis arrigonii.
L' altore (o astore o altori) (Accipiter gentilis) hè un acellu chì faci partita di a famiglia di l'Accipitridae.
Esistenu parechje sottuspezie d'altore:
Accipiter gentilis albidus Accipiter gentilis apache Accipiter gentilis arrigonii (Kleinschmidt) Accipiter gentilis buteoides Accipiter gentilis fujiyamae Accipiter gentilis gentilis (Linnaeus) Accipiter gentilis laingi Accipiter gentilis marginatusGjatësia (Accipiter gentilis) 49-64 me krahët e hapur: 93-127 cm.
Shpend mishngrënës që nuk shtegton,grabitqar i fuqishem me krahe te gjerë dhe bisht të gjatë. Femrat janë më të mëdha se meshkujt. Meshkujt e rritur kanë përmasa të krahasueshme me femrat e Gjeraqinës së Euroazisë (Accipiter nisus). Në krahasim me këtë specie të ngjashme, gjeraqina e veriut ka formë të rrumbullakosur dhe bazë më të gjerë të bishtit. Të rriturit në pjesën e sipërme të syrit kanë ngjyrë gri në të kaltër (meshkujt) dhe gri të errët (femrat), kurse pjesa e poshtme është ngjyrë e bardhë e vijëzuar me gri. Të vegjlit në pjesën e sipërme të trupit janë ngjyrë kafe, dhe ngjyrë të bardhë me shumë vijëzime në pjesën e poshtme. Zakonisht fluturojnë në lartësinë e majave të pemëve me lëvizje të pakta të krahëve.
Gjatë dimrit hasen në zonën bregdetare dhe në verë takohen në drurët halorë të zonave malore ku ato ndërtojnë foletë e tyre.
Ndërtojnë fole masive në pemë, në lartësi rreth 10-20m të cilën e përdorin për disa vjet me radhë. Pjellin 3-4 vezë. Ngrohja e tyre zgjat 35-38 ditë dhe të vegjlit arrijnë të fluturojnë pas 35-42 ditësh.
Shpend dhe gjitarë me përmasat e lepurit ose të fazanit.
Jashtë kohës së ngrohjes së vezëve janë të heshtur. Thirrjet dëgjohen kryesisht në agim dhe janë shumë të ngjashme me ato të gjeraqinës së shkurtës (Eurasian sparrowhawk), por më të forta, me ritëm më të ulët dhe me një kukurisje më të avashtë “kja-kja-kja”.
Goahppilfálli (Accipiter gentilis) lea dihtiide gullevaš gázzaloddi.
The Goss (frae Auld Inglis: góshafoc 'guiss-hawk'), Accipiter gentilis, is a medium-lairge bird o prey in the faimily Accipitridae.
It is fund athort the temperate pairts o the northren hemisphere.
De Happech oder au Hüennerwai (Accipiter gentilis; alemanischi Näme) isch e Raubvogel, wo i Mitteleuropa dor s ganze Joor döre vorchunnt. I de Alpe isch er bis zonere Hööchi vo 2200 müM verbraitet. Er isch recht schüüch und und selte i de Nööchi vo Sidlige aaztreffe. De Happech gsiet äänlich uus wie de Sperber isch aber gröösser.
De Happech isch e graubruune Vogel, wo a de Undersiite liecht gstraifflet isch. Sin lange Schwanz und sini braite Flögel sind dunkel und eener bloilich. Jungi Happech sind mee rootbruu und hend a de Undersiite wiisslichi Straiffli. S Mandli oder de Terzel isch mit öppe 50 cm vill chlinner as Wiibli, wo öppe 60 cm groos werd. D Spannwiiti isch öppe 95 cm bzw. 110 cm. Happech chönd öber e Kilo schwer were.
De Happech lebt i uufglockrete Wälder mit vill Altholz und baut uf Bömm inere Hööchi zwöschet 10 und 16 Meter e groosses Nest us grüene Äst. Happechpäärli bliibet anenand för s ganz Lebe troi und si bruucht eri Nester au meriri Joor. Happech sind gschickti wendigi Flüüger. Si hocket anere guete Stell und schüüset zunderainisch uf s Opfer loos. Zu de Büüti ghööret chliini Vögel, aber au Chraie, Orlihään und Hüenner und au Süüger wie Müüs, Aichörnli und Hase.
De Happech werd för d Jagd abgrichtet.
De Happech oder au Hüennerwai (Accipiter gentilis; alemanischi Näme) isch e Raubvogel, wo i Mitteleuropa dor s ganze Joor döre vorchunnt. I de Alpe isch er bis zonere Hööchi vo 2200 müM verbraitet. Er isch recht schüüch und und selte i de Nööchi vo Sidlige aaztreffe. De Happech gsiet äänlich uus wie de Sperber isch aber gröösser.
A hanjüger (of. hanjüker, (mo.) hånetiif, hånemooker, heefk) (Accipiter gentilis) as en fögel ütj at famile faan a hanjügern (Accipitridae).
Die Hauk (Accipiter gentilis af Astur palumbarius mäd ju Uutsproake Ástur palumbárius, dt. Habicht) is n Fuugel die der uur Dierte fangen un apfreeten däd.
Die Hauk is in n Woold, as t.B. in ju Taiga, oaber uk in Middel- un Suud-Europa un groote Deele fon Noudamerikoa tou fienden. Dät noudelke Skeed fon dän Lieuwendsruum faalt maasttieds uumtränt ap n noudelken Polarkring. Gnau kon man dät oaber nit kweede, dät gjucht sik ieuwen ätter ju noudelke Gränse fon n boreoalen Näddelwoold, ju in dät Aaste fon Noudamerikoa fääre suudelk is. In dät Suude gungt hie nie oafter fääre as bit tou n noudelken Weendekring, bloot in Mexiko un Suudaastaasien.
Die Hauk frät Fuugele un litje Suugedierte.
Fröier ron ju Klukhanne mäd hiere Suukene uk so fräi buute hääruume. Dät wiste die Houk uk goud. Die hoalde sik dan smoals sun äärm Suuken. Deeruur hääbe wie uus dan altied so benoard un wieren dän groote Fugel läip dul. Man sun Houk häd uk Smoacht. So goadelk koom him nit so oafter sun Schmaus toumäite.
In ju Natuur häd die Hauk two Wiesen uum tou joagjen: Äntweeder ferfoulget hie sin Offer in ju Luft un moaket et ap dän of höchstens n bitje buppe dän Gruund dood, of hie joaget, toun Biespiel Oanten un Wrouten, tou Fout. Hie häd neen bestimde Offere, hie joaget aal do Dierte do him sääd moakje un sik nit so goud weere konnen.
De hauk (Accipiter gentilis) is in krêftige rôffûgel. In folwoeksen hauk kin in lingte hawwe fan tusken de 49 - 66 sm. Hy hat koarte, brede wjukken en in lange, hast fjouwerkante sturt. In folwoeksen hauk hat in wite streek boppe it each, in swarte krún en donkere fearren yn de earstreek. It fearrekleed fan in mantsje is boppe-oan brún en ûnderoan skierwyt mei tinne grize bannen. It wyfke is folle grutter mei boppe-oan in laaigriis nei brunich fearrekleed en ûnderoan griis mei tinne brunere bannen. In jonge hauk hat boppe-oan in brún fearrekleed en ljocht mei brune lingtestreekjes ûnderoan. Boppedat is de wite eachstreek minder opfallend.
In hauk is in stille fûgel. Allinnich yn de briedtiid kin men fan ferskate soarten gekekker hearre. Yn Euraazje wurdt de mantsjehauk maklik betize mei de sparwer (Accipiter nisus), mar is wat grutter, swierder en hat wat langere wjukken.
De hauk fangt middelgrutte fûgels en sûchdieren. Haadproaien yn Nederlân binne postdo, houtdo, houtekster en knyn. Yn terrein mei in soad dekking jaget de hauk fan in sitplak of yn in lege flecht, om in proai te ferrassen. Dêrby kin de fûgel op koarte stikken in relatyf hege snelheid (80 km/o) ûntwikkelje. Hauken fange benammen de soarten dy't yn harren habitat in protte foarkomme. Faak is te sjen hoe't in hauk út in sirkeljende flecht wei, lykas in sljochtfalk, op in proai dûkt.
In spantsje hauken hat faakin stikmannich nêsten yn harren territoarium, dy't fan jier ta jier wiksele wurde om parasiten tsjin te gean, mar makket dochs maklik in nij nêst. Dat nêst, ek wol hoarst neamd, wurdt mei deade tûken heech yn de beamkrún boud yn in gaffelfoarmige tûke, of oanlynjend tsjin de stamme.
De hauk leit 1 - 5 blauwite aaien, meastal trije of fjouwer. By it brieden ferfearje de mantsjes en wyfkes en kinne maklik rudefearren ûnder it nêst lizze fan benammen it wyfke, trochdat dy mear oan it nêstgebiet bûn is. Haukejongen dy't ree binne om it nêst te ferlitten begjinne mei fleanoefenings. De âlden lizze dan proaien op de râne fan it nêst, wêrtroch't de jongen fladderjend nei de râne geane. En ynienen dûke se spontaan fan it nêst as (hast) follearde fleanders. De hauk hat in karakteristyk flechtpatroan: trage klap fan de wjukken, trage klap en dan glydflecht rjocht foarút.
Se bliuwe harren hiele libben yn itselde territoarium, mar de hauken út noardlike streken migrearje súdoan om te oerwinterjen.
De hauk komt benammen foar yn boskgebieten yn matige streken fan it noardlik healrûn. Lânbougrûnen wurde lykwols ek faak brûkt en hjir en dêr wurde se ek al yn stêden sjoen (Amsterdam en Rotterdam).
De hauk set him ûnferweechlik op in tûke en wachtet oant er in proai sjocht. As er de proai keazen hat, set er him ôf en fladderet in pear kear mei de wjukken. Mei syn wjukken hast hielendal tsjin it lichem stoart er him hurd-hurd troch beammen en strewellen op syn proai ôf oant er dy hat.
Die Hauk (Accipiter gentilis af Astur palumbarius mäd ju Uutsproake Ástur palumbárius, dt. Habicht) is n Fuugel die der uur Dierte fangen un apfreeten däd.
De hauk (Accipiter gentilis) is in krêftige rôffûgel. In folwoeksen hauk kin in lingte hawwe fan tusken de 49 - 66 sm. Hy hat koarte, brede wjukken en in lange, hast fjouwerkante sturt. In folwoeksen hauk hat in wite streek boppe it each, in swarte krún en donkere fearren yn de earstreek. It fearrekleed fan in mantsje is boppe-oan brún en ûnderoan skierwyt mei tinne grize bannen. It wyfke is folle grutter mei boppe-oan in laaigriis nei brunich fearrekleed en ûnderoan griis mei tinne brunere bannen. In jonge hauk hat boppe-oan in brún fearrekleed en ljocht mei brune lingtestreekjes ûnderoan. Boppedat is de wite eachstreek minder opfallend.
In hauk is in stille fûgel. Allinnich yn de briedtiid kin men fan ferskate soarten gekekker hearre. Yn Euraazje wurdt de mantsjehauk maklik betize mei de sparwer (Accipiter nisus), mar is wat grutter, swierder en hat wat langere wjukken.
Kùrzélc abò ptôszni jastrzib (Accipiter gentilis) – to je wiôldżi ptôch z rodzëznë jastrzibòwatëch (Accipitridae). Òna tegò rabùsznégò ptôcha mòże trzasnąc nawetka na kùrã abò zajca. Czedës na Kaszëbach żëło jich dosc wiele.
Li laire ås poyes ou moxhet ås colons ou wôteu ås colons mansåds, ou pus simpmint wôteu, c' est on moxhet aclevåve, foirt eployî dinltins el wôtoûsreye.
No d' l' indje e sincieus latén : Accipiter gentilis
C' est l' seu des moxhets del Walonreye avou l' brouhî, ki pôreut apicî des grossès proyes : pietris, poyes, colon; did la, ses nos avou "ås poyes" ou "ås colons".
Årvier des fåcons (ki tournikèt e l' air divant d' plonker), li wôteu, del mwin do wôtoursî, vore direk so s' proye. El sitofer (dabôrd ki les fåcons lyi coixhnut l' hanete).
I vike dins les bwès come dimorant dins tote l' Urope, et l' payis d' Tandjî å Marok. Eto el Sibereye ey e l' Amerike bijhrece.
Les dzo-indjes del Bijhe sont bén pus blancs d' ploumaedje.
avou si wôtoursî
onk pus clair, ki "fwait l' moirt"
Museum specimen
Hårdêye difoûtrinne
Li laire ås poyes ou moxhet ås colons ou wôteu ås colons mansåds, ou pus simpmint wôteu, c' est on moxhet aclevåve, foirt eployî dinltins el wôtoûsreye.
No d' l' indje e sincieus latén : Accipiter gentilis
Şabaz, şahbaz an terlan (Accipiter gentilis), (bi îngilîzî Goshawk ku wateya wê bazê qaz), cureyekî baziyan (Accipiteridae) e. Zaneyarê swêdî Linnaeus cureyê şabazê şayes û danasîn kiribû sala 1758an di pirtûka xwe Systema naturae di bin navê zanistî (Accipiter gentilis) de.
Şabaz, ew balindeyê tewr mezintir di cinsê baziyan (Accipiter) de.[3] Dirêjiya şabazê nêr tevî baskên wî di navbera 89- 105 cm û dirêjiya şabazê mê tevî baskan, di navbera 108- 127 cm.[4] Giraniyê nêr di navbera 500 -1200 graman, lê giraniya mê di navbera 820 -2200 graman. Şabazê mê ji nêr bi gelemperî girse û girantir e. Baskên şabaz kurt û pan in. Dûvika wî dirêj û rengê wê qehweyî tarî an reş e. Kulabên wî tûj û hêzdar in. Rengê beşê jor ji laşê şabaz, hêşîn gewr e û beşê jêr sipî ye. Rengê şabazê ciwan an biçûk qehweyî di beşê jor û qehweyî vekirî di beşê jêr de. Rengê çavên şabazê biçûk zerê vekirî ne, lê rengê çavên şabazê mest pirtiqalî ne bi xizikên sipî.
Şabaz li daristanê ku darên wan kevnar in dijî û bi taybetî, çalakiyên mirovan lê hindik bin.[5][6]
Şabaz balinde û guhandarên biçûk nêçîr dike gor guherîna ciyê daristanan. Lezbûn û hezdarî, alikariyê şabazê dike ji bo nêçîr kirinê. Li Amerîkayê bakur, şabaz dikanê werdeka kovî, qelereşkê amerîkanî, kergoşkê kovî bi solên berfîn û sihorê sor bixwe.[7][8][9] Lê nêçîrên din ji balindeyan ku şabaz dixwe, kotirî, kevok tîtav, kew, werdeka kovî, qaqlîbaz,darkutok, qijak, çûkê avê û gelek cureyên fîkarên bera gor herêmê belavbûnê.Nêçîrê şabazê ji guhandaran ew in: kerguh, kergoşkê kovî, sihorê daran, sihorê erdê, kojerê çîpmunk, cirdon, mişk, kûze û hinek guhandarên din. Bi gelemperî, şabaz nêçîrê canewerên ku ji wî biçûktir dike.[4] Herwiha,şabaz dikanê rawirên ku ji wî girstir bikuje weke qaz, rakûn, rûvî û kegoşkên koviyên girs.[4][10]
Şabaz, şahbaz an terlan (Accipiter gentilis), (bi îngilîzî Goshawk ku wateya wê bazê qaz), cureyekî baziyan (Accipiteridae) e. Zaneyarê swêdî Linnaeus cureyê şabazê şayes û danasîn kiribû sala 1758an di pirtûka xwe Systema naturae di bin navê zanistî (Accipiter gentilis) de.
Το Διπλοσάινο είναι είδος μη γνήσιου [2] γερακιού (γένος Accipiter), που απαντά και στον ελλαδικό χώρο. Η επιστημονική του ονομασία είναι Accipiter gentilis και περιλαμβάνει 10 υποείδη.
Στην Ελλάδα απαντά το υποείδος A.g.marginatus (Piller & Mitterpacher, 1783). [3][4]
Η λατινική επιστημονική ονομασία του γένους, Accipiter (Hawk), σημαίνει «γεράκι», αλλά με διαφορετική σημασία από την ομώνυμη λέξη με την οποία αποδίδεται η, επίσης, λατινική λέξη Falco (Falcon). Στην ελληνική γλώσσα δεν υπάρχει, ωστόσο, κάποιος όρος που να αποδίδει την διαφορά μεταξύ αυτών των «γερακιών» (βλ. και Σημειώσεις).
Ο λατινικός όρος gentilis στην επιστημονική ονομασία του είδους, σημαίνει «ευγενής, ευγενικός» και προέρχεται από το gens, -tis «ευγενής (κοινωνική) τάξη», «ο κόσμος των ευγενών», αλλά παραμένει άγνωστος ο λόγος ονοματοδοσίας του είδους
Η ελληνική λαϊκή ονομασία του πτηνού παραπέμπει στο -μεγάλο- μέγεθός του, σε σχέση με το συγγενικό σαΐνι.
Το είδος περιγράφηκε από τον Λινναίο, ως Falco Nisus (Σουηδία, 1758). Η μεταφορά του στο γένος Accipiter, έγινε το 1760 από τον Γάλλο ζωολόγο Μ.Ζ.Μπρισόν (Mathurin Jacques Brisson, 1723 – 1806). Συγγενεύει φυλογενετικά με τα αφρικανικά είδη A. henstii και A. melanoleucus, πιθανόν και με το A. meyerianus, με τα οποία σχηματίζει διακριτό γκρουπ. [6]
Το διπλοσάινο απαντά σε ευρείες εύκρατες περιοχές του Βορείου ημισφαιρίου (οικοζώνες: Παλαιαρκτική, Ινδομαλαϊκή και Νεοαρκτική). Είναι το μόνο είδος του γένους Accipiter, που απαντά τόσο στην Ευρασία όσο και στη Βόρεια Αμερική.
Στην Ευρώπη, το είδος απαντά σε όλη την ήπειρο εκτός από την Ισλανδία και κάποιες επί μέρους περιοχές του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου και της Β. Σκανδιναβίας, ως επιδημητικό πτηνό, πλην των βορείων επικρατειών (Σκανδιναβίας και Ρωσίας), όπου έρχεται μόνο για να αναπαραχθεί τα καλοκαίρια.
Η Ασία αποτελεί, επίσης, μεγάλη μόνιμη επικράτεια του είδους, από την τούνδρα και νοτιότερα, από την Ευρώπη στα δυτικά μέχρι την Καμτσάτκα, την Σαχαλίνη και την Ιαπωνία στα ανατολικά. Απουσιάζει από όλες τις υποαρκτικές περιοχές, την ΒΑ. Σιβηρία και από το μεγαλύτερο μέρος της Κ. Ασίας, εμφανιζόμενο στα υψίπεδα ανατολικά των Ιμαλαΐων και στην Κίνα. Νότια, η εξάπλωση φθάνει μέχρι την Ν. Κίνα και την Κορέα, που χρησιμοποιούνται κυρίως ως περιοχές διαχείμασης.
Στην Αφρική, το διπλοσάινο απαντά μόνο σε μικρούς θύλακες στα βορειοδυτικά (Μαρόκο) ως καθιστικό, κυρίως, είδος.
Η Αμερική είναι, όπως η Ευρασία, μεγάλη αναπαραγωγική επικράτεια επιδημητικών πληθυσμών, με κατανομή από την Αλάσκα και τον υποαρκτικό Καναδά, προς τις ΗΠΑ και το Κ. Μεξικό, όπου βρίσκονται τα νότια όρια εξάπλωσης του είδους. [7]
(σημ. με έντονα γράμματα το υποείδος που απαντά στον ελλαδικό χώρο)
Κυρίως καθιστικό είδος, μερικώς μεταναστευτικό στους βορειότερους πληθυσμούς της Βόρειας Αμερικής, Φινοσκανδιναβίας και Ρωσίας. Η κατανομή και το εύρος των μετακινήσεων υπαγορεύονται από τους «κύκλους» των θηραμάτων στις αρκτικές περιοχές. Μεταναστευτικές «εισβολές», ωστόσο, συμβαίνουν σχεδόν κάθε δεκαετία στην Βόρεια Αμερική, με τα πουλιά να φθάνουν μέχρι τις Ν ΗΠΑ και το Μεξικό. Στην Φινοσκανδιναβία, οι μετακινήσεις είναι λιγότερο εκτεταμένες, συνήθως όχι περισσότερα από μερικές εκατοντάδες χιλιόμετρα. ΟΙ πληθυσμοί αφήνουν τις βόρειες επικράτειες, κυρίως τον Οκτώβριο-Νοέμβριο, και επιστρέφουν στις περιοχές αναπαραγωγής τον Μάρτιο-Απρίλιο. [14] Στην περιοχή του Νεπάλ, το διπλοσάινο κινείται από τα 1.370 έως τα 4.880 μ., αλλά έχει παρατηρηθεί μέχρι τα 6.100 μ. [15]
Τυχαίοι, περιπλανώμενοι επισκέπτες έχουν αναφερθεί μεταξύ άλλων από την Αλγερία, την Τυνησία και την Λιβύη, το Ομάν, το Αφγανιστάν και το Πακιστάν, την Ταϊβάν και τις Βερμούδες. [17]
Από την Κρήτη αναφέρεται ως χειμερινός επισκέπτης, κυρίως στα δυτικά. [22] Στην Κύπρο είναι σπάνιο πτηνό και, πιθανόν, να υπάρχουν λίγα ζευγάρια που φωλιάζουν και παραμένουν όλο το έτος στα δάση του Τροόδους. [23]
Το διπλοσάινο συχνάζει τόσο σε δάση κωνοφόρων, όσο και πλατύφυλλων, κυρίως στα πρώτα με μικρά ξέφωτα. Φαίνονται ότι ευδοκιμεί μόνο σε περιοχές με ώριμα, παλαιά δάση, όπου συνήθως η ανθρώπινη δραστηριότητα είναι σχετικά χαμηλή. Ωστόσο, μπορεί να βρεθεί και σε δάση μικρότερης ηλικίας -ειδικά, κατά την διάρκεια της περιόδου ωοτοκίας-, αρκεί να υπάρχουν αρκετά ψηλά δένδρα, με μέτρια κάλυψη θόλου και μικρά ανοίγματα στο κάτω μέρος για να ευνοείται το κυνήγι. [24] Στις Κ. ΗΠΑ, συχνάζει σε δάση Pinus ponderosa και Pinus contorta. [25]
Τα διπλοσάινα μπορεί να κινούνται σε οποιοδήποτε υψόμετρο, αλλά συνήθως προτιμούν τα μεγάλα, λόγω της έλλειψης εκτεταμένων δασών στις πεδινές περιοχές. [26].
Το διπλοσάινο, όπως συμβαίνει με το ξεφτέρι και το σαΐνι, παρουσιάζει ισχυρό φυλετικό διμορφισμό όσον αφορά στο μέγεθος και το βάρος (τα αρσενικά είναι 10%-25% μικρότερα και ελαφρύτερα) ενώ, κατά τα άλλα, τα δύο φύλα είναι όμοια. Είναι το μεγαλύτερο από τα τρία ευρωπαϊκά είδη του γένους Accipiter αλλά, συνολικά, ένα μετρίου μεγέθους αρπακτικό, με κοντές αλλά πλατιές πτέρυγες και μακριά ουρά, σε γενικές γραμμές, παρόμοιο με το ξεφτέρι, -αν και αρκετά μεγαλύτερο από αυτό.
Το χρώμα της ράχης είναι σκούρο κυανόγκριζο στα αρσενικά και γκρίζο στο χρώμα του σχιστόλιθου στα θηλυκά, στοιχείο που αποτελεί την βασική διαφορά μεταξύ των δύο φύλων. Κατά τα άλλα, η κάτω επιφάνεια είναι ανοικτόχρωμη λευκωπή με πολλές λεπτές, οριζόντιες μαυριδερές ρίγες και με χαρακτηριστικά αναμαλλιασμένα (fluffy). λευκά φτερά στην περιοχή του υπογαστρίου. [30] Διαθέτει πλατιά, λευκή υπεροφθάλμια λωρίδα, από το πίσω μέρος του ματιού μέχρι τον τράχηλο. Η ίριδα των ενηλίκων είναι σκούρα πορτοκαλί, ιδιαίτερα στα αρσενικά. Η ουρά είναι καφεγκρίζα και διαθέτει 4-5 σκούρες, κατά πλάτος λωρίδες. Το κήρωμα, οι ταρσοί και τα πόδια είναι κίτρινα. [31]
Στα νεαρά άτομα η άνω επιφάνεια σώματος είναι καφέ, με λευκωπό-κιτρινομπέζ κάτω μέρος, με ακανόνιστες ραβδώσεις παρά μπάρες, πιο διακριτές στα αρσενικά. Η υπεροφθάλμια λωρίδα είναι κιτρινομπέζ. Η ίριδα είναι αρχικά ανοικτοκίτρινη και αλλάζει χρώμα αργότερα, με το πέρασμα της ηλικίας.
Στα ασιατικά υποείδη, η περιοχή της ράχης ποικίλλει από, σχεδόν λευκή έως σχεδόν μαύρη. Στην Βόρεια Αμερική, τα ανήλικα άτομα έχουν χλωμή-κίτρινη ίριδα, ενώ οι ενήλικες αποκτούν την σκούρα κόκκινη ίριδα συνήθως μετά το δεύτερο έτος της ηλικίας τους, αν και η διατροφή και η γενετική μπορεί να επηρεάσουν το χρώμα των ματιών.
Τα αναφερόμενα μεγέθη αναφέρονται στον μέσο όρο των μετρήσεων, καθώς έχουν καταγραφεί θηλυκά με βάρος 2.200 γραμμάρια. [33] Γενικά, ισχύει ο Κανόνας του Μπέργκμαν (Bergmann's rule), σύμφωνα με τον οποίο, τα άτομα των βορείων περιοχών (μεγάλα γεωγραφικά πλάτη, τείνουν να είναι ογκωδέστερα από εκείνα των νότιων περιοχών (για το Βόρειο ημισφαίριο). Τα μεγαλύτερα διπλοσάινα, επομένως, απαντούν στην ευρύτερη περιοχή της Φινλανδίας (υποείδος A. g. buteoides).
(Πηγές: [34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52])
Τα διπλοσάινα είναι, συνήθως, ευκαιριακοί θηρευτές, όπως και τα περισσότερα αρπακτικά πτηνά. Τα πιο σημαντικά είδη που θηρεύονται είναι μικρά θηλαστικά και πουλιά που βρίσκονται σε δασικούς οικοτόπους. Στην Βόρεια Αμερική, συμπεριλαμβάνονται σε μεγάλο βαθμό λαγόποδες, η αμερικανική κουρούνα, ο αμερικανικός λαγός και ο κόκκινος σκίουρος. Σε σύγκριση με πολλά μικρότερα είδη Accipiter, τα διπλοσάινα είναι λιγότερο εξειδικευμένα ως αποκλειστικοί θηρευτές πτηνών ανάλογα με την τοποθεσία. [53][54]
Στην Ευρασία, τα θηράματα μπορεί να είναι αρκετά διαφορετικά όπως, περιστέρια φασιανοί, πέρδικες, τσαλαπετεινοί, γλάροι, διάφορα παρυδάτια, δρυοκολάπτες, κορακοειδή, υδρόβια πτηνά (κυρίως εκείνα που φωλιάζουν σε δένδρα του γένους Aythya spp.), και διάφορα στρουθιόμορφα, ανάλογα με την περιοχή. Από θηλαστικά, περιλαμβάνονται κουνέλια, λαγοί, σκίουροι, αρουραίοι, ποντίκια, νυφίτσες και μυγαλές. Επίσης, πτώματα άλλων ζώων, όταν υπάρχουν δύσκολες καιρικές συνθήκες. [55]
Η λεία είναι, τις περισσότερες φορές, μικρότερη από το ίδιο το γεράκι, με μέση μάζα τα 275 γραμμάρια, από μελέτη που διενεργήθηκε στην Μινεσότα. [56] Στις Κάτω Χώρες, τα αρσενικά σκότωναν θηράματα με μέσο όρο βάρους 277 γρ., ενώ τα θηλυκά, με μέσο βάρος 505 γρ. [57] Ωστόσο, τα ευμεγέθη διπλοσάινα των βορείων επικρατειών, θανατώνουν κατά καιρούς πολύ μεγαλύτερα ζώα, μέχρι χήνες, ρακούν και αλεπούδες, που μπορεί να ζυγίζουν περισσότερο από δύο φορές το δικό τους βάρος. Επίσης, το διπλοσάινο είναι σημαντικός θηρευτής άλλων αρπακτικών πτηνών, όπως ο σφηκιάρης, το ξεφτέρι και διάφορες κουκουβάγιες. [58]
Το διπλοσάινο θεωρείται από τους πλέον προικισμένους θηρευτές ανάμεσα στα αρπακτικά πτηνά. Κυνηγάει πουλιά και θηλαστικά σε ποικιλία δασικών οικοτόπων, συχνά χρησιμοποιώντας συνδυασμό ταχύτητας και παρεμπόδιση κάλυψης κατά την ενέδρα. Συχνά, χρησιμοποιεί συνορεύοντες τύπους οικοτόπων, όπως την άκρη ενός δάσους και ενός λιβαδιού.
Είναι εξαιρετικός κυνηγός, με κύρια χαρακτηριστικά την αστραπιαία ταχύτητα που επιτίθεται και το ότι δεν παραιτείται εύκολα, εάν πρόκειται να δώσει μάχη. Μπορεί να επιτεθεί σε θηράματα με πολύ μεγαλύτερο μέγεθος από το δικό του. [60][61]. Στην καταδίωξη του θηράματος, μπορεί να πετύχει «οριζόντιες» ταχύτητες της τάξης των 60 χλμ./ώρα. [62]
Παρόλο που το διπλοσάινο είναι, γενικά, διακριτικό και «ντροπαλό» στην συμπεριφορά του σε σχέση με τον άνθρωπο, σε κάποιες περιοχές μπορεί να εισέρχεται στον αστικό ιστό και να κάθεται ακόμη και στις στέγες των σπιτιών, επισκοπώντας τον χώρο. [63]
Η πτήση του διπλοσάινου είναι πολύ χαρακτηριστική και έχει την πατέντα «φτεροκόπημα-φτεροκόπημα-αερολίσθηση». Μοιάζει με εκείνη του ξεφτεριού, αλλά τα φτεροκοπήματα είναι πιο αργά, ενώ σπάνια γυροπετάει (soaring), [64] εκτός, ίσως, κατά την μετανάστευση. Η συνολική πτητική πορεία του πτηνού δεν είναι τόσο «κυματιστή» (undulating) και , σαφώς, πιο σταθερή από ό, τι στο ξεφτέρι. Επίσης, αντίθετα με το ξεφτέρι, το διπλοσάινο πετάει αρκετά ψηλά, στην περιοχή του δασικού θόλου, όχι κοντά στο έδαφος. [65]
Την άνοιξη, τα διπλοσάινα επιδίδονται σε θεαματικές πτήσεις επίδειξης, ίσως από τις λίγες φορές που, αυτό το κρυπτικό είδος, υιοθετεί συμπεριφορά εμφανή στην ανθρώπινη παρατήρηση. Τότε είναι που ακούγεται, μερικές φορές, ένα χαρακτηριστικό κάλεσμα σαν του γλάρου. Όπως σε όλα τα μέλη της οικογένειας Accipitridae, η επικοινωνία είναι κυρίως ακουστική, δεδομένου ότι είναι δύσκολο να παρατηρούνται τα πουλιά μεταξύ τους, μέσα στην πυκνή βλάστηση των οικοτόπων τους. [67] Οι ενήλικες υπερασπίζονται σκληρά τον ζωτικό τους χώρο από όλους τους εισβολείς, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των ανθρώπων που διέρχονται από την περιοχή. Θεωρείται ότι, αυτή η ασυνήθιστα επιθετική συμπεριφορά είναι αμυντική προσαρμογή κατά των ειδών εκείνων που είναι δυνητικοί θηρευτές της φωλιάς (βλ. Φυσικοί θηρευτές). Ο ζωτικός χώρος που υπερασπίζονται τα ζευγάρια είναι μεγάλος, καθώς οι φωλιές απέχουν συνήθως αρκετά χιλιόμετρα μεταξύ τους, σπάνια κάτω από 1 χιλιόμετρο. [68]
Τα διπλοσάινα φωλιάζουν από τον Μάρτιο ή τον Απρίλιο, αλλά μπορεί και πολύ αργότερα, μέχρι τα μέσα Ιουνίου, ανάλογα με το γεωγραφικό πλάτος). Συνήθως, από τη στιγμή που ξεκινάει μαζί, ένα ζευγάρι αναπαραγωγής ζευγαρώνει για μια ζωή. Οι φωλιές είναι ογκώδεις και, συνήθως, κατασκευάζονται πάνω σε δένδρα από το αρσενικό, αλλά μπορεί να χρησιμοποιείται κάποια φωλιά άλλου είδους, είτε να επαναχρησιμοποιείται η ίδια φωλιά για πολλά χρόνια. Η κατασκευή είναι ογκώδης με διάμετρο περίπου 1 μ., αλλά μικρό βάθος. Δομείται από χοντρά κλαδιά και επιστρώνεται με φυλλώδη πράσινα κλαδάκια ή δέσμες από βελόνες κωνοφόρων και κομμάτια φλοιού δέντρων, που ανανεώνονται τακτικά. [69]
Η γέννα πραγματοποιείται άπαξ σε κάθε περίοδο φωλιάσματος και περιλαμβάνει συνήθως (1-) 3 έως 4 (-5) ελαφρώς υποελλειπτικά αβγά, διαστάσεων 57,4 Χ 44, 2 χιλιοστών [70] και βάρους 67 γραμμαρίων, εκ των οποίων ποσοστό 9% είναι κέλυφος. [71] Τα αβγά εναποτίθενται σε διαστήματα 2 έως 3 ημερών, μεταξύ τους. Το θηλυκό είναι ο πρωταρχικός επωαστής, αν και το αρσενικό μερικές φορές θα χρειαστεί να δώσει στο θηλυκό μια ευκαιρία για να κυνηγήσει. Το αρσενικό κάνει το μεγαλύτερο μέρος του κυνηγιού τόσο για το θηλυκό όσο και τους νεοσσούς. Η περίοδος επώασης μπορεί να κυμαίνεται 36 έως 41 ημέρες. [72]
Οι νεοσσοί είναι ισχυρά φωλεόφιλοι και εγκαταλείπουν την φωλιά μετά από 35 έως 46 ημέρες, ενώ προσπαθούν να πετάξουν 10 ημέρες αργότερα. Ανεξαρτητοποιούνται στις 70 ημέρες περίπου, και μπορούν να παραμείνουν στην επικράτεια των γονιών τους για διάστημα έως ένα (1) έτος, μετά από το οποίο επιτυγχάνεται σεξουαλική ωριμότητα. [74]
Στους φυσικούς θηρευτές του είδους συμπεριλαμβάνονται εκείνοι που λυμαίνονται την φωλιά, κυρίως οι αρκούδες που αναρριχώνται στα δένδρα, όπως η αμερικανική μαύρη αρκούδα και η ασιατική μαύρη αρκούδα. Άλλα αρπακτικά της φωλιάς είναι τα κουνάβια, οι αδηφάγοι, διάφοροι αετοί, κουκουβάγιες και μπούφοι. Επίσης, ο γκρίζος λύκος έχει καταγραφεί να καταδιώκει και να σκοτώνει νεαρά διπλοσάινα, ιδίως όταν τα μεγάλα θηράματα είναι ελάχιστα. [75]
Γενικά, το είδος δεν κινδυνεύει σε παγκόσμιο επίπεδο και αξιολογείται ως Ελαχίστης Ανησυχίας (LC) από την IUCN. [76] Τους μεγαλύτερους αναπαραγωγικούς πληθυσμούς στην Ευρώπη διαθέτουν η Ρωσία (χώρα-«κλειδί»), η Γερμανία, η Ουκρανία, η Πολωνία και η Ρουμανία. [77]
Το διπλοσάινο είναι αρκετά διαδεδομένο στα ηπειρωτικά, κυρίως όμως στα βόρεια και κεντρικά και λιγότερο στην Πελοπόννησο, όπου φαίνεται να υπάρχει σημαντική μείωση των πληθυσμών του. Απουσιάζει, ωστόσο, από τα περισσότερα νησιά ως αναπαραγόμενο είδος, εκτός από ελάχιστα νησιά στο Αιγαίο και το Ιόνιο, όπου είναι απαράιτητη η παρουσία δένδρων. Πάντως, λόγω της γενικότερης κρυπτικής συμπεριφοράς του, είναι λίγο μελετημένο. [78]
Κατά την διάρκεια του χειμώνα, επειδή στους ήδη υπάρχοντες πληθυσμούς προστίθενται και οι διαχειμάζοντες από τον βορρά είναι πιο κοινό είδος. Υπάρχουν, επίσης, αποκλειστικά διαβατικοί πληθυσμοί, κυρίως κατά την άνοιξη, οπότε παρατηρείται και στην Κρήτη και σε κάποια ακόμη νησιά, αλλά λίγα στοιχεία υπάρχουν για την μεταναστευτική συμπεριφορά του διπλοσάινου στην χώρα. [79][80]
Οι κίνδυνοι που αντιμετωπίζει, είναι εκείνοι που αφορούν σε όλα τα αρπακτικά πτηνά, κυρίως δηλητηριάσεις από φυτοφάρμακα και δολώματα, καταστροφή βιοτόπων και λαθροθηρία με σκοπό την ταρίχευση. [81] Υπάρχουν ελπίδες ότι οι πληθυσμοί του είναι μεγαλύτεροι από τους καταμετρηθέντες, επειδή είναι πολύ δύσκολο να παρατηρηθεί ακόμη και όταν κυνηγάει, διότι αποφεύγει επιμελώς την ανθρώπινη παρουσία.
Στον ελλαδικό χώρο, το Διπλοσάινο απαντά και με τις ονομασίες Μεγάλο Σαΐνι, Περδικογέρακο, Περιστερογέρακας [82] και Διπλοσιάχινο (Κύπρος). [83]
Στην ελληνική ορνιθολογική βιβλιογραφία, αντίθετα με το γένος Falco = Γεράκι (Ιέραξ), (αγγλ. Falcon), δεν υπάρχει λέξη, η οποία να αντιστοιχεί στο γένος Accipiter. Στην αντίστοιχη αγγλική γλώσσα το πρόβλημα έχει λυθεί με τον όρο Hawk που, λανθασμένα, αποδίδεται πάλι ως Γεράκι στα αγγλοελληνικά λεξικά. Οι εναλλακτικές που προτάθηκαν είναι οι εξής:
Στο λήμμα αυτό ακολουθείται συμβατικά η τρίτη εκδοχή, χωρίς αυτό να μην επιδέχεται συζήτησης.
Το Διπλοσάινο είναι είδος μη γνήσιου γερακιού (γένος Accipiter), που απαντά και στον ελλαδικό χώρο. Η επιστημονική του ονομασία είναι Accipiter gentilis και περιλαμβάνει 10 υποείδη.
Στην Ελλάδα απαντά το υποείδος A.g.marginatus (Piller & Mitterpacher, 1783).
Јастребот кокошкар (Accipiter gentillis) е жител на речиси сите шуми и планини во Република Македонија. Распонот на крилата може да достигне и до 80 cm. Женките се поголеми од мажјаците и со леснотија можат да совладаат плен до големина на зајак. Се хранат со најразновиден дивеч, цицачи, глодари и птици.
Првата година од животот младите птици се темно кафени, а по митарењето ја добиваат својата граоресто сива боја. Се гнезди на високи буки и четинари. Гнездото го прави во стари непристапни шуми каде во подножјето има поток или рекичка.Во изградбата на гнездото учествуваат двете единки, а старите гнезда ги доградуваат секоја наредна година. Така што често старите гнезда можат да бидат големи како кај штркот. Во средината на гнездото често се среќаваат и зелени гранки од елка кои даваат мека подлога за јајцата и ги штитат младите птици од вошки.Во гнездото најчесто има од 2-4 бели јајца. Во зависност од пристапноста до храна јастребот може да ги прехрани и сите младенчиња.
Многу сурово е прогонуван, ловен, и труен од страна на одледувачите на домашна живина, а неподнослив непријател им е на одгледувачите на гулаби - гулабарите. Но, и покрај тоа, еволуцијата го натерала да се снаоѓа и да преживее, што говори дека е неприкосновен и способен борец за опстанок во денешницата. Тој лови на многу перфиден начин. Кога лови, лета многу ниско до самата земја, пленот го здогледува и фокусира седејќи скриен до самото стебло на некое дрво. Така ниско летајќи неговиот плен не го забележува се до последниот миг кога веќе е касно и се наоѓа во страшните канџи. Кокошкарот е една од најценетите птици за соколарство. Тој во рацете на добар соколар може да стане моќно оружје во ловот на зајци, фазани, еребици, патки итн. Јастребот кокошкар го усмртува својот плен со стисокот на канџите, клунот му служи исклучуво за јадење. Во текот на зимските месеци јастребите се симнуваат од планините во потрага по храна и може да се забележат во непосредна близина на населените места. Многу често се случува да во непосредна близина на гулабарите им украдат гулаб пред самите очи. Овој разбојник се прилагодил на самечки живот и до наредната сезона за парење сам се грижи за себе и сам е одговорен за штетите кои ги прави. Без разлика на неговата крволочност и начин на живот, јастребот кокошкар е природно богатство кое треба да го сочуваме.
Дозмӧр варыш (латин Accipiter gentilis; рочӧн Ястреб-тетеревятник) — ыджыд вöрса хишнӧй лэбач.
Вывтырыслӧн кузьтаыс овлывлӧ 70 сантиметрӧдз, а сьӧктаыс — ӧти килограмм да 80 граммӧдз. Мышкуыс рудвевъя сьӧдовгӧрд, кынӧм увдорыс еджгов, туша пасьталаыс тӧдчӧны вомӧна пемыд визьяс. Синмыс да кокыс кольквиж, синкымыс еджыд, нырыс лӧзовгӧрд. Гӧгрӧс пома паськыд бордйыс да кузь бӧжыс сетӧны позянлун пелька лэбавны тшӧкыд вӧрын пу вожъяс костӧд.
Олӧ-вылӧ Европаса, Азияса ла Войвыв Америкаса вӧраинъясын, а сiдзжö Африка Войвылын, Войвыв Монголияын, Китай Рытыввылын да Японияын.
Коми пармаын паныдасьлӧ лунвыв юкӧнъяссяньыс да вӧра тундраӧдз. Абу волысь-мунлысь тылаборда, Комиын поздысьӧны да быдтысьӧны пыр ӧтилаын. Сӧмын тӧвнас, медся сьӧкыд кадас, недыр кежлӧ вешйывлӧны лунвывланьӧджык. Рӧдмӧдчыны пондӧны ода-кора тӧлысь пуксьӧм бӧрын. Позсӧ лӧсьӧдӧны вӧр дорӧссянь оз ылӧ, но тшӧкыд да пемыд местаӧ. Тэчӧны сiйӧс ньӧръясысь джуджыд пу йылӧ, пучербердса кыз увъяс вылӧ. Поз пытшкӧсыс 70 сантиметр пасьта, пыдӧсас вольсалӧны коз да ньыв лыс, содтӧд ассьыныс гылалӧм гӧнсӧ. Корсюрӧ босьтлывлӧны и мукӧд гырысь лэбачлысь важ позсӧ. Пӧжны пуктӧны 2 либӧ 4 кольк, найӧ вижовруд рӧмаӧсь да кольквиж чутъясаӧсь. Пӧжсигас позъяс пукалӧны гознан варышыс ӧта-мӧдсӧ вежлалӧмӧн вит вежонӧдз. Пӧжсигас сёянсӧ корсьӧны да ваялӧны, кодныс оз пукавны позъяс. Сора тӧлысьын варышпияныс заводитӧны лэбавны да эновтӧны чужан позсӧ. Та кадӧ став тылабордаыс позтырнас быдтысянінсьыс петӧны дорӧджык — посньыдджык вöра да эрда местаясӧ. На бӧрся лэбӧны-вӧтчӧны тшӧтш и дозмӧр варышъяс.
Дӧзмӧр варышъяс нэм чӧжныс олӧны гозйӧн-гозйӧн да оз вежлавны ассьыныс пӧвнысӧ. Но кыйсьӧны век ӧткӧн-ӧткӧн, и мый шедӧ, быдӧн ачыс сёйо. Сӧмын быдтысян кадас ӧтув пӧткӧдчӧны. Став лэбачыс, посньыдыс и гырысьыс, весьӧпӧрлӧны, казяласны кӧ варышыслысь енэжын шлывъялӧмсӧ, да зiльӧны дзебсьыны сыысь — сук понӧляинӧ, му горсйӧ, а сиктъяс бердын кӧ, весиг керкаад лэбыштасны. Но варышъясыс уськӧдчӧны кыйдӧсыс вылӧ оз сӧмын восьсӧн, но тшӧкыда и гусьӧн кыйӧдчанiнсянь.
Дозмӧр варышъяслӧн медшӧр чӧсмасянторйыс — пӧткаяс: дозмӧръяс, таръяс, сьӧлаяс, уткаяс, а сiдзжӧ ракаяс, гулюяс да мукӧд сикас лэбач. Уськӧдчывлӧны и кӧчьяс вылӧ. Сикт весьтын лэбалiгӧн кыйӧдӧны чипанъясӧс да налысь пиянсӧ. Удайтчывлӧ и найӧс пышйӧдны. Тайӧ варышыслӧн аслыспӧлӧслуныс сыын, мый вермӧ перйыны кынӧмпӧтсӧ быдлаысь — сынӧдысь и му вылысь, ва вылысь и ва веркӧсысь. И век пӧткӧдчӧ сӧмын аслас кыйӧмторйӧн, шоймӧм ловъяслысь яйсö некор оз вӧрзьӧд.
Коми йӧз дозмӧр варышӧс нимтӧны нӧшта курӧг варышӧн да чипан варышӧн, перымса комияс — тар варышӧн да курӧг варышӧн. Удмуртъяс ногӧн, тайӧ курег лушес, тур лушес, лылык лушес, лукъя лушес. Комиӧдны кӧ, артмӧ: курӧг варыш, тар варыш, гулю варыш, дозмӧр варыш. Лыддьӧдлӧм коми да удмурт нимъясыслӧн подулыс ӧти, код серти позьӧ тӧдмавны, мыйӧн пӧткӧдчӧ тайӧ варыш сикасыс.
Дозмӧр варыш (латин Accipiter gentilis; рочӧн Ястреб-тетеревятник) — ыджыд вöрса хишнӧй лэбач.
Къашыргъэшхуэ (лат-бз. Accipiter gentilis) — къашыргъэ лъэпкъщ.
Анэхэм я дамэ лъэныкъуэр см. 33,6-39,5; хъур нэхъ цӀыкӀущ. ТхыцӀащхьэр щхъуэ-гъуэбжафэщ е щхъуэ-хужьыфэщ. Ныбэ щӀагъыр хужьыфэщ, кусэ щхъуэхэр зэпаракӀыу. Щхьэр нэхъ фӀыцӀафэщ.
Къаукъазым мылъэтэжу щопсэу, абы нэмыщӀу — Еуропэм, Сыбырым, Ищхъэрэ-КъухьэпӀэ Африкэм, Хъутейм, Ишъхъэрэ Америкэм,нэгъуэщӀ щӀыпӀэхэми я мэзылъэхэм.
Абгъуэр жыгыщхьэм щащӀ, ар мызэмытӀэу къагъэщхьэпэ. Къизышыр анэм изакъуэщ, махуэ 38-кӀэ теса нэужь. А зэманым ар хъум егъашхэ, шырхэри депӀ.
Мы лӀэужьыгъуэр хуабжьу ещхьщ къашыргъащхъуэм, и теплъэкӀи, и хьэлщэнкӀи, щакӀуэнкӀи, зи мыувыӀэ, зэи зи ныбэ из мыхъу, жыджэрагъ ин зыщӀэт, хьилагъэ зыдалъагъу псэущхьэшх лъэщрэ бзаджэрэ. Ди ӀэрыӀуатэм «Итырджы» жэуэ къыхощыж.
КъеущэкӀу къуалэбзу, шэрыпӀ псэущхьэхэр. Унэ джэдкъазми тоуэ.
Пысăк хурчка (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — хурчка йышшисен çăткăн вĕçен кайăк тĕсĕ, Европара, Азипе Çурçĕр Америкара анлă сарăлнă.
Пысăк хурчка (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — хурчка йышшисен çăткăн вĕçен кайăк тĕсĕ, Европара, Азипе Çурçĕр Америкара анлă сарăлнă.
Тавык карчыгасы (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — карчыга кошлар гаиләлегенең чын карчыгалар ыругының ерткыч кош. Аурупада, Азиядә һә Төньяк Америкада киң таралган.
Тавык карчыгасы карчыгалар ыругының иң зур төре. Иркәкләрнең массасы 0,63–1,1 кг, озынлыгы уртача 55 см, канатларының колачы 98–104 см. Тешеләр аз гына зуррак, аларның массасы 0,86–1,6 кг, озынлыгы 61 см, канатларының колачы 105–115 см.
Себер карчыгасы зур кош, иркәкнең канат озынлыгы 32–35 см, тешенең — 35–39 см. Себер карчыгалары кышын кайвакыт үзең ояларыннан ерак көньякта очрашалар. Аларны Башкортостанда, Иделнең түбәнге өлешендә, Урта Азиядә, Кавказда күрделәр. Себер карчыгалары арасында аксыл (бүз) кошлар очрашалар, аларны аеруча тойгын дип атыйлар. Азия лачынчылары аларның кадерен беләләр.
«Кара лачын ау кошым
Сиңа булмас, Шаһ Тимер!
Аннан кала Бүз тойгын —
Ул да булмас, Шаһ Тимер!»
Идегәй дастаны
Тавык карчыгасы (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — карчыга кошлар гаиләлегенең чын карчыгалар ыругының ерткыч кош. Аурупада, Азиядә һә Төньяк Америкада киң таралган.
Улар кыырда (нууч. тетеревятник, лат. Accipiter gentilis) — саамай улахан кыырт. Саха Cиригэр туундараттан ураты барытыгар олохсуйар, аҕыйах ахсааннаах көрүҥ. Сорох көтөрдөр кыстыыллар.
Аһылыга сүнньүнэн араас кыыллар уонна орто, кыра көтөрдөр. Кыһынын куобаҕынан, куртуйаҕынан уонна хабдьынан аһылыктанар.
Шуляк-галубятнік (Accipiter gentilis) — драпежная птушка роду коршакаў сямейства ястрабіных.
Памерам крыху большы за шэрую варону. Выражаны плоцевы дымарфізм — саміцы большыя за самцоў. Афарбоўка верху цела цёмная, шэра-бурая, ніжняя частка белаватая з папярочнымі шэрымі палоскамі. У маладых птушак верхняя частка, галава і зьнешняя частка крылаў бурыя, грудзі белыя з вэртыкальнымі бурымі палоскамі. У дарослага самца над вачыма выражаныя белыя «бровы». Колер вачэй у дарослых асобаў чырвоны або чырвона-карычневы, у маладых — яскрава-жоўты.
Маса самцоў 630—1100 г, даўжыня ў сярэднім 55 см, размах крылаў 98—104 см. Маса саміцаў 860—1360 г, даўжыня — 61 см, размах крылаў — 105—115 см.
Шуляк-галубятнік пашыраны ў Эўропе, Азіі ды Паўночнай Амэрыцы. Засяляе пераважна хвойныя і ліставыя лясы. Аддае перавагу гнездаваньню ў лясох, багатых на старыя і высокія дрэвы, зь сярэдняй асьветленасьцю і невялікімі палянкамі або ўзьлескам непадалёк, для паляваньня.
Гэта адна з найпашыранейшых драпежных птушак Эўропы, ягоная колькасьць ацэньваецца ў 160—210 тыс. пар.
Пэрыяд размнажэньня трывае з пачатку красавіка да сярэдзіны чэрвеня. Пара пачынае будаваць гняздо яшчэ за два месяцы да адкладаньня яек. Зазвычай гняздо разьмешчанае на галінцы каля камля або ў разгалінаваньні камля. Гняздо мае каля мэтру ў дыямэтры, разьмяшчаецца пераважна на вышыні 10—25 м над зямлёю і будуецца з сухіх галінак, па краі трапляюцца хваёвыя іголкі зь сьвежаю хвояю. Адкладаньне яек трывае з пачатку — у другой дэкадзе красавіка. Зазвычай саміца адкладае 2—4 яйкі з інтэрвалам у 2—3 дні. Яйкі шурпатыя на дотык, блакітна-белага колеру. Выседжваньне трывае ў сярэднім 37 содняў. Птушаняты зазвычай зьяўляюцца ў гнёздах з ІІІ дэкады траўня. Маладыя птахі перабуваюць у гнязьдзе каля 45 содняў. Пасьля вылету моладзь яшчэ ня менш за два тыдні знаходзіцца ў раёне гнязда.
Шуляк-галубятнік жывіцца пераважна птушкамі, якіх здабывае сам. 80—90 % здабычы складаюць дразды, дзятлы, сойкі, шэрыя вароны, гракі, галубы. Значна радзей ён ловіць цецярукоў, арабкоў, маладых глушцоў, качак, свойскую птушку; зрэдку таксама зайцоў і вавёрак.
— сховішча мультымэдыйных матэрыялаў
Шуляк-галубятнік (Accipiter gentilis) — драпежная птушка роду коршакаў сямейства ястрабіных.
Ястряб голубятник (Accipiter gentilis), є середнё великый хищ з родины ястрябовых, росшыреный по цілій Европі аж на їй северну і северозападну часть, в северній Азії, Турції, Іранї, Тібетї, Японії і у Северній Америцї.
Ястряб голубятник є найвекшый представитель роду Accipiter.[1] Мать курты шыроко закулятены крыла, довгый хвіст, вгодный про лїтаня поміджі стромы, силны пазуры, плоху голову, куртый шпіцятый дзёбак і буры аж помаранчовы очі. Самець мать сиву верьхню сторону тїла зо синїм надыхом, білы бровы і білый спід зо сивыма смугами. Саміця є выразно векша як самець і на роздїл од нёго мать верьхню часть тїла зо сивым надыхом. Молоды птахы суть зверьху буры і місто вовнок на грудї мають дакілько бурых фляків.
]
Ястряб голубятник є на векшынї теріторії сталым птахом, і кідь у дакотрых локалітах, напр. у Канадї або северній Азії, міґрує до южнїшых областей. Жыє скрытым способом жывота з богатшым поростом і збачіти го годен лем рідко, за стравов ся але даколи выдасть і до одкрытой країны. На уловок чекать зо своёй позоровательнї і потім выконує атак несподїванов швыдкостёв. Справила іде о опортуністічного хища, котрого стравов суть звычайно меншы виды птахів, окремо пак голубы, ластївкы, воровлї, хоць можуть напасти і векшы виды, наприклад бажанты або водны птахы, аж до великости дикой качкы.
Ястраб голубятник ся аж на час гнїздиня скоро нияк не озывать, на гнїздї выдавать повторяны кейкавы шкрякы „кекекекекекекекеке“.
К своїм гнїздовым локалітам ся вертать міджі марцом і апрілём і на яйцях сїдить од апріля до [[юн]а]. Гнїздовы плохы суть векшынов зароснуты великыма і силныма стромами, на котрых ястряб гнїздить. Кладе 2 аж 5 яєць о великости 59×45 мм і вагов коло 60 ґ. Свої яйця собі твердо хоронить і остро атакує і на векшы виды хищів. Інкубачна доба тырвать 28 аж 38 днїв і на яйцях сидять обоми родічі. Молодята опущають гнїздо по 35 днях жывота і лїтати зачінають згруба о десять днїв пізнїше. Молоды птахы можуть зістати близко своїх родічів аж по добу єдного рока жывота. Ястряб голубятник не мать велё природных неприятелїв і час од часу є ловленый векшыма видами канї, або пугачами, хоць тоты хищі бывають самы жертвами самых ястрябів в часї гнїздиня, коли ся у них обявує несподївана аґресія.[1]
Ястряб голубятник (Accipiter gentilis), є середнё великый хищ з родины ястрябовых, росшыреный по цілій Европі аж на їй северну і северозападну часть, в северній Азії, Турції, Іранї, Тібетї, Японії і у Северній Америцї.
Ҡор ҡарсығаһы[1] (рус. Ястреб-тетеревятник, лат. Accipiter gentilis) — ҡарсыға ырыуы ҡарсығалар ғаиләһенә ҡараған йыртҡыс ҡош төрө, Европала, Азияла һәм Төньяҡ Америкала киң таралған. Башҡортостан Республикаһында урман һәм урман-дала райондарында осрай.
Ҡарсыға исеме боронғо славян телендә «astreb»[2] вариантында осрай . Украин телендә ястріб, яструб, серб-хорват - јастријеб «сыбар, төрткөлө» тигәнде аңлата, чех телендә jestrab, поляк — jastrząb. Латин исеме ҡыҙыҡлы astur.[3] Исем, моғайын, боронғо славян тамыры *str «тиҙлек» мәғәнәһенән (ostrъ -үткер, уҡ) алынғандыр. Rebъ ялғауы «рябой - сыбар» мәғәнәһенә эйә. Ҡарсығаның һунарҙағы төп һыҙаты — йәшен тиҙлегендә ҡорбанына ташланыу, ә мәғлүм булыуынса күкрәгендәге һүрәте күп телдәрҙә «сыбар»[4] исемен бирә.
Ҡор ҡарсығаһы — ырыуҙың иң ҙур төрө. Ата ҡош ғәҙәттә 630 -1100 г ауырлығында була, кәүҙә оҙонлоғо уртаса 55 см, ҡанат ҡоласы 98-104 см сиктәрендә. Инә ҡоштар бер аҙ эрерәк, ауырлығы 860-1600 г, кәүҙә оҙонлоғо яҡынса 61 см, ҡанат ҡоласы 105-115 см. Бөтә ҡарсығаларҙың, шул иҫәптән ҡор ҡарсығаһының да, күҙҙәре өҫтөндә үҙенсәлекле аҡ һыҙат яһаған ҡаурыйҙары бар, улар аҡ ҡаш тәьҫоратын тыуҙыралар. Башҡа ырыу вәкилдәренекенә ҡарағанда, ҡор ҡарсығаһының "аҡ ҡаштары" оҙонораҡ һәм киңерәк булғанлыҡтан, соңҡаһына уҡ төшөп торалар. Өлкән заттарҙың күҙҙәре ҡыҙыл йәки ҡыҙыл-көрән төҫтә, ә йәш заттарҙыҡы - сағыу һары.
Ата ҡоштарҙың төҫө инәләренеке кеүек үк күгелйем-һоро һәм ҡара төҫтәр араһында тирбәлә. Арҡаһы, башы һәм япҡыс ҡауырһындары, ғәҙәттә, ҡарараҡ; түбәнге өлөшө асығыраҡ төҫтә һәм аныҡ ҡына һоро менән сыбарланған. Ҡойроғо асыҡ-һоро, өс - дүрт ҡара һыҙаты бар. Йәш ҡарсығаларҙың төҫө өлкән заттарҙыҡынан һиҙелерлек айырыла: уларҙың өҫкө өлөшө, башы һәм ҡанаттарының тышҡы өлөшө көрән, түше аҡ арҡыры көрән һыҙатлы.[5]
Ҡор-ҡарсығалары Евразияның һәм Төньяҡ Американың таулы һәм урманлы биләмәләрендә таралғандар. Ылыҫлы һәм япраҡлы урмандарҙа йәшәйҙәр. Ояларын ҡарт һәм бейек ағаслы, әллә ни ҡараңғы булмаған, һунар итер өсөн эргәлә урман ауыҙы булған урындарҙа ҡоралар.[5][6]
Күпселек популяция ултыраҡ тормош алып бара һәм, ҡағиҙә булараҡ, ғүмер буйына бер биләмәлә тотороҡло йәшәй. Төньяҡ Американың төньяғында һәм төньяҡ-көнбайышында оя ҡорған һәм ҡышын көньяҡҡа күскән берҙән-бер күсер популяция иҫәпләнә.
Ҡор-ҡарсығаһы үҙ биләмәһендә генә йәшәй, һәм пар оя ҡорор алдынан һәм оя ҡорған ваҡытта һауала өйрәләп-өйрәләп оса. Биләмәләренең сиге боҙолған осраҡта, пар уны аяуһыҙ ҡурсалай. Ата ҡоштарҙың ағастағы шәхси биләмәләре, ғәҙәттә, инәләренекенән бейектәрәк урынлаша. Шәхси биләмәләрҙән башҡа урындар төрлө заттар өсөн уртаҡ була. Оя ҡорған ваҡытта шәхси биләмә 570-тән алып 3500 гектарға ҡәҙәр етә.
Ҡор-ҡарсығалары башҡа ҡарсығалар кеүек үк үҙ-ара тауыш ярҙамында аралашалар, тауыштары юғары яңғырауыҡлы. Бигерәк тә оя ҡорған осорҙа уларҙың үҙ-ара аралашыуы нығыраҡ һиҙелә, ата һәм инә ҡоштар бер үк ҡалтырау тауыш сығаралар, әммә инә ҡоштоң тауышы көслөрәк һәм түбән.[5][6]
Ҡор-ҡарсығалары — йыртҡыс ҡоштар, ҡоштарға, имеҙеүселәргә, умыртҡаһыҙҙар, урта һәм эре һөйрәлеүселәргә һунар итәләр. Ҡорбан йыртҡыс ҡош ауырлығының яртыһын тәшкил итергә мөмкин. Төрлө популяцияларҙың аҙыҡтары бер-береһенекенән айырыла һәм йәшәгән мөхиттәренә бәйләнгән. Әммә дөйөм осраҡта улар ҡуянға, тейенгә һәм ҡорҙарға (Bonasa spp) һунар итәләр.[5][6]
Ҡор-ҡарсығалары йылына бер мәртәбә, апрель башынан июнь урталары осоронда үрсейҙәр, өҫтәүенә, иң юғары әүҙем ваҡыт апрель аҙағына һәм майға тура килә. Пар йомортҡа һалыр алдынан ике ай элек үк оя ҡора башлай. Ояны ғәҙәттә ҡарт урманда, юл, һаҙлыҡ, болон һәм башҡа асыҡ урындарға яҡын ултырған ағаста олоно янындағы ботаҡта ҡора. Диаметры метр тирәһендәге ояны ҡоро сыбыҡ һәм ботаҡтарҙы йәшел үренде, ылыҫ шәлкеме йәки ҡабыҡ киҫәктәре менән сырмап эшләйҙәр.
Инә ҡош ғәҙәттә 2-3 көн аша 2-4 йомортҡа һала. Йомортҡаның ҙурлығы 59×45 мм, тышы ҡытыршы, күкһел-аҡ. Себештәр 28-38 көндән моронлай башлайҙар. Йомортҡаларҙы инә ҡош баҫа, әммә ул һунарҙа саҡта, уны ата ҡош алмаштыра. Инә ҡош ояла балалары сыҡҡандан һуң 25 көнгә ҡала. Был ваҡытта балалары һәм инә ҡош өсөн аҙыҡ хәстәрләү ата ҡошҡа йөкмәтелә. Ҡошсоҡтар ояла 34-35 көн ултыралар, артабан шул уҡ ағастағы күрше ботаҡтарға күсенәләр. 35-46-сы көнгә оса башлайҙар, шуға ҡарамаҫтан, 70 көнлөк саҡтарына ҡәҙәр ата-әсәһе ярҙамында туҡланалар. Ата-әсәнән ҡошсоҡтар ҡинәт айырылалар, һәм йәш ҡоштар тыуғандарынан алып 95-се көндәренә тулыһынса үҙ-аллы. булалар. Йәш ҡоштарҙың енси өлгөргәнлеге бер йылдан тыуа.[5][6]
Ҡор-ҡарсығаһын түбәндәге төрсәләргә айыралар:
Позвоночные животные России: Тетеревятник
Pajerski, L. 2005. «Accipiter gentilis» (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed December 09, 2006 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Accipiter_gentilis.html.
Ҡор ҡарсығаһы (рус. Ястреб-тетеревятник, лат. Accipiter gentilis) — ҡарсыға ырыуы ҡарсығалар ғаиләһенә ҡараған йыртҡыс ҡош төрө, Европала, Азияла һәм Төньяҡ Америкала киң таралған. Башҡортостан Республикаһында урман һәм урман-дала райондарында осрай.
Үлэг харцага, Accipiter gentilis, нь Харцагынхан овгийн махчин шувуу юм. Энэхүү шувуу дэлхийн бөмбөрцгийн хойд хагасын сэрүүн бүсэд суурин амьдрах ба хойд Ази, Канадад амьдрах зарим нь өвлийн улиралд өмнө зүг нүүдэллэдэг.
Үлэг харцага нь Accipiter төрлийн хамгийн том гишүүнt болно. Эрэгчингийн биеийн урт 49-57 см, далавчаа дэлгэхэд 93-105 см, эмэгчин нь биеэр том ба 58-64 см урт, далавчаа дэлгэхэд 108-127 см байна. Биеийн жин 630 гр-2 кг хүртэл юм. Өргөн богино далавч, урт сүүл нь ой модонд амьдран модон дундуур нисэхэд зохицжээ. Эрэгчин нь илүү хөх саарал өнгө давамгайлсан, эм нь үнсэн сааралдуу өнгөтэй. Нас бие гүйцээгүй бага залуу үлэг харцага бор өнгөтэй байдаг.
Евразид, заримдаа эрэгчин нь эмэгчин морин харцагатай андуурагдах ч, биеэр илүү том, харьцангуй урт далавчтай болно.
Жирийн үед дундажаар 80 кмц хурдтай нисэх ба ан хийж доош шунган дайрах үед 130 кмц хүртэл хурдтай нисдэг байна. Голдуу шувуу, хөхтөн амьтдаар хооллоно.
3-4 сард үржлийн үе эхлэх ба 4-5 сард эмэгчин харцага 2-4 өндөг гаргана. Тэд үүрээ голдуу өндөр том модны оройд засдаг. Олон жил засвар хийн иш мөчир нэмж янзлан үүрлэх тул 60 см хүртэл өндөр, 1 м голчтой болтол том болдог байна. Өндөг нь 60 гр орчим жинтэй, 59 мм урттай. 28-38 хоног дарж ангаахай гарах бөгөөд 35 хоноод үүрээ орхин бие даадаг ба эцэг эхийнхээ эзэмшил газар 1 нас өнгөртлөө үлддэг.
Үлэг харцага, Accipiter gentilis, нь Харцагынхан овгийн махчин шувуу юм. Энэхүү шувуу дэлхийн бөмбөрцгийн хойд хагасын сэрүүн бүсэд суурин амьдрах ба хойд Ази, Канадад амьдрах зарим нь өвлийн улиралд өмнө зүг нүүдэллэдэг.
बलाकांक्ष वनबाज नेपालमा पाइने एक प्रकारको चराको नाम हो । यसलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा नर्दन गसहक (Northern Goshawk) भनिन्छ ।
बलाकांक्ष वनबाज नेपालमा पाइने एक प्रकारको चराको नाम हो । यसलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा नर्दन गसहक (Northern Goshawk) भनिन्छ ।
வடக்கு வாத்துப்பாறு (ஆங்கிலப் பெயர்: Northern goshawk, உயிரியல் பெயர்: Accipiter gentilis) என்பது மிதமான-பெரிய அளவுள்ள கொன்றுண்ணிப் பறவை ஆகும். இது புவியின் வட அரைகோளத்தில் காணப்படுகிறது. இது 1758ல் லின்னேயசால் வகைப்படுத்தப்பட்டது.
வடக்கு வாத்துப்பாறு (ஆங்கிலப் பெயர்: Northern goshawk, உயிரியல் பெயர்: Accipiter gentilis) என்பது மிதமான-பெரிய அளவுள்ள கொன்றுண்ணிப் பறவை ஆகும். இது புவியின் வட அரைகோளத்தில் காணப்படுகிறது. இது 1758ல் லின்னேயசால் வகைப்படுத்தப்பட்டது.
Куьйра — (en. Accipiter gentilis), (оьрсаша "Тетеревятник" олу). Куьйранаш а хуьлу бес-бесара. Къийгал доккха, букъ тIера сиро бос болуш, мокха, корта таьIночу басахь болуш, кIай цIоцкъам долуш, чукIело сирла а, пурхалхьа луьстта Iаьржа сизаш долуш а ду цхьа шамайпа куйра. Дахар цхьана меттахь а, дIай-схьай кхелхаш а ду. Баннаш дечагийн баххьашкахь до цара.
H̗ara Kúyran ben bu
Museum specimen
Куьйра — (en. Accipiter gentilis), (оьрсаша "Тетеревятник" олу). Куьйранаш а хуьлу бес-бесара. Къийгал доккха, букъ тIера сиро бос болуш, мокха, корта таьIночу басахь болуш, кIай цIоцкъам долуш, чукIело сирла а, пурхалхьа луьстта Iаьржа сизаш долуш а ду цхьа шамайпа куйра. Дахар цхьана меттахь а, дIай-схьай кхелхаш а ду. Баннаш дечагийн баххьашкахь до цара.
ХIоьаш кIай хуьлу кхоъ я диъ. Диэкар зевне ду "къяк-къяк-къяк" я "хи-хи-хи". ТIемаш доцийро ду, цуьнан цIога деха ду. Оцо аьтту бо дадар сихдан а, дитташ юккъехулу дIай-схьай дерза а, дедда доьддушехь хьоза лаца а. Куьйрано котаман кIорнеш а луьйцу, кхокха а лоцу, беца-меъ а, лекъ а, кхин долу олхазарш а, дийнаташ а луьйцу. Адамех ларлуш а, къаьхкаш а ду иза.Хъарчигъа (латиназул мацIалда Accipiter gentilis), хIинчI.
The northern goshawk (/ˈɡɒsˌhɔːk/; Accipiter gentilis) is a species of medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus Accipiter, the goshawk is often considered a "true hawk".[3] The scientific name is Latin; Accipiter is "hawk", from accipere, "to grasp", and gentilis is "noble" or "gentle" because in the Middle Ages only the nobility were permitted to fly goshawks for falconry.[4]
This species was first described by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema naturae (1758) as Falco gentilis.[5]
It is a widespread species that inhabits many of the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The northern goshawk is the only species in the genus Accipiter found in both Eurasia and North America.[6] It may have the second widest distribution of any true member of the family Accipitridae, behind arguably only the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), which has a broader range to the south of Asia than the goshawk. The only other acciptrid species to also range in both North America and Eurasia, according to current opinion, is the more Arctic-restricted rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus).[1][6][7] Except in a small portion of southern Asia, it is the only species of "goshawk" in its range and it is thus often referred to, both officially and unofficially, as simply the "goshawk". It is mainly resident, but birds from colder regions migrate south for the winter.[6] In North America, migratory goshawks are often seen migrating south along mountain ridge tops at nearly any time of the fall depending on latitude.[8]
The northern goshawk has a large circumpolar distribution. In Eurasia, it is found in most areas of Europe excluding Ireland and Iceland. It has a fairly spotty distribution in western Europe (e.g. Great Britain, Spain, France) but is more or less found continuously through the rest of the continent. Their Eurasian distribution sweeps continuously across most of Russia, excluding the fully treeless tundra in the northern stretches, to the western limits of Siberia as far as Anadyr and Kamchatka.[6] In the Eastern Hemisphere, they are found in their southern limits in extreme northwestern Morocco, Corsica and Sardinia, the "toe" of Italy, southern Greece, Turkey, the Caucasus, Sinkiang's Tien Shan, in some parts of Tibet and the Himalayas (India and Nepal), western China and Japan.[6] In winter, northern goshawks may be found rarely as far south as Taif in Saudi Arabia and perhaps Tonkin, Vietnam.[9]
In North America, they are most broadly found in the western United States, including Alaska, and western Canada. Their breeding range in the western contiguous United States largely consists of the wooded foothills of the Rocky Mountains and many other large mountain ranges from Washington to southern California extending east to central Colorado and westernmost Texas.[8] Somewhat discontinuous breeding populations are found in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, thence also somewhat spottily into western Mexico down through Sonora and Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental as far as Jalisco and Guerrero, their worldwide southern limit as a breeding species.[6][10][11]
The goshawk continues east through much of Canada as a native species, but is rarer in most of the eastern United States, especially the Midwest where they are not typically found outside the Great Lakes region, where a good-sized breeding population occurs in the northern parts of Minnesota, Illinois, Michigan and somewhat into Ohio; a very small population persists in the extreme northeast corner of North Dakota. They breed also in mountainous areas of New England, New York, central Pennsylvania and northwestern New Jersey, sporadically down to extreme northwestern Maryland and northeastern West Virginia.[8] Vagrants have been reported in Ireland, North Africa (central Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt); the Arabian Peninsula (Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia), southwest Asia (southern Iran, Pakistan), western India (Gujarat) and on Izu-shoto (south of Japan) and the Commander Islands, and in most of the parts of the United States where they do not breed.[6]
Northern goshawks can be found in both deciduous and coniferous forests. While the species might show strong regional preferences for certain trees, they seem to have no strong overall preferences nor even a preference between deciduous or coniferous trees despite claims to the contrary.[3][6][12][13] More important than the type of trees are the composition of a given tree stand, which should be tall, old-growth with intermediate to heavy canopy coverage (often more than 40%) and minimal density undergrowth, both of which are favorable for hunting conditions.[8][14] Also, goshawks typically require proximity to openings in which to execute additional hunting.[9][15] More so than in North America, the goshawks of Eurasia, especially central Europe, may live in fairly urbanized patchworks of small woods, shelter-belts and copses and even use largely isolated trees in central parts of Eurasian cities.[16][17] Even if they are far more wary of human presence than the Eurasian sparrowhawk, northern goshhawks are known to live in some relatively densely wooded areas of large cities of Central Europe, such as Berlin and Hamburg; it is a relatively new phenomenon that started in the 20th century.[18] Access to waterways and riparian zones of any kind is not uncommon in goshawk home ranges but seems to not be a requirement.[19] Narrow tree-lined riparian zones in otherwise relatively open habitats can provide suitable wintering habitat in the absence of more extensive woodlands.[20] The northern goshawk can be found at almost any altitude, but recently is typically found at high elevations due to a paucity of extensive forests remaining in lowlands across much of its range. Altitudinally, goshawks may live anywhere up to a given mountain range's tree line, which is usually 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in elevation or less.[6] The northern limit of their distribution also coincides with the tree line and here may adapt to dwarf tree communities, often along drainages of the lower tundra.[21][22] In winter months, the northernmost or high mountain populations move down to warmer forests with lower elevations, often continuing to avoid detection except while migrating. A majority of goshawks around the world remain sedentary throughout the year.[8][23]
The northern goshawk has relatively short, broad wings and a long tail, typical for Accipiter species and common to raptors that require maneuverability within forest habitats.[3] For an Accipiter, it has a relatively sizeable bill, relatively long wings, a relatively short tail, robust and fairly short legs and particularly thick toes.[6] Across most of the species' range, it is blue-grey above or brownish-grey with dark barring or streaking over a grey or white base color below, but Asian subspecies in particular range from nearly white overall to nearly black above.[6] Goshawks tend to show clinal variation in color, with most goshawks further north being paler and those in warmer areas being darker but individuals can be either dark in the north or pale in the south. Individuals that live a long life may gradually become paler as they age, manifesting in mottling and a lightening of the back from a darker shade to a bluer pale color.[9] Its plumage is more variable than that of the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), which is probably due to higher genetic variability in the larger goshawk.[24] The juvenile northern goshawk is usually a solid to mildly streaky brown above, with many variations in underside color from nearly pure white to almost entirely overlaid with broad dark cinnamon-brown striping. Both juveniles and adults have a barred tail, with 3 to 5 dark brown or black bars.[6] Adults always have a white eye stripe or supercilia, which tends to be broader in northern Eurasian and North American birds.[6] In North America, juveniles have pale-yellow eyes, and adults develop dark red eyes usually after their second year, although nutrition and genetics may affect eye color as well.[25] In Europe and Asia, juveniles also have pale-yellow eyes while adults typically develop orange-colored eyes, though some may have only brighter yellow or occasionally ochre or brownish eye color.[6][9] Moulting starts between late March and late May, the male tends to moult later and faster than the female. Moulting results in the female being especially likely to have a gap in its wing feathers while incubating and this may cause some risk, especially if the male is lost, as it inhibits her hunting abilities and may hamper her defensive capabilities, putting both herself and the nestlings in potential danger of predation. The moult takes a total of 4–6 months, with tail feathers following the wings then lastly the contour and body feathers, which may not be completely moulted even as late as October.[9]
Although existing wing size and body mass measurements indicate that the Henst's goshawk (Accipiter henstii) and Meyer's goshawk (Accipiter meyerianus) broadly overlap in size with this species, the northern goshawk is on average the largest member of the genus Accipiter, especially outsizing its tropic cousins in the larger Eurasian subspecies.[6][26] The northern goshawk, like all Accipiters, exhibits sexual dimorphism, where females are significantly larger than males, with the dimorphism notably greater in most parts of Eurasia. Linearly, males average about 8% smaller in North America and 13% smaller than females in Eurasia, but in the latter landmass can range up to a very noticeable 28% difference in extreme cases.[6][9] Male northern goshawks are 46 to 63 cm (18 to 25 in) long[6] and have a 89 to 122 cm (35 to 48 in) wingspan.[6] The female is much larger, 58 to 69 cm (23 to 27 in) long with a 108 to 127 cm (43 to 50 in) wingspan.[27][28] In a study of North American goshawks (A. g. atricapillus), males were found to average 56 cm (22 in) in total length, against females which averaged 61 cm (24 in).[29] Males from six subspecies average around 762 g (1.680 lb) in body mass, with a range from all races of 357 to 1,200 g (0.787 to 2.646 lb). The female can be up to more than twice as heavy, averaging from the same races 1,150 g (2.54 lb) with an overall range of 758 to 2,200 g (1.671 to 4.850 lb).[3][6][30] Among standard measurements, the most oft-measured is wing chord which can range from 286 to 354 mm (11.3 to 13.9 in) in males and from 324 to 390 mm (12.8 to 15.4 in) in females. Additional, the tail is 200–295 mm (7.9–11.6 in), the culmen is 20–26.3 mm (0.79–1.04 in) and the tarsus is 68–90 mm (2.7–3.5 in).[6][31][32][33]
Northern goshawks normally only vocalize during courtship or the nesting season. Adult goshawks may chatter a repeated note, varying in speed and volume based on the context. When calling from a perch, birds often turn their heads slowly from side to side, producing a ventriloquial effect.[3][6] The male calls a fast, high-pitched kew-kew-kew when delivering food or else a very different croaking guck or chup. The latter sound has been considered by some authors similar to that of a person snapping the tongue away from the roof the mouth; the males produce it by holding the beak wide open, thrusting the head up and forward, then bringing it down as the sound is emitted, repeated at intervals of five seconds. This call is uttered when the male encounters a female.[3][6][8] Two calls have been recorded mainly from brooding females in the race A. g. atricapillus: a recognition scream of short, intense notes (whee-o or hee-ya) which ends in harsh, falsetto tone; then a dismissal call given when the male lingers after delivering food, consisting of a choked, cut-off scream.[3] Meanwhile, the adult female's rapid strident kek-kek-kek expresses alarm or intent to mob towards threatening intruders. This is often done when mobbing a predator such as a great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) and as it progresses the female's voice may lower slightly in pitch and becomes harsh and rasping. As the intensity of her attacks increases, her kakking becomes more rapid and can attain a constant screaming quality. Females often withdraw into the treetops when fatigued, and their calls are then spaced at longer intervals. Males respond to interlopers or predators with a quieter, slower gek gek gek or ep ep ep. A call consisting of kek…kek.kekk kek kek-kek-kek is used mainly by females in advertisement and during pre-laying mutual calling. Both sexes also may engage in kakking during copulation.[3][6][8][34][35] Vocalizations mainly peak in late courtship/early nesting around late March to April, can begin up to 45 minutes before sunrise, and are more than twice in as frequent in the first three hours of daylight as in the rest of the day.[36] Occasionally hunting northern goshawks may make shrill screams when pursuing prey, especially if a lengthy chase is undertaken and the prey is already aware of its intended predator.[37]
The juvenile plumage of the species may cause some confusion, especially with other Accipiter juveniles. Unlike other northern Accipiters, the adult northern goshawk never has a rusty color to its underside barring.[9] In Eurasia, the smaller male goshawk is sometimes confused with a female sparrowhawk, but is still notably larger, much bulkier and has relatively longer wings, which are more pointed and less boxy. Sparrowhawks tend to fly in a frequently flapping, fluttering type flight. Wing beats of northern goshawks are deeper, more deliberate, and on average slower than those of the Eurasian sparrowhawk or the two other North American Accipiters.[38][39] The classic Accipiter flight is a characteristic "flap flap, glide", but the goshawk, with its greater wing area, can sometimes be seen steadily soaring in migration (smaller Accipiters almost always need to flap to stay aloft).[6][40][41] In North America juveniles are sometimes confused with the smaller Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii), especially between small male goshawks and large female Cooper's hawks. Unlike in Europe with sparrowhawks, Cooper's hawks can have a largish appearance and juveniles may be regularly mistaken for the usually less locally numerous goshawk. However, the juvenile goshawk displays a heavier, vertical streaking pattern on chest and abdomen, with the juvenile Cooper's hawk streaking frequently (but not always) in a “teardrop” pattern wherein the streaking appears to taper at the top, as opposed to the more even streaking of the goshawk. The goshawk sometimes seems to have a shorter tail relative to its much broader body. Although there appears to be a size overlap between small male goshawks and large female Cooper's hawks, morphometric measurements (wing and tail length) of both species demonstrate no such overlap, although weight overlap can rarely occur due to variation in seasonal condition and food intake at time of weighing.[29][42] Rarely, in the southern stretches of its Asian wintering range, the northern goshawk may live alongside the crested goshawk (Accipiter trivirgatus) which is smaller (roughly Cooper's hawk-sized) and has a slight crest as well as a distinct mixture of denser streaks and bars below and no supercilia.[6]
Northern goshawks are sometimes mistaken for species even outside of the genus Accipiter especially as juveniles of each respective species. In North America, four species of buteonine hawk (all four of which are smaller than goshawks to a certain degree) may be confused with them on occasion despite the differing proportions of these hawks, which all have longer wings and shorter tails relative to their size. A species so similar it is sometimes nicknamed the "Mexican goshawk", gray hawk (Buteo plagiatus) juveniles (overlapping with true goshawks in the southwest United States into Mexico) have contrasting face pattern with bold dusky eye-stripes, dark eyes, barred thighs and a bold white "U" on the uppertail coverts. The roadside hawk (Rupornis magnirostris) (rarely in same range in Mexico) is noticeably smaller with paddle-shaped wings, barred lower breast and a buff “U” on undertail coverts in young birds. Somewhat less likely to confuse despite their broader extent of overlap are the red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) which have a narrow white-barred, dark-looking tail, bold white crescents on their primaries and dark wing edges and the broad-winged hawk (Buteo playpterus) which also has dark wing edges and a differing tapered wing shape. Even wintering gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) juveniles have been mistaken for goshawks and vice versa on occasion, especially when observed distantly perched. However, the bulkier, broader headed yet relatively shorter tailed falcon still has many tell-tale falcon characteristics like pointed, longer wings, a brown malar stripe as well as its more extensive barring both above and below.[6]
The genus Accipiter contains nearly 50 known living species and is the most diverse genus of diurnal raptors in the world. This group of agile, smallish, forest-dwelling hawks has been in existence for possibly tens of millions of years, probably as an adaptation to the explosive numbers of small birds that began to occupy the world's forest in the last few eras. The harriers are the only group of extant diurnal raptors that seem to bear remotely close relation to this genus, whereas buteonines, Old World kites, sea eagles and chanting-goshawks are much more distantly related and all other modern accipitrids are not directly related.[6][9]
Within the genus Accipiter, the northern goshawk seems to belong to a superspecies with other larger goshawks from different portions of the world.[3][43] Meyer's goshawk, found in the South Pacific, has been posited as the most likely to be the closest related living cousin to the northern goshawk, the somewhat puzzling gap in their respective ranges explained by other Palearctic raptors such as Bonelli's eagles (Aquila fasciata) and short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus) that have extant isolated tropical island populations and were probably part of the same southwest Pacific radiation that led to the Meyer's goshawk.[44] A presumably older radiation of this group may have occurred in Africa, where it led to both the Henst's goshawk of Madagascar and the black sparrowhawk (Accipiter melanoleucus) of the mainland. While the Henst's goshawk quite resembles the northern goshawks, the black sparrowhawk is superficially described as a “sparrowhawk” due to its relatively much longer and finer legs than those of typical goshawks but overall its size and plumage (especially that of juveniles) is much more goshawk than sparrowhawk-like.[9][44]
Outside of the presumed superspecies, the genus Erythrotriorchis may be part of an Australasian radiation of basal goshawks based largely on their similar morphology to northern goshawks.[45] Genetic studies have indicated that the Cooper's hawk of North America is also fairly closely related to the northern goshawk, having been present in North America before either of the other two North American Accipiters. However, the much smaller sharp-shinned hawk, which has similar plumage to the Cooper's hawk and seems to be most closely related to the Eurasian sparrowhawk, appears to have occupied North America the latest of the three North American species, despite having the broadest current distribution of any Accipiter in the Americas (extending down through much of South America).[8][9]
The term goshawk comes from the Old English gōsheafoc, "goose-hawk".
The northern goshawk appears to have diversified in northern, central Eurasia and spread both westwards to occupy Europe and, later on, eastwards to spread into North America across the Bering Land Bridge. Fossil remains show that goshawks were present in California by the Pleistocene era.[46] Two non-exclusive processes could have occurred to cause the notably color and size variation of northern goshawks throughout its range: isolation in the past enabled gene combinations to assort as distinct morphs that suited conditions in different geographical areas, followed by a remixing of these genotypes to result in clines, or subtle variation in modern selection pressures led to a diversity of hues and patterns.[9][47] As a result of the high variation of individual goshawks in plumage characteristics and typical trends in clinal variation and size variations that largely follow Bergmann's rule and Gloger's rule, an excessive number of subspecies have been described for the northern goshawk in the past. In Europe (including European Russia) alone, 12 subspecies were described between 1758 and 1990.[9][48] Most modern authorities agree on listing nine to ten subspecies of northern goshawks from throughout its range.[6][8]
The northern goshawk is always found solitarily or in pairs. This species is highly territorial, as are most raptorial birds, maintaining regularly spaced home ranges that constitute their territory. Territories are maintained by adults in display flights. During nesting, the home ranges of goshawk pairs are from 600 to 4,000 ha (1,500 to 9,900 acres) and these vicinities tend to be vigorously defended both to maintain rights to their nests and mates as well as the ranges’ prey base.[20] During display flight goshawks may engage in single or mutual high-circling.[6][64] Each sex tends to defend the territory from others of their own sex.[9] Territorial flights may occur throughout most of the year, but peak from January to April. Such flights may include slow-flapping with exaggerated high deep beats interspersed with long glides and undulations.[6] In general, territorial fights are resolved without physical contact, often with one (usually a younger bird seeking a territory) retreating while the other approaches in a harrier-like warning flight, flashing its white underside at the intruder. If the incoming goshawk does not leave the vicinity, the defending goshawk may increase the exaggerated quality of its flight including a mildly undulating wave-formed rowing flight and the rowing flight with its neck held in a heron-like S to elevate the head and maximally expose the pale breast as a territorial threat display. Territorial skirmishes may on occasion escalate to physical fights in which mortalities may occur. In actual fights, goshawks fall grappling to the ground as they attempt to strike each other with talons.[9][17][65]
Although at times considered rather sedentary for a northern raptor species, the northern goshawk is a partial migrant. Migratory movements generally occur between September and November (occasionally extending throughout December) in the fall and February to April in the spring. Spring migration is less extensive and more poorly known than fall migration, but seems to peak late March to early April. Some birds, up to as far north as northern Canada and central Scandinavia, may remain in their territory throughout the winter.[6][20][66][67] Northern goshawks from northern Fennoscandia have been recorded traveling up to 1,640 km (1,020 mi) away from first banding but adults are seldom recorded more than 300 km (190 mi) from their summer range. In Sweden, young birds distributed an average of 377 km (234 mi) in the north to an average of 70 km (43 mi) in the south.[68] In northern Sweden, young generally disperse somewhat south, whereas in south and central Sweden, they are typically distributed to the south (but not usually across the 5-km Kattegat straits). On the other hand, 4.3% of the southern Swedish goshawks actually moved north. Migrating goshawks seem to avoid crossing water, but sparrowhawks seem to do so more regularly.[69][70] In central Europe, few birds travel more than 30 km (19 mi) throughout the year, a few juveniles have exceptionally been recorded traveling up to 300 km (190 mi).[6] In Eurasia, very small numbers of migratory northern goshawks cross the Strait of Gibraltar and Bosporus in autumn but further east more significant winter range expansions may extend from northern Iran & southern Turkmenia to Aral & Balkhash lakes, from Kashmir to Assam, extreme northwestern Thailand, northern Vietnam, southern China, Taiwan, Ryukyu Islands and South Korea. Migratory goshawks in North America may move down to Baja California, Sinaloa and into most of west Texas, but generally in non-irruptive years, goshawks winter no further south than Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina.[6][20][71] Some periodic eruptions to nearly as far as the Gulf of Mexico have been recorded at no fewer than 10 years apart. In one case, a female that was banded in Wisconsin was recovered 1,860 km (1,160 mi) in Louisiana, a first ever record of the species in that state.[72]
Prey availability may primarily dictate the proportion of goshawk populations that migrate and the selection of wintering areas, followed by the presence of snow which may aid prey capture in the short-term but in the long-term is likely to cause higher goshawk mortality.[9][69][73] Showing the high variability of migratory movements, in one study of winter movements of adult female goshawks that bred in high-elevation forests of Utah, about 36% migrated 100 to 613 km (62 to 381 mi) to the general south, 22% migrated farther than that distance, 8.3% migrated less far, 2.7% went north instead of south and 31% stayed throughout winter on their breeding territory.[74] Irruptive movements seem to occur for northern populations, i.e. those of the boreal forests in North America, Scandinavia, and possibly Siberia, with more equal sex ratio of movement and a strong southward tendency of movements in years where prey such as hares and grouse crash.[9] Male young goshawks tend to disperse farther than females, which is unusual in birds, including raptors.[69][75] It has been speculated that larger female juveniles displace male juveniles, forcing them to disperse farther, to the incidental benefit of the species’ genetic diversity. In Cedar Grove, Wisconsin, there were more than twice as many juvenile males than females recorded migrating.[76] At the hawk watch at Cape May Point State Park in New Jersey, few adult males and no adult females have been recorded in fall migration apart from irruptive years, indicating that migration is more important to juveniles.[77] More juveniles were recorded migrating than adults in several years of study from Sweden.[69] In northern Accipiters including the goshawk, there seems to be multiple peaks in numbers of migrants, an observation that suggests partial segregation by age and sex.[78]
As typical of the genus Accipiter (as well as unrelated forest-dwelling raptors of various lineages), the northern goshawk has relatively short wings and a long tail which make it ideally adapted to engaging in brief but agile and twisting hunting flights through dense vegetation of wooded environments.[79] This species is a powerful hunter, taking birds and mammals in a variety of woodland habitats, often utilizing a combination of speed and obstructing cover to ambush their victims. Goshawks often forage in adjoining habitat types, such as the edge of a forest and meadow. Hunting habitat can be variable, as in a comparison of habitats used in England found that only 8% of landscapes used were woodlands whereas in Sweden 73-76% of the habitat used was woodland, albeit normally within 200 m (660 ft) of an opening.[9] In North America, goshawks are generally rather more likely than those from Eurasia to hunt within the confines of mature forest, excluding areas where prey numbers are larger outside of the forest, such as where scrub-dwelling cottontails are profuse.[80][81][82] One study from central Sweden found that locally goshawks typically hunt within the largest patches of mature forests, selecting second growth forest less than half as often as its prevalence in the local environment.[83] The northern goshawk is typically considered a perch-hunter. Hunting efforts are punctuated by a series of quick flights low to the ground, interspersed with brief periods of scanning for unsuspecting prey from elevated perches (short duration sit-and-wait predatory movements). These flights are meant to be inconspicuous, averaging about 83 seconds in males and 94 seconds in females, and prey pursuits may be abandoned if the victims become aware of the goshawk too quickly.[6][8][9][84][85] More sporadically, northern goshawks may watch from prey from a high soar or gliding flight above the canopy.[23] One study in Germany found an exceptional 80% of hunting efforts to be done from a high soar but the author admitted that he was probably biased by the conspicuousness of this method.[86] In comparison, a study from Great Britain found that 95% of hunting efforts were from perches.[9] A strong bias for pigeons as prey and a largely urbanized environment in Germany explains the local prevalence of hunting from a soaring flight, as the urban environment provides ample thermals and obstructing tall buildings which are ideal for hunting pigeons on the wing.[87]
Northern goshawks rarely vary from their perch-hunting style that typifies the initial part of their hunt but seems to be able to show nearly endless variation to the concluding pursuit.[88] Hunting goshawks seem to not only utilize thick vegetation to block them from view for their prey (as typical of Accipiters) but, while hunting flying birds, they seem to be able to adjust their flight level so the prey is unable to see its hunter past their own tails.[9] Once a prey item is selected, a short tail-chase may occur. The northern goshawk is capable of considerable, sustained, horizontal speed in pursuit of prey with speeds of 38 mph (61 km/h) reported.[6] While pursuing prey, northern goshawks has been described both “reckless” and “fearless", able to pursue their prey through nearly any conditions.[3] There are various times goshawks have been observed going on foot to pursue prey, at times running without hesitation (in a crow-like, but more hurried gait) into dense thickets and brambles (especially in pursuit of galliforms trying to escape), as well as into water (i.e. usually waterfowl).[35][89][90][91] Anecdotal cases have been reported when goshawks have pursue domestic prey into barns and even houses.[60] Prey pursuits may become rather prolonged depending upon the goshawk's determination and hunger, ranging up to 15 minutes while harrying a terrified, agile squirrel or hare, and occasional pair hunting may benefit goshawks going after agile prey. As is recorded in many accipitrids, hunting in pairs (or “tandem hunting”) normally consist of a breeding pair, with one bird flying conspicuously to distract the prey, while the other swoops in from behind to ambush the victim.[50][92][93] When gliding down from a perch to capture prey, a goshawk may not even beat its wings, rendering its flight nearly silent.[94] Prey is killed by driving the talons into the quarry and squeezing while the head is held back to avoid flailing limbs, frequently followed by a kneading action until the prey stops struggling. Kills are normally consumed on the ground by juvenile or non-breeding goshawks (more rarely an elevated perch or old nest) or taken to a low perch by breeding goshawks. Habitual perches are used for dismantling prey especially in the breeding season, often called “plucking perches", which may be fallen logs, bent-over trees, stumps or rocks and can see years of usage.[8][9] Northern goshawks often leave larger portions of their prey uneaten than other raptors, with limbs, many feathers and fur and other body parts strewn near kill sites and plucking perches, and are helpful to distinguish their kills from other raptors such as large owls, who usually eat everything.[60][95] The daily food requirements of a single goshawks are around 120 to 150 g (4.2 to 5.3 oz) and most kills can feed a goshawk for 1 to 3 days.[3][8] Northern goshawks sometimes cache prey on tree branches or wedged in a crotch between branches for up to 32 hours. This is done primarily during the nestling stage.[23] Hunting success rates have been very roughly estimated at 15–30%, within average range for a bird of prey, but may be reported as higher elsewhere. One study claimed hunting success rates for pursuing rabbits was 60% and corvids was 63.8%.[9][96]
.jpg)
Northern goshawks are usually opportunistic predators, as are most birds of prey. The most important prey species are small to medium-sized mammals and medium to large-sized birds found in forest, edge and scrub habitats.[97] Primary prey selection varies considerably not just at the regional but also the individual level as the primary food species can be dramatically different in nests just a few kilometers apart.[3] As is typical in various birds of prey, small prey tends to be underrepresented in prey remains below habitual perches and nests (as only present in skeletal remains within pellets) whereas pellets underrepresent large prey (which is usually dismantled away from the nest) and so a combined study of both remains and pellets is recommended to get a full picture of goshawks' diets.[98][99][100] Prey selection also varies by season and a majority of dietary studies are conducted within the breeding season, leaving a possibility of bias for male-selected prey, whereas recent advanced in radio-tagging have allowed a broader picture of goshawks' fairly different winter diet (without needing to kill goshawks to examine their stomach contents).[9][99] Northern goshawks have a varied diet that has reportedly included over 500 species from across its range, and at times their prey spectrum can extend to nearly any available kind of bird or mammal except the particularly large varieties as well as atypical prey including reptiles and amphibians, fish and insects.[9] However, a few prey families dominate the diet in most parts of the range, namely corvids, pigeons, grouse, pheasants, thrushes and woodpeckers (in roughly descending order of importance) among birds and squirrels (mainly tree squirrels but also ground squirrels especially in North America) and rabbits and hares among mammals.[9][8][101][102][103]
Birds are usually the primary prey in Europe, constituting 76.5% of the diet in 17 studies. In North America, by comparison, they constitute 47.8% in 33 studies and mammals account for a nearly equal portion of the diet and in some areas rather dominate the food spectrum.[104][105][106] Studies have shown that from several parts of the Eurasian continent from Spain to the Ural mountains mammals contributed only about 9% of the breeding season diet. However, mammals may be slightly underrepresented in Eurasian data because of the little-studied presence of mammals as a food source in winter, particularly in the western and southern portions of Europe where the lack of snowfall can allow large numbers of rabbits.[9][107] Staple prey for northern goshawks usually weighs between 50 and 2,000 g (1.8 and 70.5 oz), with average prey weights per individual studies typically between 215 and 770 g (7.6 and 27.2 oz).[9][70][97][108] There is some difference in size and type between the prey caught by males and larger females. Prey selection between sexes is more disparate in the more highly dimorphic races from Eurasia than those from North America. In the Netherlands, male prey averaged 277 g (9.8 oz) whereas female prey averaged 505 g (17.8 oz), thus a rough 45% difference.[6] In comparison, the average prey caught by each sex in Arizona was 281.5 g (9.93 oz) and 380.4 g (13.42 oz), respectively, or around a 26% difference.[109] Northern goshawks often select young prey during spring and summer, attacking both nestling and fledgling birds and infant and yearling mammals, as such prey is often easiest to catch and convenient to bring to the nest. In general, goshawks in Fennoscandia, shift their prey selection to when the birds produce their young: first waterfowl, then quickly to corvids and thrushes and then lastly to grouse, even though adults are also freely caught opportunistically for all these prey types.[9][110] This is fairly different from Vendsyssel, Denmark, where mostly adult birds were caught except for thrushes and corvids, as in these two groups, the goshawks caught mostly fledglings.[111]
Overall, one prey family that is known to be taken in nearly every part of the goshawk's range is the corvids, although they do not necessarily dominate the diet in all areas. Some 24 species have been reported in the diet. The second most commonly reported prey species in breeding season dietary studies from both Europe and North America are both large jays, the 160 g (5.6 oz) Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius) and the 128 g (4.5 oz) Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri). These species were recorded in studies from northeastern Poland and the Apennines of Italy (where the Eurasian jays made up a quarter of the food by number) and in northwestern Oregon and the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona (where the Steller's made up 37% by number) as the main prey species by number. The conspicuously loud vocalizations, somewhat sluggish flight (when hunting adult or post-fledging individuals) and moderate size of these jays make them ideal for prey-gathering male goshawks.[30][97][108][112][113] Another medium-sized corvid, the 218 g (7.7 oz) Eurasian magpie (Pica pica) is also amongst the most widely reported secondary prey species for goshawks there. Magpies, like large jays, are rather slow fliers and can be handily outpaced by a pursuing goshawk.[30][60][114][115] Some authors claim that taking of large corvids is a rare behavior, due of their intelligence and complex sociality which in turn impart formidable group defenses and mobbing capabilities. One estimation claimed this to be done by about 1–2% of adult goshawks during the breeding season (based largely on studies from Sweden and England), however, on the contrary many goshawks do routinely hunt crows and similar species. In fact, there are some recorded cases where goshawks were able to exploit such mobbing behavior in order to trick crows into close range, where the mob victim suddenly turned to grab one predaceously.[9][116] In the following areas Corvus species were the leading prey by number: the 440 g (16 oz) hooded crow (Corvus cornix) in the Ural mountains (9% by number), the 245 g (8.6 oz) western jackdaw (Coloeus monedula) in Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain (36.4% by number), the 453 g (0.999 lb) rook (Corvus frugilegus) in the Zhambyl district, Kazakhstan (36.6% by number) and the 457 g (1.008 lb) American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) in New York and Pennsylvania (44.8% by number).[30][117][118][119][120] Despite evidence that northern goshawks avoid nesting near common ravens (Corvus corax), the largest widespread corvid (about the same size as a goshawk at 1,040 g (2.29 lb)) and a formidable opponent even one-on-one, they are even known to prey on ravens seldom.[9][30][108][121] Corvids taken have ranged in size from the 72 g (2.5 oz) Canada jay (Perisoreus canadensis) to the raven.[30][122]
In Europe, the leading prey species numerically (the main prey species in 41% of 32 European studies largely focused on the nesting season) is the 352 g (12.4 oz) rock pigeon (Columba livia).[9] Although the predominance of rock pigeons in urban environments that host goshawks such as the German cities of Hamburg (where they constituted 36% by number and nearly 45% by weight of the local diet) or Cologne is predictable, evidence shows that these development-clinging pigeons are sought out even within ample conserved woodland from Portugal to Georgia.[114][123][124][125] In areas where goshawk restrict their hunting forays to field and forest, they often catch another numerous pigeon, the 490 g (1.08 lb) common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) (the largest pigeon the goshawk naturally encounters and is known to hunt). The latter species was the main prey in the diet of northern goshawks from in the Germany-Netherlands border area (37.7% of 4125 prey items) and Wales (25.1% by number and 30.5% by biomass of total prey).[30][126][127] It has been theorized that male goshawks in peri-urban regions may be better suited with their higher agility to ambushing feral pigeons in and amongst various manmade structures whereas females may be better suited due to the higher overall speeds to taking out common wood-pigeons, as these typically forage in wood-cloaked but relatively open fields; however males are efficient predators of common wood-pigeons as well.[9][128] Studies have proven that, while hunting feral pigeons, goshawks quite often select the oddly colored pigeons out of flocks as prey, whether the plumage of the flock is predominantly dark or light hued, they disproportionately often select individuals of the other color. This preference is apparently more pronounced in older, experienced goshawks and there is some evidence that the males who select oddly-colored pigeons have higher average productivity during breeding.[129][130] Around eight additional species of pigeon and dove have turned up in the goshawks diet from throughout the range but only in small numbers and in most of North America, goshawks take pigeons less commonly than in Eurasia.[9][131][132] One exception is in Connecticut where the mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), the smallest known pigeon or dove the goshawk has hunted at 119 g (4.2 oz), was the second most numerous prey species.[30][133]
The northern goshawk is in some parts of its range considered a specialized predator of gamebirds, particularly grouse. All told 33 species of this order have turned up in their diet, including most of the species either native to or introduced in North America and Europe. Numerically, only in the well-studied taiga habitats of Scandinavia, Canada and Alaska and some areas of the eastern United States do grouse typically take a dominant position. Elsewhere in the range, gamebirds are often secondary in number but often remain one of the most important contributors of prey biomass to nests. With their general ground-dwelling habits, gamebirds tend to be fairly easy for goshawks to overtake if they remain unseen and, if made aware of the goshawk, the prey chooses to run rather than fly. If frightened too soon, gamebirds may take flight and may be chased for some time, although the capture rates are reduced considerably when this occurs. Pre-fledgling chicks of gamebirds are particularly vulnerable due to the fact that they can only run when being pursued.[3][9] In several parts of Scandinavia, forest grouse have historically been important prey for goshawks both in and out of the nesting season, principally the 1,080 g (2.38 lb) black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) and the 430 g (15 oz) hazel grouse (Bonasa bonasia) followed in numbers by larger 2,950 g (6.50 lb) western capercaillies (Tetrao urogallus) and the 570 g (1.26 lb) willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) which replace the other species in the lower tundra zone. The impression of goshawks on the populations of this prey is considerable, possibly the most impactful of any predator in northern Europe considering their proficiency as predators and similarity of habitat selection to forest grouse. An estimated 25-26% of adult hazel grouses in Finnish and Swedish populations in a few studies fall victim to goshawks, whereas about 14% of adult black grouse are lost to this predator. Lesser numbers were reportedly culled in one study from northern Finland. However, adult grouse are less important in the breeding season diet than young birds, an estimated 30% of grouse taken by Scandinavian goshawks in summer were neonatal chicks whereas 53% were about fledgling age, the remaining 17% being adult grouse.[9][30][134][135][136][137] This is fairly different from in southeastern Alaska, where grouse are similarly as important as in Fennoscandia, as 32.1% of avian prey deliveries were adults, 14.4% were fledglings and 53.5% were nestlings.[138]
Northern goshawks can show somewhat of a trend for females to be taken more so than males while hunting adult gamebirds, due to the larger size and more developed defenses of males (such as leg spurs present for defense and innerspecies conflicts in male of most pheasant species). Some authors have claimed this of male ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus cochilus), but these trends are not reported everywhere, as in southern Sweden equal numbers of adult male and female ring-necked pheasants, both sexes averaging 1,135 g (2.502 lb), were taken.[9][30][139] While male goshawks can take black and hazel grouse of any age and thence deliver them to nests, they can only take capercaillie of up to adult hen size, averaging some 1,800 g (4.0 lb), the cock capercaillie at more than twice as heavy as the hen is too large for a male goshawk to overtake. However, adult female goshawks have been reported attacking and killing cock capercaillie, mainly during winter. These average about 4,000 g (8.8 lb) in body mass and occasionally may weigh even more when dispatched.[9][30][110][134][136] Similarly impressive feats of attacks on other particularly large gamebirds have been reported elsewhere in the range, including the 2,770 g (6.11 lb) Altai snowcock (Tetraogallus altaicus) in Mongolia and, in at least one case, successful predation on an estimated 3,900 g (8.6 lb) adult-sized young wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) hen in North America (by an immature female goshawk weighing approximately 1,050 g (2.31 lb)), although taking adults of much larger-bodied prey like this is considered generally rare, the young chicks and poults of such prey species are likely much more often taken.[30][140][141] At the other end of the size scale, the smallest gamebird known to be hunted by northern goshawk was the 96 g (3.4 oz) common quail.[30][142] Domestic fowl, particularly chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) are taken occasionally, especially where wild prey populations are depleted. While other raptors are at times blamed for large numbers of attacks on fowl, goshawks are reportedly rather more likely to attack chickens during the day than other raptors and are probably the most habitual avian predator of domestic fowl, at least in the temperate-zone. Particularly large numbers of chickens have been reported in Wigry National Park, Poland (4th most regular prey species and contributing 15.3% of prey weight), Belarus and the Ukraine, being the third most regularly reported prey in the latter two.[60][108][143][144]
In a study of British goshawks, the red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica), a race of willow ptarmigan, was found to be the leading prey species (26.2% of prey by number).[145] In La Segarra, Spain, the 528 g (1.164 lb) red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is the most commonly reported prey species (just over 18% by number and 24.5% by weight).[30][142] Despite reports that grouse are less significant as prey to American goshawks, the 560 g (1.23 lb) ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) is one of the most important prey species in North America (fourth most reported prey species in 22 studies), having been the leading prey species for goshawks in studies from New York, New Jersey and Connecticut (from 12 to 25% of prey selected) and reported as taken in high numbers elsewhere in several parts of their mutual range.[132][133][146][147] The 1,056 g (2.328 lb) sooty grouse (Dendragapus fuliginosus) was reported as the leading prey species in southern Alaska (28.4% by number).[30][103][148] In the boreal forests of Alberta, grouse are fairly important prey especially in winter.[149]
Among mammalian prey, indisputably the most significant by number are the squirrels. All told, 44 members of the Sciuridae have turned up in their foods. Tree squirrels are the most obviously co-habitants with goshawks and are indeed taken in high numbers. Alongside martens, northern goshawks are perhaps the most efficient temperate-zone predators of tree squirrels. Goshawks are large and powerful enough to overtake even the heaviest tree squirrels unlike smaller Accipiters and have greater agility and endurance in pursuits than do most buteonine hawks, some of which like red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) regularly pursue tree squirrels but have relatively low hunting success rates due to the agility of squirrels.[9][150] The 296 g (10.4 oz) red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) of Eurasia is the most numerous mammalian prey in European studies and the sixth most often recorded prey species there overall.[9][151] In Oulu, Finland during winter (24.6% by number), in Białowieża Forest, Poland (14.3%), in the Chřiby uplands of the Czech Republic (8.5%) and in Forêt de Bercé, France (12%) the red squirrel was the main prey species for goshawks.[152][153][154] In North America, tree squirrels are even more significant as prey, particularly the modestly-sized pine squirrels which are the single most important prey type for American goshawks overall. Particularly the 240 g (8.5 oz) American red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) is significant, being the primary prey in studies from Minnesota, South Dakota, Wyoming and Montana (in each comprising more than 30% of the diet and present in more than half of known pellets) but also reported everywhere in their foods from the eastern United States to Alaska and Arizona. Much like the American marten (Martes americana), the American distribution of goshawks is largely concurrent with that of American red squirrels, indicating the particular significance of it as a dietary staple.[101][149][147][155][156][157] In the Pacific northwest, the 165 g (5.8 oz) Douglas squirrel (Tamiasciurus douglasii) replaces the red squirrel in both distribution and as the highest contributor to goshawk diets from northern California to British Columbia. The largest occurrence of Douglas squirrel known was from Lake Tahoe, where they constituted 23% of prey by number and 32.9% by weight.[158][122][159][160]
Larger tree squirrels are also taken opportunistically, in New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, the 530 g (1.17 lb) eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) was the third most significant prey species.[132][133][161] Much larger tree squirrels such as western gray squirrels (Sciurus griseus) and fox squirrels (Sciurus niger), both weighing about 800 g (1.8 lb), are taken occasionally in North America.[162][163] Ground squirrels are also important prey species, mostly in North America, 25 of 44 of squirrel species found in the diet are ground squirrels. Particularly widely reported as a secondary food staple from Oregon, Wyoming, California and Arizona was the 187 g (6.6 oz) golden-mantled ground squirrel (Callospermophilus lateralis).[35][164][97][165] In Nevada and Idaho’s Sawtooth National Forest, the 285 g (10.1 oz) Belding's ground squirrel (Urocitellus beldingi) fully dominated the food spectrum, comprising up to 74.3% of the prey by number and 84.2% by biomass.[166][167] Even much bigger ground squirrels such as prairie dogs and marmots are attacked on occasion.[168][169] Several hoary marmots (Marmota caligala) were brought to nests in southeast Alaska but averaged only 1,894 g (4.176 lb), so were young animals about half of the average adult (spring) weight (albeit still considerably heavier than the goshawks who took them).[103] In some cases, adult marmots such as alpine marmots (Marmota marmota), yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) and woodchucks (Marmota monax) have been preyed upon when lighter and weaker in spring, collectively weighing on average about 3,500 g (7.7 lb) or about three times as much as a female goshawk although are basically half of what these marmots can weigh by fall.[133][170][171] About a dozen species of chipmunk are known to be taken by goshawks and the 96 g (3.4 oz) eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) were the second most numerous prey species at nests in central New York and Minnesota.[101][172][146] Squirrels taken have ranged in size from the 43 g (1.5 oz) least chipmunk (Tamias minimus) to the aforementioned adult marmots.[170][173][174]
_%27Just_missed_him%27.png)
Northern goshawks can be locally heavy predators of lagomorphs, of which they take at least 15 species as prey. Especially in the Iberian peninsula, the native European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is often delivered to nests and can be the most numerous prey. Even where taken secondarily in numbers in Spain to gamebirds such as in La Segarra, Spain, rabbits tend to be the most significant contributor of biomass to goshawk nests. On average, the weight of rabbits taken in La Segarra was 662 g (1.459 lb) (making up 38.4% of the prey biomass there), indicating most of the 333 rabbits taken there were yearlings and about 2-3 times lighter than a prime adult wild rabbit.[142][49] In England, where the European rabbit is an introduced species, it was the third most numerous prey species at nests.[145] In more snowbound areas where wild and feral rabbits are absent, larger hares may be taken and while perhaps more difficult to subdue than most typical goshawk prey, are a highly nutritious food source. In Finland, females were found to take mountain hare (Lepus timidus) fairly often and they were the second most numerous prey item for goshawks in winter (14.8% by number).[136] In North America, where mammals are more important in the diet, more lagomorphs are taken. In Oregon, snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) are the largest contributor of biomass to goshawks foods (making up to 36.6% of the prey by weight), in eastern Oregon at least 60% of hares taken were adults weighing on average 1,500 g (3.3 lb), and in one of three studies from Oregon be the most numerous prey species (second most numerous in the other two).[97][122] This species was also the second most numerous food species in Alberta throughout the year and the most important prey by weight.[149] Eastern cottontails (Sylvilagus floridanus), also averaging some 1,500 g (3.3 lb) in mass per the study (and thus mostly consisting of adult cottontails in their prime), were the most significant prey both by weight (42.3%) and number (13.3%) in Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest of Arizona. Eastern cottontails are also taken regularly in New York and Pennsylvania.[120][165] In some parts of the range, larger leporids may be attacked, extending to the 2,410 g (5.31 lb) black-tailed (Lepus californicus) and the 3,200 g (7.1 lb) white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii), the 3,800 g (8.4 lb) European hares (Lepus europaeus), as well as the mountain hare.[162][175][176][177][178] In Europe, males have been recorded successfully attacking rabbits weighing up to 1,600 g (3.5 lb), or about 2.2 times their own weight, while adult mountain hares overtaken by female goshawks in Fennoscandia have weighed from 2,700 to 3,627 g (5.952 to 7.996 lb) or up to 2.4 times their own weight. Despite historic claims that taking prey so considerably larger than themselves is exceptional beyond a small region of Fennoscandia, there is evidence that as grouse numbers have mysteriously declined since 1960, adult mountain hare are increasingly the leading prey for wintering female goshawks, favoring and causing an increase of larger bodied females in order to overpower such a substantial catch.[9][179][180] Asian and American goshawks also take about a half dozen species of pikas, much smaller cousins of rabbits and hares, but they are at best supplementary prey for American goshawks and of unknown importance to little-studied Asian populations.[122][181][182]
Some 21 species of woodpecker have been reported from northern goshawk food studies around the world. With their relatively slow, undulating flight adult and fledged woodpeckers can easily be overtaken by hunting goshawks, not to mention their habitat preferences frequently put them within active goshawk ranges. Most of the widespread species from Europe and North America have been observed as prey, most commonly relatively large woodpeckers such as the 76 g (2.7 oz) greater spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) and the 176 g (6.2 oz) European green woodpecker (Picus viridis) in Europe and the 134 g (4.7 oz) northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) in North America. Indeed, the flicker is the third most regularly reported prey species in America.[108][183] In south-central Wyoming, the northern flicker was the second most numerous prey species and it was the main prey species in a study from New Mexico (here making up 26.4% of prey by number).[156][184] All sizes of woodpeckers available are taken from the 19.8 g (0.70 oz) lesser spotted woodpecker (Dryobates minor) to the 321 g (11.3 oz) black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) in Europe and from the 25.6 g (0.90 oz) downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) to the 287 g (10.1 oz) pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) in North America.[108][149][159] In many areas, northern goshawks will pursue water birds of several varieties, although they rarely form a large portion of the diet. Perhaps the most often recorded water birds in the diet are ducks. All told, 32 waterfowl have been recorded in their diet.[9] In the Ural mountains, the nearly cosmopolitan 1,075 g (2.370 lb) mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) was third most numerous prey species.[30][117] The ducks of the genus Aythya are somewhat frequently recorded as well, especially since their tree-nesting habits may frequently put them in the hunting range of nesting goshawks.[101][103] Similarly, the wood duck (Aix sponsa) from America and the mandarin duck (Aix galericulata) from Asia may be more vulnerable than most waterfowl at their tree nests.[185][186] Although etymologists feel that the goshawk is an abbreviation of “goose-hawk”, geese are seldom taken considering their generally much larger size. Nonetheless, four species have been taken, including adults of species as large as the 2,420 g (5.34 lb) greater white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons).[30][187][188][189][190] Adult common eiders (Somateria mollissima), the largest northern duck at 2,066 g (4.555 lb), have also been captured by goshawks.[30][191] Various other water birds reported as taken include red-throated loon (Gavia stellata) chicks, adult little grebes (Tachybaptus ruficollis), adult great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) (about the same size as a greater white-fronted goose), adult crested ibis (Nipponia nippon), black stork (Ciconia nigra) chicks and five species each of heron and rail.[9][126][187][192][193] Among shorebirds (or small waders), goshawks have been reported preying on more than 22 sandpipers, more than 8 plovers, more than 10 species each of gull and tern, more than 2 species of alcids and the Eurasian stone-curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), the Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) and the long-tailed jaeger (Stercorarius longicaudus).[115][133][144][190][194][195][196][197]
Corvids as aforementioned are quite important prey. Although they take fewer passerines than other northern Accipiters, smaller types of songbirds can still be regionally important to the diet. This is especially true of the thrushes which are often delivered to nests in Europe. 17 species of thrush have been identified in goshawk food across their range. The numerous 103 g (3.6 oz) Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula) is often most reported from this family and can even be the main prey at some locations such as in the Netherlands (23.5% of prey by number) and in Norway (just over 14% by number and two studies showed thrushes collectively make up nearly half of the prey items in Norwegian nests).[30][115][183][198] All common Turdus species are taken in some numbers in Europe, being quite regular and conspicuous in the woodland edge zones most often patrolled by male goshawks, especially while singing in spring and summer. Even where larger, more nutritious prey is present such as at pheasant release sites, the abundant thrushes are more often delivered to the nest because of the ease of capture such as in Norway.[115][179] Smaller numbers of thrush are taken in general in North America but the 78 g (2.8 oz) American robin (Turdus migratorius) are fairly regular prey nonetheless and were the most numerous prey in the Sierra Nevadas of California (30.7% by number and 21.4% by weight).[30][35][167] Thrush taken have ranged in size from the 26.4 g (0.93 oz) western bluebird (Sialia mexicana), the smallest bluebird and lightest North American thrush on average, to the 118 g (4.2 oz) mistle thrush (Turdus viscivorus), Europe's largest thrush.[30][162][112] Beyond corvids and thrushes, most passerines encountered by northern goshawks are substantially smaller and are often ignored under most circumstances in favor of more sizable prey. Nonetheless, more than a hundred passerines have been recorded their diet beyond these families. Most widespread passerine families from North America and Europe have occasional losses to goshawks, including tyrant flycatchers, shrikes, vireos, larks, swallows, nuthatches, treecreepers, wrens, mimids, Old World warblers, Old World flycatchers, pipits and wagtails, starlings, waxwings, New World warblers, emberizine sparrows, cardinalids, icterids, finches and Old World sparrows. Avian prey has even ranged to as small as the 5.5 g (0.19 oz) goldcrest (Regulus regulus), the smallest bird in Europe.[30][108] In North America, the smallest known bird prey is the 8.2 g (0.29 oz) American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla).[30][133] Among smaller types of passerines, one of the most widely reported are finches and, in some widespread studies, somewhat substantial numbers of finches of many species may actually be taken. Finches tend to fly more conspicuously as they cover longer distances, often bounding or undulating as they do, over the canopy than most forest songbirds, which may make them more susceptible to goshawk attacks than other small songbirds.[190][199] Non-passerine upland birds taken by goshawks in small numbers include but are not limited to nightjars, swifts, bee-eaters, kingfishers, rollers, hoopoes and parrots.[108][142][125][190][200][201]
Outside of the squirrel family, relatively few other types of rodents are taken in many regions. In eastern Oregon, the 132 g (4.7 oz) northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) was the third or fourth most frequently caught prey species.[122][97][202] Microtine rodents which are so essential to most northern non-accipiter hawks and a majority of owls are at best a secondary contributor to goshawk diets, even though 26 species have been reported in their diet. Exceptionally, in a study of the Carpathian mountains of Ukraine, the 27.5 g (0.97 oz) common vole (Microtus arvalis) was the second most numerous prey species.[172][143] Relatively high numbers of the 18.4 g (0.65 oz) bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) were reported in diets from Poland in Gmina Sobótka and the Białowieża Forest.[152][203][204] During summer in Alberta, the 44 g (1.6 oz) meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) was the third most frequently reported prey species, the only known study where large numbers of microtine rodents were taken in North America.[149][205] Microtine rodents taken by goshawks have ranged in size from the 11 g (0.39 oz) western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) to the 1,105 g (2.436 lb) muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus).[147][108][206] Other miscellaneous rodents reported sporadically in the diet include dormice, porcupines, kangaroo rats, mountain beavers (Aplodontia rufa), jumping mice, Old World mice and rats, zokors, gophers and jirds.[112][117][122][167][207][208][209]
Insectivores are taken in low numbers including moles, shrews and hedgehogs.[122][152][108][142][210][211] The smallest mammalian prey species known to be attacked by goshawks was the 3.65 g (0.129 oz) masked shrew (Sorex cinereus).[122] Small carnivores are also taken, such as least weasels (Mustela nivalis), stoats (Mustela erminea), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), and larger predators such as European minks (Mustela lutreola), European polecats (Mustela putorius), American minks (Neogale vison), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), and martens (Martes spp.).[212][213][214][215][216] Domestic carnivores are taken on scarce occasion, including dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) , predominately young specimens but the remain of an adult cat was found in a goshawk nest.[60][162][217] Even more sporadically attacked by goshawks, given this prey's nocturnal habits, are bats.[218] In one case a juvenile golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), which was successfully taken by a goshawk.[219] Ungulates such as deer and sheep are sometimes consumed by goshawks but there is no evidence that they prey on live ones (as much larger accipitrids such as eagles can sometimes do), but these are more likely rare cases of scavenging on carrion, which may more regularly occur than once thought in areas with harsh winter weather.[20][204][211]
In a few cases, northern goshawks have been recorded hunting and killing prey beyond birds and mammals. In some of the warmer drier extensions of their range, reptiles may be available to them to hunt. Only one species of snake is recorded from their diet, the small innocuous grass snake (Natrix natrix), at 66 g (2.3 oz); however about a half dozen lizards are recorded in their diet, primarily from the Iberian peninsula but also from the Ural mountains and the American southwest.[117][123][142][165][220] The only known location in the northern goshawk's range where reptiles were taken in large numbers was Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain, where the 77 g (2.7 oz) ocellated lizard (Timon lepidus) was the second most numerous prey species.[118][221] Amphibians are even rarer in the diet, only recorded more than singly in one study each from Spain and from England.[145][49] Fish are similarly rare in the diet, recorded twice each in Bavaria and Belarus.[144][199] A few pellets have included remains of insects, much of which may be ingested incidentally or via the stomachs of birds that they have consumed. However, there is some evidence they at times will hunt large ground-dwelling insects such as dung beetles.[126][204][222][223]
Northern goshawks are often near the top of the avian food chain in forested biomes but face competition for food resources from various other predators, including both birds and mammals. Comparative dietary studies have shown that mean sizes of prey, both in terms of its size relative to the raptor itself and absolute weight, for goshawks is relatively larger than in most buteonine hawks in North America and Europe.[224][225] Studies show even buteonine hawks slightly larger than goshawks on average take prey weighing less than 200 g (7.1 oz) whereas average goshawk prey is usually well over such a mass. This is due largely to the much higher importance of microtine rodents to most buteonine hawks, which, despite their occasional abundance, are ignored by goshawks in most regions.[224][226] Similarly, mean prey mass for sharp-shinned and Cooper's hawks in North America is between about 10 and 30% of their own mass, whereas the mean prey of American goshawks is between about 25 and 50% of their own mass and therefore are the goshawks takes prey that is on average relatively much larger.[97][163] In many of the ecosystems that they inhabit, northern goshawks compete with resources with other predators, particularly where they take sizeable numbers of lagomorphs. About a dozen mammalian and avian predators in each area all primarily consume European rabbits and snowshoe hares alongside goshawks in the Iberian peninsula and the American boreal forest regions where these became primary staple foods. Like those co-habitant predators, the goshawk suffers declines during the low portion in the lagomorph's breeding cycles, which rise and fall cyclically every 10 to 12 years. However, even where these are primary food sources, the northern goshawk is less specialized than many (even Bubo owls, some of the more generalist avian predators become extremely specialized lagomorph hunters locally, to a greater extent than goshawks) and can alternate their food selection, often taking equal or greater numbers of tree squirrels and woodland birds. Due to this dietary variation, the northern goshawk is less affected than other raptorial birds by prey population cycles and tends to not be depleted by resource competition.[73][227][228][229][230]
Despite their propensity to pursue relatively large prey and capability to pursue alternate prey, northern goshawks can be locally outcompeted for resources by species that are more adaptable and flexible, especially in terms of habitat and prey. Most northern buteonine hawks largely take small rodents such as voles (which are usually ignored by goshawks) but can adapt to nearly any other type of prey when the staple local rodent prey populations go down.[224] Comparisons with goshawks and red-tailed hawk nesting in abutting areas of Arizona (other large common Buteos like Swainson's hawks (Buteo swainsonii) and ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) utilize open habitats and so do not come into conflict with goshawks) shows the red-tailed hawks as being able to take a broader range of prey than goshawks and nest in more varied habitats, the latter species being perhaps the most commonly seen, widespread and adaptable of diurnal American raptors.[231][232][233] On occasion, goshawks are robbed of their prey by a diversity of other birds, including harriers, other hawks, eagles, falcons and even gulls.[234][235][236]
Northern goshawks from North America are less prone to nesting outside of mature forests and take larger numbers of mammals as opposed to abundant birds than in Europe. This may be in part due to heavier competition from a greater diversity of raptors in North America. In Europe, the goshawk only co-exists with the much smaller sparrowhawk within its own genus, while in North America, it lives with the intermediately-sized Cooper's hawk. The latter species much more readily nests in semi-open and developed areas of North America than goshawks there and hunts a broad assemblage of medium-sized birds, whereas such prey is more readily available to male goshawks from Europe than to goshawks in North America. Although the Cooper's hawk usually avoids and loses individual contests against the larger goshawk, its adaptability has allowed it to become the most widespread and commonly found North American Accipiter.[9][237][238] The slightly larger goshawks of Europe have been shown, in some but not all areas, to outcompete and possibly lower productivity of the slightly smaller common buzzard (Buteo buteo) when their ranges overlap. Usually, however, the dietary habits and nesting preferences are sufficiently distinct and thus effect neither buzzard or goshawk populations. Both can mutually be very common even when the other is present.[9][239][240][241] On the other hand, American goshawks are slightly smaller on average than their European counterparts and can be up to 10% smaller in mass than red-tailed hawks. However, studies have indicated that the goshawk has, beyond its superior speed and agility, has stronger feet and a more forceful attack than that of the red-tailed hawk. All in all, individual competitions between red-tailed hawks and goshawks can go either way and neither is strongly likely to deter the other from nesting given their distinct nesting habitats.[9][242][243] Other raptors, including most medium to large-sized owls as well as red-tailed hawks and falcons, will use nests built by northern goshawks, even when goshawks are still in the area.[244]
To many other raptorial birds, the northern goshawk is more significant as a predatory threat than as competition. The northern goshawk is one of the most dangerous species to other raptors, especially to those considerably smaller than itself. In many cases, raptors of any age from nestlings to adults are taken around their nests but free-flying raptors too are readily taken or ambushed at a perch.[9][245][246] One example is a study from northern England, the common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), which average about 184 g (6.5 oz), recorded as prey at goshawk nests (mainly in March and April) numbered 139, a larger number than kestrels recorded alive in the spring in the same area.[30][247] In the Veluwe province of the Netherlands, the percentage of nest of European honey buzzards (Pernis apivorus), weighing on average 760 g (1.68 lb), predated by goshawks increased from a little as 7.7% in 1981–1990 to 33% in 2000–2004.[30][248] As their habitat preferences may overlap with goshawks, all other Accipiters encountered may be predated in multiple cases, including the 238 g (8.4 oz) Eurasian sparrowhawk, the 188 g (6.6 oz) levant sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), the 136 g (4.8 oz) sharp-shinned hawk, the 122 g (4.3 oz) Japanese sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis) and the 440 g (0.97 lb) Cooper's hawk.[30][133][103][194][112][249]
Other assorted accipitrids of up to their own size to be predated by goshawks include the 747 g (1.647 lb) black kite (Milvus migrans), the 1,080 g (2.38 lb) red kite (Milvus milvus), the 712 g (1.570 lb) western marsh-harrier (Circus aeruginosus), the 316 g (11.1 oz) Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus), the 390 g (14 oz) pallid harrier (Circus macrourus), the 835 g (1.841 lb) booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus) and Buteos of up to adults including the 776 g (1.711 lb) common buzzard, the 424 g (15.0 oz) broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus), the 610 g (1.34 lb) red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) and the 1,065 g (2.348 lb) red-tailed hawk.[30][97][101][112][144][222][250][251][252][253][254][255][256][257] Even raptors somewhat larger than a northern goshawks have been considered as prey, although it is not clear whether adults are among the victims, including the 1,494 g (3.294 lb) osprey (Pandion haliaetus), 1,147 g (2.529 lb) crested honey-buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) and the 1,370 g (3.02 lb) lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina).[30][255][258][259]
Outside of the accipitrid group, heavy predation on different varieties of raptorial birds by northern goshawks can continue unabated. Many types of owl are taken and in Europe, the northern goshawk is the second most prolific predator of owls behind the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo).[260] In Bavaria, Germany, the 287 g (10.1 oz) long-eared owl (Asio otus) was the second most common prey species for nesting goshawks.[30][199] In the Białowieża Forest of Poland, fairly high numbers of the 475 g (1.047 lb) tawny owl (Strix alucco) were taken.[30][152] In all, some 18 species of owl have been recorded in the diet, ranging in size from the Eurasian (Glaucidium passerinum) and northern pygmy owls (Glaucidium gnoma) at 58.5 g (0.129 lb) and 61.8 g (2.18 oz), respectively, to all the large northern Strix owls including adults and even the 1,400 g (3.1 lb) great horned owl. Whether adults have ever been killed as prey though is unknown but goshawks have been known to kill great horned owls that they've found near their nests.[60][122][101][162][260][261] In addition, about eight species of falcon have been identified in the foods of goshawks. Adult falcons of small species such as kestrels and merlins (Falco columbarius) can be overpowered quite easily if they can manage to surprise the prey.[120][247][262][263] Larger falcons have turned up in the diet as well, including the 720 g (1.59 lb) prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) and the 966 g (2.130 lb) saker falcon (Falco cherrug), although possible only nestlings of these species.[162][255][264] Brief aerial skirmishes between goshawks and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) have been described but neither species is known to have killed one another in the wild.[265] In Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, at least four small passerines species were recorded as nesting close to active goshawk nest, due to the incidental shelter that the fierce goshawks inadvertently provides from smaller raptors which are their main predators. Such raptors, including Eurasian kestrels, Eurasian sparrowhawks and long-eared owls, not only avoid goshawk activity where possible but also were found to have lower nest productivity any time they nested relatively close to goshawks per the study.[239] A similar phenomenon, with goshawks inadvertently providing shelter to small passerines, has been recorded in North America as well.[60]
Competition for northern goshawks can also come from mammalian carnivores. Martens, and to a lesser extent other weasels, are presumably one of their more major competitors as their diet often consists of similar prey primarily during spring and summer, tree squirrels and woodland birds, but little has been studied in terms of how the two types of predator affect each other.[9] Most recorded interactions have been predatory, as the goshawk has been recorded preying on a dozen species, from the 122 g (4.3 oz) least weasel (Mustela nivalis) to the 1,700 g (3.7 lb) stone marten (Martes foina).[194][115][266][267] Northern goshawks have also been recorded as feeding on much bigger predators such as the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), but it is not clear whether these were actual kills, as many may be encountered as already dead carrion.[23][194][268][269][270] The red fox is a surprisingly considerable competitor for resources with northern goshawks. It was found in Norway that goshawk numbers were higher when voles were at peak numbers, not due to voles as a food source but because foxes were more likely to eat the rodents and ignore grouse, whereas during low vole numbers the foxes are more likely to compete with goshawks over grouse as prey.[271] A decrease of the fox population of Norway due to sarcoptic mange was found result in an increase of grouse numbers and, in turn, northern goshawks.[272] In some areas, red foxes have been found to steal up to half of the goshawks’ kills.[273]
Unlike the predators at the top of the avian food chain such as eagles and the largest owls, which are rarely endangered by predation as adults, the northern goshawk is itself susceptible to a fairly extensive range of predators. The most deadly are likely to be the Eurasian eagle owl and the great horned owl, which not only predate goshawks of any age and at any season but also opportunistically take over their own prior nests as their own nesting site.[9] Of the two, the American horned owl nesting habits are more similar to goshawks, which most often consists of tree nests whereas the eagle owl usually nests in rock formations. Thus, the northern goshawk is more likely to victimized by the great horned owls, which can stage nightly ambushes and destroy an entire goshawk family as they pick off both adults and nestlings.[8] In radio-tagging studies of adult and immature goshawks in the Great Lakes region and Arizona, up to half of the studied birds were killed by great horned owls at night, while the horned owls accounted for 40% of the nest failures in studies from Arizona and New Mexico.[113][274][275][276] In comparison, in Schleswig-Holstein, 59% of reintroduced eagle owls used nests built by goshawks and no goshawk pairs could successfully nest within 500 m (1,600 ft) of an active eagle-owl nest. 18% of nest failures here positively were attributed to eagle owl predation, with another 8% likely due to eagle-owls.[277] Other larger raptorial birds can threaten them. The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in North America, have killed wintering goshawks, but given the discrepancy in their habitat preferences, such cases are presumably rare.[20] Other avian predators known to have successfully preyed on goshawks including adults (usually in singular cases) include white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), Bonelli's eagles (Aquila fasciata), eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca), snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), Ural owls (Strix uralensis) and red-tailed hawks.[234][235][278][279][280][281][282]
The same mammalian predators that sometimes compete for food with northern goshawks also sometimes kill them, with the nestlings, fledglings and brooding females, all with impaired flight due to their wing feather moults, seemingly the most vulnerable. In one case, the American marten, which at 660 g (1.46 lb) is the smallest marten and is sometimes taken as prey by the goshawks, successfully ambushed and preyed on a brooding female goshawk.[122][283][284] In Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest of Wisconsin, the main source of mortality for northern goshawks are reintroduced fishers (Pekania pennanti), which are capable of killing many chicks, fledglings and brooding females.[285][286] In contrast, in Europe, the pine marten (Martes martes) has only been known to prey on young goshawks still in the nest and not adults.[287] Other mammals capable of climbing trees have been observed or inferred to predate goshawks, either mostly or entirely young in the nests, including wolverines (Gulo gulo), North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum), raccoons (Procyon lotor), bobcats (Lynx rufus) and American black bears (Ursus americanus).[288][289][290] Overall, the range of nest predators is more extensive in North America than in Eurasia, in the latter continent most recorded nest depredations are by eagle owls, with martens and corvids usually only preying on goshawk nestlings when low food supplies cause the goshawks to have lower nest attendance (and presumably effect these predators to the extent that they take the risk of coming to the goshawk nest).[60] Fledgling goshawks are also vulnerable to canids such as coyotes (Canis latrans), gray wolves (Canis lupus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) as they may perch lower to the ground and are clumsier, more unsteady and less cautious than older birds.[8][290] In one case, a goshawk that was ambushed and killed at a kill by a mangy vixen fox was able to lethally slash the windpipe of the fox, which apparently died moments after partially consuming the goshawk.[291]
Apart from aforementioned predation events, northern goshawks have at times been killed by non-predators, including prey that turned the tables on their pursuer, as well as in hunting accidents. In one case, a huge group (or murder) of hooded crows heavily mobbed a goshawk that they caught in a relatively open spot, resulting in a prolonged attack that ended up killing the goshawk.[292] In another instance, a goshawk drowned while attempting to capture a tufted duck (Aythya fuligula).[293] One young goshawk managed to escape a red fox that had caught it with a chewed wing, only to drown in a nearby creek.[9] Another, and rather gruesome, hunting mishap occurred when a goshawk caught a large mountain hare and, while attempting to hold it in place by grasping vegetation with its other foot, was torn in half.[50]
The northern goshawk is one of the most extensively studied raptors in terms of its breeding habits. Adult goshawks return to their breeding grounds usually between March and April, but locally as early as February.[289][37][294] If prey levels remain high, adults may remain on their breeding ground all year.[73][251] Courtship flights, calls and even nest building has been recorded in Finland exceptionally in September and October right after young dispersed, whereas in most of Fennoscandia, breeding does not commence any earlier than March and even then only when it is a warm spring.[295][296] Most breeding activity occurs between April and July, exceptionally a month earlier or later.[6] Even in most areas of Alaska, most pairs have produced young by May.[289] Courtship flights typical are above the canopy on sunny, relatively windless days in early spring with the goshawks’ long main tail feathers held together and the undertail coverts spread so wide to give them an appearance of having a short, broad-tail with a long dark strip extending from the center.[297] Display flights not infrequently escalate into an undulating flight, similar to a wood pigeon but with sharper turns and descents, and are sometimes embellished with sky-dives that can cover over 200 m (660 ft). One study found undulating display flights more than three times more often done by males than females.[298] After display flights have concluded, the male typically brings a prepared fresh prey item to the female as part of the courtship. In general, these displays are presumably to show (or reinforce) to the potential mate their health and prowess as breeding partner.[8][9][35] Copulation is brief and frequent, ranging up to nearly 520 times per clutch (on average about 10 times a day or 100-300 throughout the season), and may be the male's way of ensuring paternity since he is frequently away gathering food by the time of egg-laying, although extra-pair copulation is extremely rare. Female solicits copulations by facing away from male with drooped wings and flared tail-coverts. The male, wings drooped and tail-coverts flared, drops from a branch to gain momentum, then swoops upward and mounts her back. Both birds usually call while mating.[3][8][9][299][300] Fidelity studies from Europe show that about 80–90% of adult females breed with the same male in consecutive years, whereas up to 96% of males mate with the same female in consecutive years.[9] In California, 72% of males retained relationship with the same mates in consecutive years while 70% of females did the same.[301] Males intruding in Hamburg, Germany territories were in some cases not evicted and ended up mating with the female, with the male of the pair not stopping it.[302] In migratory, northernmost populations, mate retention in consecutive years is low.[3][301] Males are sometimes killed by females during courtship and encounters can be dangerous especially if he does not bring food to courtship and he often seems nervous withdrawing with a trill at a given chance.[303]
Nesting areas are indefinite, a nest may be used for several years, also a nest built years prior may be used or an entirely new nest may be constructed. When nest constructing, the pair will often roost together. Males construct most new nests but females may assist somewhat if reinforcing old nests. While the male is building, the female perches in the vicinity, occasionally screaming, sometimes flying to inspect the nest.[3][304] At other times, the female may take a more active role, or even the primary one, in new nest construction and this is subject to considerable individual variation.[9][37][303] For the nesting tree, more than 20 species of conifer have been used including spruce, fir, larch, pine and hemlock. Broadleaf trees used including ash, alder, aspen, beech, birch, elm, hickory, hornbeam, lime, maple (including sycamore), oak, poplar, tamarack, wild cherry and willow. In some areas, the nests may be lined with hard pieces of bark and also with green sprigs of conifers.[3][9] Often the tallest tree in a given stand is selected as the nest tree and this is often the dominant tree species within the given region and forest. Therefore, hardwood trees are usually used as the nesting tree in the eastern United States while conifers are usually used in the western United States.[8][305][306] Most nests are constructed under the canopy or near the main fork of a tree and in North America, averaging nest height ranged from 5.8 m (19 ft) (in the Yukon) to 16.9 m (55 ft) (in New Mexico), elsewhere as in Europe average height is between 9 and 25 m (30 and 82 ft).[8][9][73][307] In the dwarf trees of the tundra, nests have been found at only 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) off the ground, and, in the tundra and elsewhere, very rarely on felled trees, stumps or on the ground.[21][22][308][309] In some studies from North America up to 15% of nests are in dead trees but this is far rarer in Eurasia.[310] More significant than species is the maturity and height of the nesting tree, its structure (which should have ample surface around the main fork) and, perhaps most significantly, little to no understory below it.[9][12] Multiple studies note the habit of nests being built in forests close to clear-fellings, swamps and heaths, lakes and meadows, roads (especially light-use logging dirt roads), railways and swathes cut along power cables, usually near such openings there'd be prominent boulders, stones or roots of fallen trees or low branches to use as plucking points. Canopy cover averaged between 60 and 96% in Europe.[8][9] As is typical in widely distributed raptors from temperate-zones, those from cold regions faced south, 65% in Alaska, 54% in Norway and also in high latitudes such as sky-forests of the Arizona Rockies, otherwise usually nests face north and east.[289][311][312]
Nests, especially after initial construction, may average between 80 and 120 cm (31 and 47 in) in length and 50 to 70 cm (20 to 28 in) in width, and are around 20 to 25 cm (7.9 to 9.8 in) deep.[19][289][313] After many uses, a nest can range up to 160 cm (63 in) across and 120 cm (47 in) in depth and can weigh up to a ton when wet.[304][313] Northern goshawks may adopt nests of other species, common buzzards contributed 5% of nests used in Schleswig-Holstein, including unusually exposed ones on edges of woods and another 2% were built by common ravens or carrion crows, but 93% were built by the goshawks themselves.[239] While colonizing peri-urban areas in Europe, they may displace Eurasian sparrowhawks not only from their territories but may actually try to use overly small sparrowhawk nests, usually resulting in nest collapse.[9] One nest was used continuously by different pairs for a period of 17 years.[314] A single pair may maintain up to several nests, usually up to two will occur in an area of no more than a few hundred meters. One nest may be used in sequential years, but often an alternate is selected. During an 18-year-study from Germany, many alternate nests were used, 27 pairs had two, 10 had 3, 5 had 4, one had five and one pair had as many as 11. Other regions where pairs had on average two nests were Poland, California and Arizona’s Kaibab Plateau. The extent of use of alternate nests is unknown as well as their benefit, but they may reduce significant levels of parasites and diseases within the nest.[8][9][17][251][315][316] In central Europe, the goshawk's nest area can be as small 1 to 2 ha (2.5 to 4.9 acres) of woods and less than 10 hectares are commonplace. Usually only one active nest occurs per 100 ha (250 acres), are they avoid edges as nest sites and occupied nests are seldom less than 600 m (2,000 ft) apart. [239][313] The most closely spaced active nests by a separate pair on record was 400 m (1,300 ft) in central Europe, another case of two active nests 200 m (660 ft) apart in Germany was a possible case of polygamy.[9][317]
The eggs are laid at 2- to 3-day intervals on average between April and June (usually May), taking up to 9 days for a clutch of 3–4 and 11 days for a clutch of 5.[3][8][38] The eggs are rough, unmarked pale bluish or dirty white.[3] In A. g, atricapillus, the average dimensions of the eggs are reported at 57.76 to 59.2 mm (2.274 to 2.331 in) in height by 44.7 to 45.1 mm (1.76 to 1.78 in) in width, with ranges of 52–66 mm (2.0–2.6 in) x 42–48 mm (1.7–1.9 in).[47][308] In Spanish eggs, the average dimensions were 56.3 mm × 43 mm (2.22 in × 1.69 in) compared to German ones, which averaged 57.3 mm × 44 mm (2.26 in × 1.73 in). Goshawks from Lapland, Finland lay the largest known eggs at 62–65 mm (2.4–2.6 in) x 47–49.5 mm (1.85–1.95 in), while other Finnish goshawk eggs ranged from 59–64 mm (2.3–2.5 in) x 45–48 mm (1.8–1.9 in).[3] Weight of the eggs average 59 g (2.1 oz) in America, 63 g (2.2 oz) in Great Britain and 50 to 60 g (1.8 to 2.1 oz) in Poland and Germany, with extreme weights from the latter nations of 35 to 75 g (1.2 to 2.6 oz).[23][318][319] Clutch size almost always averages between 2 and 4 eggs, with a median around 3, rarely as few as 1 or as many 5–6 will be laid.[8][9][320] In combination spring weather and prey population levels seem to drive both egg laying dates and clutch size.[9] If an entire clutch is lost, a replacement can be laid within 15 to 30 days.[38]
During incubation, females tend to become quieter and more inconspicuous. The mother can develop a brooding patch of up to 15 by 5 cm (5.9 by 2.0 in) on her underside. She may turn the eggs as frequently as every 30 to 60 minutes. Males may incubate as many as 1 to 3 hours, but usually less than an hour, early in incubation but rarely do so later on. During daylight females can do as much as 96% of the observed incubation. The incubation stage last for any time between 28 and 37 days (rarely up to 41 days in exceptionally big clutches), varying in different parts of the range.[8][38][94][238] After hatching occurs, the male does not come directly to the nest but instead just delivers food (usually already plucked, beheaded or otherwise dismembered) to a branch near the nest which the female tears apart and shares between herself and the nestlings.[3][9][304] Food deliveries by the male can be daily or as infrequent as every 3 to 5 days. In turn, the female must feed the young about twice a day in order for the chicks to avoid starvation. Caching of food has been recorded near the nest, but only before the young start feeding themselves. Food deliveries must average about 250 to 320 g (8.8 to 11.3 oz) per young goshawk per day for them to successfully fledge, or 700 to 950 g (1.54 to 2.09 lb) total daily and 60 to 100 kg (130 to 220 lb) throughout the season for an average sized clutch of around three. Females will also start capturing prey later on, but usually only after the young have already fledged.[9][35][99] In Europe, female goshawks may press down on their nest if a human approaches, others may unobtrusively leave the nest, although are more reluctant to leave the nest late in incubation. In North America, the behavior of parent goshawks differs, as they often vigorously defend their territories fiercely from all intruders, including passing humans. The northern goshawk has a reputation as the most aggressive American raptor when the vicinity of their nest is approached. Here, when the nest is approached (especially soon after hatching) the goshawk will engage in their defensive kakking vocal display accompanied by exaggerated swooping in flight which quickly phases into a violent attack, potentially causing painful (but usually minor) injuries and blood loss. Research has indicated that attacks on humans are mostly done by adult females (more than 80% of the time) and are rarely pressed unless a person is by themselves. However, large groups and loud noise can appear to irritate the female and may cause her to attack the next lone person who comes near the nest. The higher aggression towards humans in North America than in Europe has been linked to both a more extensive range of potential nest predators for American goshawks causing them to develop a more aggressive display or the lower rates of persecution in America than in Europe, which may account for the relative shyness in the latter continent.[9][60][305][321][322] Occasionally, both males and females have been recorded abandoning the nest and their mates. There are a few rare cases where males successfully reared up to 4 young after the female abandoned the nest or was killed between the 2 and 3rd week. Otherwise male will continue delivering prey but without the female all the nestlings will starve to death and the food simply rots.[239][323] In cases where the male abandons the female and the brood, she may be able to successfully brood but usually only one nestling is likely to survive to fledge without the male's contribution of prey.[60] At other times the mother may be replaced, sometimes forcefully, by another female, usually an older mature one.[239][324] Exceptional cases of polygamy, with a male mating with two females, have been reported in Germany and The Netherlands and typically these breeding attempts fail.[313][302]
Hatching is asynchronous but not completely, usually an average sized clutch takes only 2 to 3 days to hatch, although it may take up to 6 days to hatch a clutch of more than 4 eggs.[9][38] Hatchlings start calling from within the shell as much as 38 hours before hatching, as a faint chep, chep, chack, peep, peep, peep may be heard.[50] The young are covered with down and altricial (as are all raptors) at first but develop rapidly. Hatchlings measure about 13 cm (5.1 in) long at first and grow about 5 to 9 cm (2.0 to 3.5 in) in length each week until they fledge. The mothers typically brood the nestlings intensively for about two weeks, around the time grayer feathers start to develop through the nestlings’ down. The most key time for development may be at three weeks when the nestlings can stand a bit and start to develop their flight feathers. Also at the three-week stage, they can reach about half the adults’ weight and females start to noticeably outgrow the males. However, this growth requires increased food delivery so frequently results in lower nest attendance and, in turn, higher predation rates. Also rates of starvation at this stage can exceed 50% especially in the youngest of large clutches of 4 to 5.[9][60][325][326] Nestlings at four weeks are starting to develop strong flight feathers, which they frequently flap; also they can start to pull on food but are still mainly fed by female and begin to make a whistling scream when she goes to fetch food from the male. More active feeding behavior by nestlings may increase their aggression towards each other. By the 5th week, they have developed many typical goshawk behaviors, sometimes mantling over food, testing balance by extending one leg and one wing at edge of nest (called "warbling" by falconers) and can wag their tails vigorously. Starvation risk also increases at this point due to their growing demands and, due to their incessant begging calls, vocal activity may court predators. In 6th week, they become "branchers", although still spend much of the time by the nest, especially by the edge. The young goshawks "play" by seizing and striking violent at a perch or by yanking off leaves and tossing them over their back. Wing feathers do not develop highly dimorphically, but male branchers are better developed than females who have more growing to do and can leave the nest up to 1–3 days sooner. The young rarely return to the nest after being 35 to 46 days of age and start their first flight another 10 days later, thus becoming full fledglings.[3][9][325][326] Goshawk nestlings frequently engage in “runting”, wherein the older siblings push aside and call more loudly and are thus are feed more often at food deliveries, until the younger siblings may either starve to death, be trampled or killed by their siblings (referred to as siblicide or “cainism”). There is some evidence that mother goshawks may lessen the effects of runting by delaying incubation until their last eggs are laid. Food supply may be linked to higher rates of siblicides and, in many locations with consistent prey levels, runting and siblicide can occur somewhat seldom (meaning the northern goshawk is a “facultative” rather than “obligate cainist”).[9][325][327][328][329] Nonetheless, either by predation, starvation or siblicide, few nests produce more than 2 to 3 fledglings. One pair in North America was able to successfully fledge all four of its young.[325][330] Somewhat larger numbers of female fledglings are produced in Europe with their larger size, but the opposite is true in North America where sexual dimorphism is less pronounced. When food supplies are very high, though, European goshawks actually can produce somewhat more males than females.[9][331]
_(14562268417).jpg)
At about 50 days old, the young goshawks may start hunting on their own but more often eat carrion either provided by parents or biologists. Most fledglings stay within 300 m (980 ft) of the nest at 65 days of age but can wander up to 1,000 km (620 mi) before dispersal at between 65 and 80 days old in sync with the full development of their flight feathers. Between 65 and 90 days after hatching, more or less all young goshawks become independent. There is no evidence that parents aggressively displace the young in the fall (as other raptorial birds have sometimes been reported to do), therefore the young birds seek independence on their own.[3][9][60] Goshawk siblings are not cohesive together past 65 days, except for some lingering young females, whereas common buzzard broods are not recorded at their nests after 65 days but remain strongly cohesive with each other.[9][332] 5% of radio-tagged young in Gotland, Sweden (entirely males) were found to disperse to another breeding area and join a different brood as soon as their flight feathers were developed enough. These seem to be cases of moving to a better food area. Parents and adoptive young seem to tolerate this, although parents do not seem to be able to tell the difference between their own and other young.[9] It is only after dispersal that goshawks typically start to hunt and seem to drink more often than older birds, sometimes spend up to an hour bathing.[3][9]
Nest success averages between 80 and 95% in terms of the number of nests that produce fledglings, with an average number of 2 to 3 fledglings per nest. About equal numbers of eggs and nestlings may be lost (6% lost in each the incubation and brooding periods per a study from Arizona) but according to a study from Spain large clutches of 4 to 5 had higher losses overall than medium-sized clutches of 2 to nearly 4. Total losses averaged 36% in Spain across clutches of 2–5. Similar results were found in Germany, with similar numbers of fledglings produced in very large clutches (more than 4) as in medium-sized ones (2–4).[8][251][239][327] A grading of success from a study in Sweden found categories of competent and less competent pairs, with losses averaging 7% and 17% in these two groups, respectively.[333] Studies from Finland and the Yukon Territory found that average number of fledglings varied dramatically based on food supply based on the cyclical nature of most prey in these northern areas, varying from average success rates of 0 to 3.9 fledglings in the latter region. Similar wide variations in breeding success in correlation to prey levels were noted at other areas, including Nevada (where the number of fledglings could be up to seven times higher when lagomorphs were at their population peaks) and Wisconsin.[3][73][334][335]
Poor weather, which consists of cold springs that bear late cold spells, snow, and freezing rain, causes many nests to fail, and may also hamper courtship and lower brood size and overall breeding attempts.[9][336] However, the most important cause of nest failure was found to be nest destruction by humans and other predations, starvation, then bad weather and collapse of nests in declining order.[9][333] On average, humans are responsible based on known studies for about 17% of nest failures in Europe. 32% of 97 nestlings in Bavaria, Germany died because of human activities, while 59% of 111 broods in England failed due to this factor.[9][17][337] Low food supplies are linked to predation, as it seems to cause greater risk of predation due to the lower nest attendance.[17] Lower densities of pairs may actually increase nesting success, as per studies from Finland where the highest median clutch size, at 3.8, was in the area with the lowest densities.[320] Similarly, in Schleswig-Holstein, nest failure was 14% higher where active nests were closer than 2 km (1.2 mi) apart compared to nests farther than this.[239] Age may also play a factor in nest success, pairings where one mate is not fully mature (usually the female, as males rarely breed before attaining adult plumage) is less than half as successful as ones where both were mature, based on studies from Arizona.[251][238] Overall, males do not normally breed at any younger than 3 years of age (although they are in adult plumage by two years) and females can breed at as young as 1 to 2 years old, but rarely produce successful, viable clutches. The age at sexual maturity is the same as other northern Accipiters as well as most buteonine hawks (eagles, on the other hand, can take twice as long to attain full sexual maturity).[8][9] 6–9 years of age seem to be the overall peak reproductive years for most northern goshawks. However, some females can reproduce at as old as 17 years old and senescence is ambiguous in both sexes (possibly not occurring in males).[9] Median values of brood success was found to be 77% in Europe and 82% in North America overall. Conversely, the median brood size is about half a chick smaller in North America than in Europe. In Europe, clutch size overall averages 3.3, the number of nestlings averages 2.5 and fledglings averages 1.9.[9][145]
The lifespan in the wild is variable. It is known that in captivity, northern goshawks may live up to 27 years of age.[9] Wild birds that survive their first two years can expect a lifespan of up to 11 years.[338] There is one record (apparently sourced to the AOU) of a 16-year, 4-month-old goshawk.[339] In Fennoscandia, starvation was found to account for 3-6% of reported deaths.[340] In Norway, 9% of deaths were from starvation, but the percentage of demises from this increased to the north and affected juveniles more so than adults.[341] In Gotland, Sweden, 28% of mortality was from starvation and disease.[9] Both bacterial and viral diseases have been known to cause mortality in wild northern goshawks.[274][342] Variable numbers of goshawks are killed by flying into man-made objects such as power lines and buildings and by automobiles, although lesser numbers are affected by powerline collisions than larger types of raptor.[8][145]
The breeding range of the northern goshawk extends over one-third of North America and Asia each and perhaps five-sixths of Europe, a total area of over 30,000,000 km2 (12,000,000 sq mi). Densities in western and central Europe were recorded at 3–5 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). In boreal Sweden, numbers vary from 1 to 4.5 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), while in similar habitat in Alaska there were 0.3 to 2.7/100 km2 (39 sq mi). An average of only 1 pair per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) would give world population of 600,000 breeding birds, likely at least half as many immature and other non-breeders. Recent study found 145,000–160,000 in Europe or 1 pair/60 km2 (23 sq mi) to 1 pair/54 km2 (21 sq mi). The total population of northern goshawks in the world probably ranges well over a million.[6][9] The total European populations, estimated at as many as 160,000 pairs, makes it the fourth most numerous raptor in the continent, after the common buzzards (>700,000 pairs), Eurasian sparrowhawk (>340,000 pairs) and common kestrel (>330,000 pairs). The most populated countries by goshawks in Europe were Sweden (an estimated 10,000 pairs), Germany (8,500 pairs), Finland (6,000 pairs) and France (5,600 pairs). The highest densities of breeding pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) of land were in The Netherlands, Latvia and Switzerland, although this is biased due to the small land area of these countries.[9][343] Russia has a roughly estimated 85,000 pairs of northern goshawk.[6] In North America, there are a broadly estimated 150,000–300,000 individuals. In North America, most western populations at mid-latitudes have approximately 3.6–10.7 pairs/100 km2 (39 sq mi). A total of 107 nesting territories (1991–1996) were located on a 1,754 km2 (677 sq mi) study area on the Kaibab Plateau, AZ, resulting in a density of 8.4 pairs/100 km2 (39 sq mi). The estimated density in Pennsylvania (1.17 pairs/100 km2 (39 sq mi)) suggests that eastern populations may occur at lower densities than western populations, but densities of eastern populations may increase as these populations recover. Typically, populations at far northern latitudes may occur at lower densities than those of southwestern and western populations in North America.[6][8][344] Although median densities was similar, populations are overall much denser in Europe than in North America. The hotspots of density for goshawks in Europe lie in east-central Europe (around Poland) and in west-central area (the Netherlands/West Germany).[9][345] Per the IUCN, the global population is estimated to consist of 1 million to nearly 2.5 million birds, making this one of the most numerous species in its diverse family (the red-tailed hawk and black kite both may have a similar global population size, whereas the Eurasian sparrowhawk and common buzzard are possibly slightly more numerous than goshawks despite their smaller ranges).[1][346][347][348]
Mortality rates for first-year goshawks is often considerably higher than older birds. In studies from Gotland, Sweden, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany and the Netherlands, 40–42% of first-years died. By the second year, mortality rates drop to 31–35%, based on ring studies from the Netherlands and Finland. Based on studies from Gotland, Finland and the southwestern United States, annual mortality for adults is 15–21%, however, feather results indicate that annual mortality for adult goshawks is up to 7% higher in Europe than in North America.[8][9][70][313][349] In many parts of the range, especially Europe, historic populations decreased regionally due to human persecution (especially shooting), disturbance and epidemic loss of habitat, especially during the 19th century and early 20th.[6] Some states, like Pennsylvania, paid $5 bounties on Goshawks in the 1930s.[8] From 1880 to 1930, an estimated 3,000–5,500 goshawk were being killed annually in Norway when bounties were offered. Shooting rate lowered later, causing the average number of goshawks shot to drop to 654 to for the period 1965–1970.[350][351] Northern goshawks continue to be persecuted in Norway, shown by the high turnover rate of breeding females in Telemark County, revealed by DNA analysis of moulted feathers.[352] In Finland, where the species was not legally protected, 4,000–8,000 goshawks were being killed annually from 1964 to 1975.[353] Most goshawks shot are incautious juveniles, with 58% of juvenile mortality in Germany and 59% from the Netherlands being killings by humans. Increase of pheasant releases in Vendsyssel, Denmark from 6,000 to 35,000 since 1994 has resulted in fewer goshawks as they often hunt the pheasants in winter and are shot, legally, by the region's gamekeepers.[354][355] As recently as about five years before that, intentional killing by humans continued as the main cause of mortality for goshawks on Gotland, Sweden, causing 36% of deaths.[356] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the northern goshawk was extirpated in the 19th century because of specimen collectors and persecution by gamekeepers, but in recent years it has come back by immigration from Europe, escaped falconry birds, and deliberate releases. The goshawk is now found in considerable numbers in Kielder Forest, Northumberland, which is the largest forest in Britain. Overall there are some 620 pairs in Britain.[6][9][357]
In the 1950s–1960s declines were increasingly linked with pesticide pollution. However, in early 1970s pesticide levels in the United States for goshawks were low. Eggshell thinning has not been a problem for most populations, although California eggshells (weight and thickness index) pre-1947 (pre-DDT) to 1947—1964 (DDT in use) declined some 8-12%. In Illinois, migratory goshawks during the winter of 1972-1973 invasion year contained less organochlorine and PCB residues than did other raptors, however, these birds were probably from nonagricultural, northern forests.[358][359][360] Higher DDT levels seemed to have persisted quite recently in Europe. This was the case in Germany, especially in former East Germany where DDT was widely available until 1988, having been largely discontinued elsewhere after the 1970s.[361] Goshawks, which had increased in The Netherlands after World War II due to less persecution, new woodlands and increased pigeon numbers, were found to have suddenly crashed from the late 1950s on. It was later revealed that this was due to DDT, the number of breeding pairs decreasing 84% from 1958 to 1963.[362] As opposed to DDT, the main contaminant found to have reduced goshawks in Scandinavia during the 20th century were methyl mercury seed dressings used to reduce fungal attack in livestock.[363]
Seemingly the remaining persistent conservation threat to goshawks, given their seeming overall resilience (at the species level) to both persecution and pesticides, is deforestation. Timber harvests are known to destroy many nests and adversely regional populations.[237][364][365] Harvest methods that create extensive areas of reduced forest canopy cover, dropping to cover less than 35-40%, may be especially detrimental as cases of this usually cause all goshawks to disappear from the area.[80][366] However, the mortality rates due to foresting practices are unknown and it is possible that some mature goshawks may simply be able to shift to other regions when a habitat becomes unsuitable but this is presumably unsustainable in the long-term.[8] In harvest forests of California, where overstory trees are frequently removed, goshawks have been found to successfully remain as breeding species as long as some mature stands are left intact. Despite the decline of habitat quality and the frequent disturbances, this region's goshawks breeding success rates somewhat improbably did not reduce.[367][368] Similarly, a study from Italy and France shows that goshawks only left woodlots when the canopy was reduced by more than 30%, although the European goshawk populations have long been known to be adaptable to some degree of habitat fragmentation.[369] Based on habitat usage studied in New Jersey and New York, this adaptability is not seen everywhere, as here nests were further from human habitation than expected on the basis of available habitat, an observation suggesting that disturbance regionally can reduce habitat quality.[370] Similarly, studies from the American southwest and Canada have indicated that heavily logged areas caused strong long-term regional declines for goshawks. In Arizona, it was found that even when the nests were left intact, the noisy timber harvest work often caused failure of nesting during the incubation stage, and all nesting attempts that were occurring within 50 to 100 m (160 to 330 ft) of active logging failed, frequently after parents abandoned the nest.[326][371][372] Other noisy activity, such as camping, have also caused nests to failure.[373] Wildlife researchers and biologists do not seem to negatively affect goshawk nests, as they aware to keep forays to the nest brief and capture of adult goshawks for radio-tagging was found to not harm their success at raising broods.[373]
In North America, several non-governmental conservation organizations petitioned the Department of Interior, United States Fish & Wildlife Service (1991 & 1997) to list the goshawk as "threatened" or "endangered" under the authority of the Endangered Species Act. Both petitions argued for listing primarily on the basis of historic and ongoing nesting habitat loss, specifically the loss of old-growth and mature forest stands throughout the goshawk's known range. In both instances, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service concluded that listing was not warranted, but state and federal natural resource agencies responded during the petition process with standardized and long-term goshawk inventory and monitoring efforts, especially throughout U.S. Forest Service lands in the Western U.S. The United States Forest Service (US Dept of Agriculture) has listed the goshawk as a "sensitive species", while it also benefits from various protection at the state level. In North America, the goshawk is federally protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 by an amendment incorporating native birds of prey into the Act in 1972. The northern goshawk is also listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).[374]
The northern goshawk appears on the flag and coat of arms of the Azores. The archipelago of the Azores, Portugal, takes its name from the Portuguese language word for goshawk, (açor), because the explorers who discovered the archipelago thought the birds of prey they saw there were goshawks; later it was found that these birds were kites or common buzzards (Buteo buteo rothschildi). The goshawk features in Stirling Council's coat of arms via the crest of the Drummond Clan.
Hawks are highly associated with Guru Gobind Singh in the Sikh community. According to ornithologists, he is believed to have kept a white Northern Goshawk. This is reflected in that the Northern Goshawk was made the official state bird of Punjab, India.[375][376][377][378]
The name "goshawk" is a traditional name from Anglo-Saxon gōshafoc, literally "goose hawk".[379] The name implies prowess against larger quarry such as wild geese, but were also flown against crane species and other large waterbirds. The name "goose hawk" is somewhat of a misnomer, however, as the traditional quarry for goshawks in ancient and contemporary falconry has been rabbits, pheasants, partridge, and medium-sized waterfowl, which are similar to much of the prey the species hunts in the wild. A notable exception is in records of traditional Japanese falconry, where goshawks were used more regularly on goose and crane species.[380] In ancient European falconry literature, goshawks were often referred to as a yeoman's bird or the "cook's bird" because of their utility as a hunting partner catching edible prey, as opposed to the peregrine falcon, also a prized falconry bird, but more associated with noblemen and less adapted to a variety of hunting techniques and prey types found in wooded areas. The northern goshawk has remained equal to the peregrine falcon in its stature and popularity in modern falconry.[381][382]
Goshawk hunting flights in falconry typically begin from the falconer's gloved hand, where the fleeing bird or rabbit is pursued in a horizontal chase. The goshawk's flight in pursuit of prey is characterized by an intense burst of speed often followed by a binding maneuver, where the goshawk, if the prey is a bird, inverts and seizes the prey from below. The goshawk, like other accipiters, shows a marked willingness to follow prey into thick vegetation, even pursuing prey on foot through brush.[381] Goshawks trained for falconry not infrequently escape their handlers and, extrapolated from the present day British population which is composed mostly of escaped birds as such, have reasonably high survival rates, although many do die shortly after escape and many do not successfully breed.[383] The effect of modern-day collection of northern goshawks for falconry purposes is unclear, unlike some falcon species which can show regional declines due to heavy falconry collections but can increase in other areas due to established escapees from falconers.[384][385]
The northern goshawk (/ˈɡɒsˌhɔːk/; Accipiter gentilis) is a species of medium-large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes other extant diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. As a species in the genus Accipiter, the goshawk is often considered a "true hawk". The scientific name is Latin; Accipiter is "hawk", from accipere, "to grasp", and gentilis is "noble" or "gentle" because in the Middle Ages only the nobility were permitted to fly goshawks for falconry.
This species was first described by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema naturae (1758) as Falco gentilis.
It is a widespread species that inhabits many of the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The northern goshawk is the only species in the genus Accipiter found in both Eurasia and North America. It may have the second widest distribution of any true member of the family Accipitridae, behind arguably only the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), which has a broader range to the south of Asia than the goshawk. The only other acciptrid species to also range in both North America and Eurasia, according to current opinion, is the more Arctic-restricted rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus). Except in a small portion of southern Asia, it is the only species of "goshawk" in its range and it is thus often referred to, both officially and unofficially, as simply the "goshawk". It is mainly resident, but birds from colder regions migrate south for the winter. In North America, migratory goshawks are often seen migrating south along mountain ridge tops at nearly any time of the fall depending on latitude.
La Akcipitro (Accipiter gentilis) estas mezgranda rabobirdo de familio akcipitredoj kiu enhavas ankaŭ multajn aliajn tagajn rabobirdojn kiel agloj, buteoj kaj cirkuoj, precize en ties subfamilio de Akcipitrenoj.
Temas pri tre disvastigita specio tra la tuta mezvarma zono de norda hemisfero, tio estas Kanado, okcidenta Usono, Eŭropo -kun Skandinavio-, Turkio, Nordazio (Siberio), Japanio kaj centra Ĉinio. Pli ofte ĝi estas specio de loĝantaj birdoj, sed birdoj el plej malvarmaj regionoj el Kanado kaj Siberio migras vintre suden. En Nordameriko videblas migrantajn akcipitrojn suden super montoĉenoj septembre kaj oktobre.
Tiu specio estis unuafoje priskribata de Linnaeus en sia verko de 1758 nome Systema naturae laŭ ties nuna scienca nomo.[1]
La Akcipitro estas la plej granda membro de la genro Accipiter.[2] Tiu rabobirdo havas mallongajn larĝajn flugilojn kaj longan voston, ambaŭ tre utilaj por manovri en arbaro inter arboj. La virbirdo havas blugrizan dorson kaj grizblankan striecan suban parton, sed azia subspecio en partikulara teritorio estas preskaŭ blanka ĝenerale al preskaŭ nigra supre.
Li estas 46-57 cm longa kaj havas enverguron de 89-105 cm. La ino estas multe pli granda (58-64 cm longa kaj enverguro de 108-127 cm) kaj pli griza. La Akcipitro, kiel ĉiuj Akcipitredoj, montras kazon de seksa dimorfismo pro la grando, ĉar maskloj estas 10-25% pli malgrandaj ol inoj kaj tiuj de la pli malgrandaj rasoj povas pezi tiom malmulte kiom ĝis 515 g, dum inoj de la pli grandaj rasoj povas pezi ĝis 2.2 kg.[3] Inoj estas ofte 30-60% pli fortikaj ol siaj partneroj.
La junuloj estas pli brunaj kaj la ventraj strioj estas vertikalaj anstataŭ horizontalaj kaj sur pli flava koloro. Ĉiuj aĝoj havas malhelan kapon kaj videblegan blankan strion superokulan. Tiu aspekto dumripoze: griza dorso, striecaj ventro kaj brusto, malhela kapo kaj strio hela superokula estas komuna kun la ino de Nizo, kiu tamen estas multe pli malgranda.
Dumfluge la subaj partoj estas helaj kaj striecaj, kapo blanka kaj zono ĉirkaŭ la flavaj kruroj ankaŭ blanka; en longa vosto kvar malhelaj strioj. Flugilpintoj malhelaj.
En Nordameriko, junuloj havas palflavajn irisojn, dum plenkreskuloj havas malhelruĝajn kutime post la dua jaro, kvankam ankaŭ nutrado kaj genetiko povus influi sur iriskoloro. En Eŭropo kaj Azio, junuloj havas ankaŭ palflavajn irisojn, dum plenkreskuloj havas oranĝeccajn irisojn.
La flugmaniero estas karaktera flugilfrapado "flap flap" kaj posta glitado, sed ĝi estas foje vidata dum ŝvebado dum migrado, kaj kapablas konsiderindajn, longajn, horizontalajn rapidojn persekute de predo.
La Akcipitro estas foje konfuzata kun la Ĉasfalko ĉefe observata en alta rapida persekutado, havante flugilplintojn reen per falkeca profilo. En Eŭrazio la masklo estas foje konfuzata kun ino de Nizo, sed li estas pli granda, multe pli fortika kaj havas relative pli longajn flugilojn. En Nordameriko junuloj estas foje konfuzataj kun la pli malgranda Kupera akcipitro, tamen la junaj akcipitroj montras pli fortikan, vertikalan striecon en brusto kaj ventro kaj foje ŝajnas havi pli mallongan voston pro sia mulye pli granda kaj larĝa korpo. Kvankam ŝajnas esti laŭgranda koincido inter malgrandaj maskloj de akcipitroj kaj grandaj inoj de Kupera akcipitro, mezuroj pri morfometrio (longo de flugiloj kaj vosto) de ambaŭ specioj pruvas, ke ne eatas tia koincido, kvankam laŭpeza koincido povas okazi pro variado laŭsezona kondiĉo kaj faritaj manĝoj ĉe la pezado. En Nordameriko la Striakcipitro estas klare pli malgranda.
La situacio de la agnoskitaj subspecioj estas ankoraŭ studata. Ĝenerale oni agnoskas 10 subspeciojn, ĉiuj en la Malnova Mondo, escepte tri en Nordameriko:
Ĝi ĉasas birdojn kaj mamuletojn en varia gamo de arbaro, per kaptado pro surprizo kiam ili falflugas ekde gvatejo aŭ per rapida persekutado. Ili povas predi bestojn tiom grandaj kiel leporo aŭ fazano.
Akcipitroj estas ofte vidataj ĉe apudarbaraj habitatotipoj, kiaj arbarbordoj kaj herbejoj; flugante malalte kaj rapide por surprizi naatentantajn predojn. Ili estas kutime oportunemaj predantoj, kiel plej parto de rabobirdoj. Ĉefaj predospecioj estas malgrandaj mamuloj kaj birdoj troviĝantaj en arbaraj habitatoj, ĉefe Kanada bonazio, Neĝoŝua leporo, kaj Ruĝa sciuro en Nordameriko. Predospecioj povas esti tre diversaj, kiaj kolomboj kaj turtoj, fazanoj, perdrikoj, mevoj, diversaj vadbirdoj, pegoj, korvedoj kaj paserinoj (specioj varias laŭ regiono). Mamulaj predoj estas kunikloj kaj nombraj specioj de sciuroj kaj marmotoj. Ankaŭ akvobirdoj ĝis la grando de Platbeka anaso estas foje predataj. Predo estas ofte pli malgranda ol la ĉasista akcipitro, sed tiuj birdoj foje mortigas multe pli grandajn animalojn, ĝis la grando de leporoj duoble pezaj. La Akcipitro estas ŝajne grava predanto de aliaj rabobirdoj, kiaj pernenoj, strigoj, pli malgrandaj Accipiter kaj la Amerika turfalko.[4]
La voĉo estas akra skriĉ.
Printempe dum la reprodukta sezono la akcipitroj plenumas spektaklan "ondecan flugomontron", kaj tiu estas la plej bona momento por visi tiun sekreteman arbarbirdon. Tiam oni aŭdas foje la surprize kvazaŭ de mevo alvokon de tiu birdo.
Plenkreskuloj defendas siajn teritoriojn kuraĝe el entruduloj, inklude pretepasantajn homojn. Oni supozas, ke tia malkutima agresema nestodefendo estas adapto kontraxu arbogrimpantaj ursospecioj, kiaj la nigra urso en Nordameriko. Ili atakas ankaŭ aliajn rabobirdojn ĉe nestolokoj, kaj ofte tiuj devas cedi teritorion aŭ esti mortigataj de la agresema Akcipitro. La Akcipitro estas konsiderata sekretema rabobirdo kaj rare observata eĉ en areoj kie estas komunaj nestolokoj.
Tiu holarktisa specio nestas en arboj (ĉefe arbaroj proksimaj de malfermaj kampoj), per konstruo de nova granda nesto ĉiujare, sed ankaŭ povas profiti forlasitajn nestojn de aliaj birdoj.
Plenkreskuloj revenas al siaj nestoteritorioj marte aŭ aprile kaj ovodemetado komencas aprile aŭ maje. Teritorioj ofte enhavas variojn de habitatoj, tamen la tuja nestareo estas ofte en matura aŭ eĉ praa arbaro. La ino demetas kutime 2 al 4 ovojn, sed ankaŭ el 1 al 5 eblas. La ovoj averaĝe estas 59 x 45 mm kajpezas ĉirkaŭ 60 g. La periodo de Kovado povas daŭri el 28 al 38 tagoj. Elnestiĝo okazas post ĉirkaŭ 35 tagoj kaj elflugo post pluaj 10 tagoj. La junulo povas resti ĉe la gepatra teritorio ĝis unu jaron.
La Akcipitro aperas en la Flago de Azoroj. La arkipelago de Azoroj, Portugalio, havas sian nomon el la Portugala vorto por akcipitro, (açor), ĉar la esploristoj kiuj malkovris la insularon misidentigis vidatajn rabobirdojn kiel akcipitroj; poste oni trovis ke tiuj birdoj estas fakte milvoj aŭ Komuna buteo (Buteo buteo rothschildi).
En Granda Britio kaj Irlando la Akcipitro ixgis formortinta en la 19a jarcento pro specimenkolektantoj kaj persekutado fare de ĉasgardistoj, sed ĝi ĵus revenis per enmigrado el Eŭropo, fuĝintaj birdoj el falkado kaj intencitaj liberigoj. La Akcipitro nun troviĝas en konsiderindaj nombroj en la arbaro Kielder, Northumberland, kiu estas la plej granda arbaro de Britio. La ĉefa minaco al Akcipitroj internacie nune estas klarigado de arbaraj habitatoj el kiuj kaj ili kaj ties predoj dependas, kaj en Britio kontraŭleĝa pafado kaj venenado por ĉaskonservado kiam la junuloj disiĝe moviĝas al farmaj areoj.
En Nordameriko, kelkaj neregistaraj konservorganizoj petis al la Departamento de Internaj Aferoj kaj precize al la Fiŝkapta kaj Natura Servo de Usono (1991 & 1997) listigi la Akcipitron kiel "minacata" aŭ "endanĝerita" laŭ la aŭtoritato de la Endangered Species Act. Ambaŭ petoj baziĝis por listado ĉefe sur la historia kaj pliiĝanta pornestada habitatoperdo, ĉefe de malnova kreskaĵaro kaj matura arbaro tre la konata teritorio de la Akcipitro. Al ambaŭ petoj la usona natura servo konkludis ke listadon ne garantias, sed subŝtataj kaj federaj naturagentejoj respondis dum la petoproceso per klopodoj por kontroli la evoluon de akcipitroj ĉefe en okcidenta Usono. Fakte ĝi estis listita kiel "sensitive species", kio estas ioma sekuro por protektado je subŝtata nivelo. En Nordameriko la Akcipitro estas federe protektita laŭ la Traktato de Migrantaj Birdoj de 1918 per amendo aldoninta indiĝenajn rabobirdojn al Traktato en 1972. Tiu specio estas listata ankaŭ en la Apendico II de la Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) .[5]
La tradicia kapablo de la specio kontraŭ tre grandaj birdoj kiaj anseroj, gruoj kaj aliaj akvobirdoj igis tiun specion aprezata por falkado. En angla la nomo de la specio "goshawk" devenas el "goose hawk", tio estas la akcipitro kiu ĉasas anserojn; tamen la tradicia predoj de akcipitroj kaj en antikva kaj en moderna falkado estis kunikloj, fazanoj, perdrikoj kaj mezgrandaj akvobirdoj. Elstara escepto estas en konstatoj de tradicia japana falkado, kie akcipitroj estis uzataj pli regule kontraŭ specioj de anseroj kaj gruoj.[6] En antikva eŭropa falkada literaturo akcipitroj estis ofte aludataj kiel birdo de vasalo aŭ de "kuiristo" pro ties utilo kiel ĉaspartnero male al la Migra falko, ankaŭ aprezata falkada birdo, sed pli asocia kun nobeluloj kaj malpli adaptata al vario de ĉasteknikoj kaj predotipoj troviĝantaj en arbaraj areoj. Ĉiukaze la Akcipitro restas same aprezata kiel la Migra falko pro sia grando kaj populareco en moderna falkado.[7]
La ĉasflugo de la Akcipitroj en falkado tipe komencas el la enganta mano de la falkadisto, kiam la fluganta birdo aŭ kuniklo estas persekutata per horizontala ĉasado. La flugo de la Akcipitro persekutanta la predon estas karakterizata de intensa rapidaĵo ofte sekve de kapta manovro, per kiu la akcipitro kaptas sian predon per invertita posteno el sub la predo. La akcipitro, kiel ĉe aliaj akcipitredoj, montras markatan lertecon por sekvi predon en densa vegetaĵaro, eĉ persekutante predon perpiede tra arbustaro.[7]
La Akcipitro (Accipiter gentilis) estas mezgranda rabobirdo de familio akcipitredoj kiu enhavas ankaŭ multajn aliajn tagajn rabobirdojn kiel agloj, buteoj kaj cirkuoj, precize en ties subfamilio de Akcipitrenoj.
Temas pri tre disvastigita specio tra la tuta mezvarma zono de norda hemisfero, tio estas Kanado, okcidenta Usono, Eŭropo -kun Skandinavio-, Turkio, Nordazio (Siberio), Japanio kaj centra Ĉinio. Pli ofte ĝi estas specio de loĝantaj birdoj, sed birdoj el plej malvarmaj regionoj el Kanado kaj Siberio migras vintre suden. En Nordameriko videblas migrantajn akcipitrojn suden super montoĉenoj septembre kaj oktobre.
Tiu specio estis unuafoje priskribata de Linnaeus en sia verko de 1758 nome Systema naturae laŭ ties nuna scienca nomo.
El azor común[2] (Accipiter gentilis) es una especie de ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae.[3] En España, su estado de conservación lo define como una especie de preocupación menor (LC).[1] Recibe también los nombres de azor septentrional, azor norteño y gavilán azor. En la India se lo considera el ave estatal de Punyab.[4]
El azor común es de tamaño mediano (mide entre 48 y 58 cm; bastante similar a un ratonero) y su patrón de colores le asemejan a un halcón, aunque la especie se encuentra realmente emparentada con las águilas y muy especialmente con el gavilán. Su envergadura es de entre 100 y 120 cm, y como en todas las aves rapaces, el macho es de menor tamaño que la hembra.[5] Los jóvenes presentan tonos claros: rojizo arriba y amarillo con grandes manchas de color pardo oscuro en la zona de abajo. Los adultos poseen una coloración parda ceniza, de tonos grises y negruzcos en la región superior, mientras que las partes inferiores son blanquecinas horizontalmente barradas en oscuro. Tienen dos manchas blancas por encima de sus grandes ojos y el iris es amarillo o naranja; estas últimas características son algunas de las más evidentes diferencias faciales con los halcones, que carecen de dichas manchas y cuyos iris son oscuros.
El azor común es un ave especializada en la caza en ecosistemas arbóreos; sus alas resultan cortas para su tamaño, y tienen los extremos redondeados; al mismo tiempo, su cola es proporcionalmente larga, para facilitar las maniobras bruscas, y barreada con 4 o 5 franjas oscuras. Estas características le permiten una gran movilidad y capacidad de maniobra en un ambiente con mucha vegetación, y sus cortas alas impiden que choque contra la foresta del bosque de forma que es capaz de volar sin problemas en un ambiente denso. Estas características cinegéticas le dieron su valor desde la antigüedad como ave predilecta en cetrería para cazar en el bosque.[6]
Otra característica que comparte con las águilas es la forma de la cabeza y el pico, así como las garras, que son cortas, romas y muy fuertes, ya que el azor (al igual que las águilas) no mata a sus presas desnucándolas con el pico como hacen los verdaderos halcones, sino que lo hacen con la mera presión de sus garras.
Habita en bosques densos, tanto de llanura como de montaña, y rara vez sale a campo abierto. Se lo puede encontrar en Europa, Asia y América septentrional. Está repartido por toda la península ibérica, sobre todo por el norte; sin embargo, no habita en las islas Baleares.
Nidifica en los árboles.[5] En el nido deposita de 3 a 4 huevos (más raramente de 1 a 5) en un intervalo de unos tres días. La incubación es realizada mayoritariamente por la hembra, la cual es alimentada por el macho durante el período que aquella dura, es decir entre 36 y 41 días. En las crías el plumaje aparece entre los 18 y 38 días; a los 40 días aproximadamente salen del nido y a los 45 realizan su primer vuelo propiamente dicho, alcanzando un elevado grado de independencia a los 70 días.
El azor común es un formidable cazador del bosque: persigue sus presas velozmente entre los árboles volando bajo con gran habilidad. Caza distintas especies de aves (cuervos, palomas, tordos, perdices, etc) y también pequeños mamíferos (conejos, liebres, ardillas, ratones, etc), así como lagartos e insectos. Acostumbra a cazar al acecho, posado en una atalaya o lugar privilegiado desde donde poder observar su territorio y localizar a sus posibles presas sin ser visto; una vez localizada, ataca siguiendo su ángulo muerto, normalmente desde abajo en el caso de un ave en vuelo, o a ras de suelo si su presa está en el suelo. Devora sus presas en el lugar donde las atrapó.
Es un ave diurna discreta y bastante difícil de ver, incluso más que su pariente de menor tamaño, el gavilán común (Accipiter nisus).
Se conocen ocho subespecies de Accipiter gentilis :[3]
El azor común (Accipiter gentilis) es una especie de ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae. En España, su estado de conservación lo define como una especie de preocupación menor (LC). Recibe también los nombres de azor septentrional, azor norteño y gavilán azor. En la India se lo considera el ave estatal de Punyab.
Kanakull (Accipiter gentilis) on haugaslaste sugukonda kuuluv linnuliik.
Eestis kuulub kanakull II kaitsekategooria alla.[2]
Kanakulli rahvapärased nimetused on ka kanaröövel, tiirutaja, kanakatk, päriskull.[3] Rahvasuu on ekslikult kanakulliks kutsunud ka Euraasias enam levinud raudkulli.
Keha alapool on hele või kreemikas tumedate ristsuunaliste triipudega. Ülapool on suled pruunikashallid või helepruunid. Küllaltki pikal sabal on neli laiemat ja tumedat triipu. Kulmupiirkonnas on heledam vööt.[4] Silmad on kollased, nokaots must, noka tagumine osa aga kollakas. Jalad on kollased.[5]
Keha mass on tavaliselt 700–1500 g, emaslind on isasest märkimisväärselt suurem. Kehapikkus on keskmiselt 50–60 cm.[3] Tiibade siruulatus on 100–120 cm.[6]
Kanakull on levinud Euraasias ja Põhja-Ameerikas. Kõikjal Euroopas pesitsevat kanakulli esineb vähem Lääne- ja Lõuna-Euroopas.[6] Kogu maailma arvukuseks peetakse 500 000 lindu.[7]
Eestis püsis kanakulli arvukus enam-vähem ühesuurune (ligi 1000 pesitsevat paari) 1970. aastatest kuni 1990. aastani. Seejärel vähenes arvukus kümne aasta jooksul järsult ligi 50%. Seetõttu kanti kanakull meil 2004. aastal II kaitsekategooriasse. Nüüdisajal pesitseb Eestis hinnanguliselt 400–600 paari.[8] Arvukuse languse põhjusteks peetakse intensiivsemat metsade majandamist, sest kanakullile meeldib elada eelkõige suuremates ja vanemates segametsades.[6]
Kuigi kanakull on üsna paikne lind, rändavad levila põhjaosa asustavad linnud sageli lõuna poole talvituma.[6]
Kanakullil on halb kuulsus eelkõige maarahva hulgas, kuna tema saakloomade hulka kuuluvad ka kodukanad. Uuringud näitavad, et kanakulli toidulauast moodustavad kodukanad ligi 1,4%. Põhiliste saakloomade hulka kuuluvad metsakanalised (laanepüü, teder, nurmkana, metsis), värvulised, vareslased (eriti hallvares), rästad (enamasti hall-, must-, laulu- ja vainurästas), hanelised (piilpart, sinikael-part), kurvitsalised (eelkõige metskurvits, naerukajakas, metstilder), tuvid (kodutuvi, kaelustuvi), kakulised (enamasti kõrvukräts), rähnilised (sageli suur-kirjurähn), västriklased (metskiur), kuldnokk, metsvint ja väikeimetajad (oravad, uruhiired, mutid, jänesed). Pesitsusperioodil püüab saakloomi pere jaoks peaaegu alati vaid isaslind. Emaslinnud hakkavad saakloomadele jahti pidama vahetult enne poegade lennuvõimestumist. Toitumisel võib esineda ka kannibalismi.[9]
Kanakull (Accipiter gentilis) on haugaslaste sugukonda kuuluv linnuliik.
Eestis kuulub kanakull II kaitsekategooria alla.
Kanakulli rahvapärased nimetused on ka kanaröövel, tiirutaja, kanakatk, päriskull. Rahvasuu on ekslikult kanakulliks kutsunud ka Euraasias enam levinud raudkulli.
Aztorea (Accipiter gentilis) hegazti harrapari bat da, falkoniformeen sailekoa, eta, honen barnean accipitridae sendikoa. Bere kontserbazio egoerak, arrisku txikiko hegazti mota bezala zehazten du. Aztore arrunta izena ere jasotzen du.
Neurri ertainekoa da (48 eta 58 zentimetro artean neurtzen du, zapelaitz arruntaren oso antzekoa) eta bere gorpuzkerak, gabirai handi bat edo belatz baten antza ematen dio, hegazti mota, benetan, arranoekin lotuta dagoen arren. Bere hego luzera 100 eta 120 zentimetro artekoa da, eta, hegazti harrapari guztietan bezala, arra emea baino txikiagoa da. Gazteek, margo argiak dituzte: gorriska goian eta horinabar ilun kolorezko orban handiekin behean. Helduek, nabar errauts kolorea dute, urdinabar eta beltzkara margokoak gainaldean eta zurixkak lerro ilunekin behean. Bi orban zuri dituzte euren begi handien gainean eta euren begininia horia edo laranja da; azken ezaugarri hauek, belatzekin dituzten aurpegiko ezberdintasunik nabarmenetako batzuk dira, belatzek ez baitute orban horiek, eta, gainera, euren begininiak ilunak dira. Aztorea, zuhaitz ekosistemetako ehizan bereizituriko hegaztia da, bere hegoak, laburrak dira duen neurrirako eta muturrak biribilduak dituzte, aldi berean, euren isatsa proportzionalki luzea da eta 4 edo 5 lerro ilun ditu. Ezaugarri hauek, mugikortasun handia eta mugimendu ahalmena ahalbidetzen diote landaredi askoko giro batean, eta bere hego laburrek, basoko zuhaitzen aurka jotzea eragozten dute, honela, giro trinko batean arazorik gabe hegan egiteko gai delarik. Ezaugarri zinegetiko hauek antzinatetik bere balioa eman zioten belazketa hegazti gogokoena bezala basoan ehizatzeko.
Arranoekin duen beste elkar ezaugarri bat, buruaren forma eta mokoa dira, baita herpeak ere, laburrak, kamutsak eta oso indartsuak direnak, aztoreak (arranoek bezala) ez baititu bere harrapakinak mokoarekin lepoa moztuz hiltzen, belatzek egiten duten bezala, euren herpeen estutzearekin baizik.
Accipiter gentilis espezieak zortzi azpiespezie ezagun ditu:[1]
Baso trinkoetan bizi da, lautada zein mendikoak, eta gutxitan irtetzen da basorik ez dagoen tokietara, Europa, Asia eta Ipar Amerikan aurki daiteke. Iberiar penintsula osoan hedatua dago, batez ere iparraldean, baina ez da Balear Uharteetan bizi.
Zuhaitzetan egiten ditu bere habiak. Habian 3 edo 4 arraultza jartzen ditu (ez hain ohi 1etik 5era), hiru egunen epean. Txitaldia, nagusiki, emeak egiten du, arrak elikatzen duena txitatze denbora guztian, hau da, 36 eta 41 egun bitartean. Txitatan, lumaia 18 eta 38 egun bitarteko epean agertzen da, gutxi gora-behera, 40 egunetara, habiatik irteten dira, eta, 45era, euren lehen hegaldia egiten dute, independentzia maila handi bat lortuz 70 egunetara.
Aztorea, basoko ehiztari paregabe bat da: bere harrapakinak azkar jazartzen ditu zuhaitzen artean behetik abilezia handiz hegan eginez. Hegazti mota ezberdinak ehizatzen ditu (beleak, usoak, arabazozoak, eperrak etab...), baita ugaztun txikiak ere (untxiak, erbiak urtxintxak, saguak etab...), musker eta xomorroez gain. Zelatatzen ehizatzeko ohitura du, behatoki batean edo toki pribilegiatu batean pausatua, nondik bere lurraldea eta balizko harrapakinak ikus ditzakeen bera ikusia izan gabe. Behin bere harrapakina ikusi duenean, angelu hil bat jarraituz erasotzen du, ohi behetik hegan doan hegazti baten kasuan, edo lurraren mailatik bere harrapakina lurrean baldin badago. Bere harrapakinak, harrapatutako tokian jaten ditu.
Eguneko hegazti zuhur bat da, eta ikusteko oso zaila, txikiagoa den bere senide gabiraia baino are gehiago.
Aztorea (Accipiter gentilis) hegazti harrapari bat da, falkoniformeen sailekoa, eta, honen barnean accipitridae sendikoa. Bere kontserbazio egoerak, arrisku txikiko hegazti mota bezala zehazten du. Aztore arrunta izena ere jasotzen du.
Kanahaukka (Accipiter gentilis) on keskikokoinen päiväpetolintu.
Kanahaukka on roteva ja pitkäpyrstöinen keskikokoinen petolintu. Aikuinen kanahaukka on selkäpuolelta tummanharmaa. Valkealla vatsapuolella sillä on harmaita poikkiraitoja. Silmäkulmajuova on valkoinen ja selkeä. Nuori kanahaukka on päältä tumman harmaanruskea ja vaalealla vatsapuolella ruskeita pitkittäisraitoja. Naaras on selvästi koirasta isompi ja rotevampi. Koiras on 49-56 senttimetriä pitkä ja sen siipien kärkiväli on 90-105 senttimetriä, naaras on 58-64 senttimetriä pitkä ja sen siipien kärkiväli on 108-120 senttimetriä.[2] Kanahaukan ääni on kja-kja-kja...-kaklatus. Poikasten kerjuuääni on piii-lih-kiljunta. Äänet muistuttavat varpushaukan ääniä, mutta ovat karkeampia, voimakkaampia ja villimpiä.[2]
Soidinlennossa maaliskuussa koiras lentää reviirin yllä hidastetuin siiveniskuin ja käkättää. Se innostuu soidinlennolle usein lokakuun kauniilla pakkasilmoillakin.
Vanhin suomalainen rengastettu kanahaukka on elänyt 17 vuotta, 10 kuukautta ja 11 päivää. Euroopan vanhin oli ruotsalainen 18 vuotta ja 9 kuukautta vanha haukka.
Kanahaukan pesimäalue ulottuu Länsi-Euroopasta halki Venäjän Tyynenmeren rantaan ja Japaniin. Se pesii myös Pohjois-Amerikassa. Maailman kanahaukkapopulaation arvioidaan olevan yli 500 000 yksilöä.[1] Kanahaukka on pääasiassa paikkalintu, mutta erityisesti nuoret linnut ovat yleensä lyhyen matkan muuttajia.[2]
Kanahaukka pesii myös koko Suomessa ulkosaaristoa ja tunturipaljakoita lukuun ottamatta. Suomen kanahaukkakanta on noin 5000 paria.[3]
Kanahaukka pesii yleensä vanhoissa havumetsissä, mutta joskus sille kelpaavat nuoremmatkin metsät. Kanahaukka on yleensä arka, mutta saattaa tottua ihmisiin ja saalistaa myös taajamissa[2]. Kanahaukka on vakiintunut säännölliseksi pesimälajiksi Helsinkiin, ja vuonna 2016 kaupungissa pesi vajaat 30 paria kanahaukkoja, urbaaneimmat aivan Helsingin ydinkeskustassa[4].
Kanahaukka rakentaa suuren pesänsä puuhun, usein mäntyyn tai kuuseen.[5] Pesä sijaitsee noin 10-16 metrin korkeudella.[2] Naaras munii maalis-toukokuussa 3-5 vaaleaa munaa, joita se hautoo 35-40 vuorokautta. Poikaset lähtevät pesästä 35-42 vuorokauden ikäisinä.[5]
Kanahaukka käyttää ravinnokseen lintuja ja nisäkkäitä. Tavallisia saaliseläimiä ovat varislinnut, kyyhkyt, kanalinnut, rastaat, oravat ja jänikset. Kanahaukka etsii saalista usein korkealla kaarrellen.[2]
Kanahaukka on Suomessa rauhoitettu kokonaan luonnonsuojelulain nojalla. Tapetun tai vahingoitetun linnun sekä munapesueen ja pesäpoikueen ohjeellinen korvausarvo on 757 euroa[6].
Haukkametsästäjät pitävät kanahaukkaa erinomaisena saalistajana. Kanahaukan munia on salakuljetettu myös Suomesta.
Kanahaukka (Accipiter gentilis) on keskikokoinen päiväpetolintu.
Accipiter gentilis
L'autour des palombes (Accipiter gentilis) est une espèce de rapaces de taille moyenne de la famille des Accipitridae (qui comprend aussi les aigles et les busards). C'est une espèce proche de l'épervier d'Europe.
Il porte de nombreux autres noms vernaculaires, qui le désignent sous les termes d'autour, d'épervier ou encore d'émouchet : autour commun, épervier autour, gros épervier, épervier bleu, émouchet des pigeons, aigle chasseur, gros ratier[1]...
L'autour des palombes est le plus grand des oiseaux du genre Accipiter. C'est un rapace qui possède de courtes et larges ailes et une longue queue bien adaptées au vol en forêt, habitat où il vit et fait son nid.
Le mâle est bleu-gris sur le dessus et strié de gris sur le dessous. Il mesure entre 48 et 57 cm et possède une envergure allant de 93 à 105 cm.
La femelle est plus grande, elle mesure entre 58 et 64 cm avec une envergure entre 108 et 127 cm. Elle est bleu ardoise au-dessus et grise en dessous. Les mâles les plus petits pèsent environ 630 grammes, tandis que les femelles les plus grandes peuvent peser jusqu'à 2 kg. Les jeunes sont bruns au-dessus et striés de brun au-dessous. Le vol est caractéristique : « cinq lents battements d'ailes, puis vol plané ».
En Eurasie, le mâle est parfois confondu avec la femelle de l'épervier d'Europe, mais il est plus large, plus épais et possède de plus longues ailes que celle-ci. En Amérique du Nord, les jeunes sont parfois confondus avec l'épervier brun ou avec l'épervier de Cooper, mais la taille permet, là aussi, de les différencier.
L'Autour des palombes chasse en rasant les haies et les buissons. Il pratique également l'affût sur une branche basse ou un piquet, de préférence à couvert. C'est un rapide chasseur qui peut fondre sur sa proie à une vitesse de 100 km/h.
Il se nourrit surtout d'oiseaux et de mammifères de taille moyenne. Auprès de 317 aires réparties dans presque toute l'Allemagne, les restes de 713 mammifères appartenant à 18 espèces et ceux de 8 309 oiseaux de 123 espèces ont été découverts. Les premiers sont représentés surtout par des écureuils (259), des lièvres (surtout des jeunes, 201), des lapins de garenne (162) et des campagnols (52). Un jeune renard constitue un cas particulier. Les oiseaux les plus souvent capturés sont les geais (1 485), les pigeons domestiques (1 425), les perdrix grises (880), les pigeons ramiers (712), les étourneaux (482), les grives musiciennes (335) et les corneilles (326). Parmi les proies aviennes moins fréquentes se trouvent également d'autres rapaces diurnes (tels que 113 faucons crécerelles, 87 éperviers, 16 buses) et aussi des nocturnes (tels que 179 hiboux moyens-ducs, 46 chouettes hulottes, 42 hiboux des marais)[2], des canards colverts (46), divers autres oiseaux aquatiques et des gallinacés (dont 99 poules), et même deux hérons cendrés.
L'Autour peut aussi consommer des tétraonidés, des rats, des lézards et des insectes.
Localement et selon la saison, d'autres espèces peuvent tenir la première place dans le régime alimentaire de cet oiseau : c'est le cas des laridés au bord de la Mer Baltique.
En milieu urbain, il capture surtout des pies bavardes, des pigeons domestiques et des choucas des tours.
Les besoins alimentaires de cet oiseau sont estimés entre 160 et 180 g de viande quotidiennement.
En vol, il se balance comme un funambule. En parade, il effectue des acrobaties, s'arrêtant souvent en plein vol, ailes grandes ouvertes.
Son cri est un long guiguiguig...[3].
Lors des journées ensoleillées de février et mars, le couple, réuni depuis peu, parade. Un ou les deux oiseaux s'élèvent en spirales dans le ciel et y planent très haut avant de regagner la futaie par des piqués vertigineux.
En février mais surtout en mars, le mâle réalise plusieurs ébauches de nid. La femelle en choisit une ou opte pour une ancienne aire, voire un ancien nid de rapace ou de corvidé.
Elle pond dans ce nid 2 à 5 œufs, souvent 3 ou 4 (rarement 1 seul), ovales et blancs, dont la taille a pour valeurs extrêmes : 51,0-65,0 mm × 40,6-51,0 mm[3]. Elle les couve souvent seule, durant 35 à 41 jours, puis garde les jeunes une dizaine de jours, alors que le mâle se charge de chasser. Cependant, c'est la femelle qui nourrira les petits, le mâle se contentant de ramener la nourriture[3]. Lorsque les jeunes auront 6 semaines, ils quitteront le nid. Ils sont réellement indépendants à l'âge de 70 jours.
Les femelles sont susceptibles de se reproduire dès l'âge d'un an, mais la plupart entament leur carrière reproductrice entre deux et quatre ans ; une étude menée en Allemagne sur une durée de 30 ans et portant sur 74 femelles montre que ce sont celles qui débutent à l'âge de deux ans qui ont la meilleure valeur sélective (nombre de jeunes élevés au cours de leur vie)[4]
L'Autour des palombes niche dans l'extrême nord du Maroc, dans presque toute l'Europe (à l'exception notable de l'Islande), en Turquie, dans le nord et le centre de l'Asie ainsi que dans le nord de l'Amérique du Nord.
Une fraction des populations est sédentaire tandis qu'une autre, surtout composée de jeunes, est migratrice.
Cet oiseau peuple les forêts et les grands bois notamment de conifères avec de grandes clairières et des milieux ouverts voisins, biotopes dans lesquels il chasse préférentiellement. Son activité s'étend aux champs et prairies bordés de haies, aux marais et aux étangs aux berges boisées. Par contre, il évite les grands espaces découverts.
Dans certains pays, l'Autour des palombes s'est adapté au milieu urbain : Russie (en hiver près de Moscou dès la fin de la première moitié du XXe siècle), Pays-Bas (Amsterdam), Lettonie (Riga) et Allemagne (Cologne).
Cet oiseau est peu commun, mais il est classé par l'UICN en LC (Préoccupation mineure)[5].
L'Autour des palombes bénéficie d'une protection partielle sur le territoire français depuis l'arrêté ministériel du 17 avril 1981 relatif aux oiseaux protégés sur l'ensemble du territoire[6]. Il est donc interdit de le détruire, le mutiler, le capturer ou l'enlever, de le perturber intentionnellement ou de le naturaliser, ainsi que de détruire ou enlever les œufs et les nids, et de détruire, altérer ou dégrader son milieu. Qu'il soit vivant ou mort, il est aussi interdit de le transporter, colporter, de l'utiliser, de le détenir, de le vendre ou de l'acheter. Toutefois, le prélèvement exceptionnel d'un poussin au nid (désairage) peut être autorisé par le ministre de l'Écologie, après avis du Conseil National de la Protection de la Nature pour l'exercice de la chasse au vol (fauconnerie).
La sous-espèce Accipiter gentilis arrigonii a été inscrite à l'annexe I de la directive oiseaux ; elle est donc protégée par la commission européenne. Les raisons de cette protection sont le faible effectif (quelques dizaines de couples, une centaine au mieux), sa faible répartition géographique (une partie de la Corse et une partie de la Sardaigne), la dégradation de son habitat (due au surpâturage, aux incendies et à l'exploitation forestière), le braconnage et la contamination des oiseaux par les pesticides. Le déclin de la population de ces oiseaux en Corse est particulièrement préoccupant[7].
Ertuğrul, père d'Osman Ier le fondateur de l'Empire ottoman, signifie littéralement « homme-autour ».
L'espèce admet un taxon synonyme, Astur palumbarius Linné.
D'après Alan P. Peterson, cette espèce est constituée des sous-espèces suivantes :
On trouve quelquefois A. g. striatulus, qui n'est plus considérée valide par les principales autorités taxinomiques. La sous-espèce A. g. gallinarum est considérée comme synonyme de A. g. gentilis.
Accipiter gentilis
L'autour des palombes (Accipiter gentilis) est une espèce de rapaces de taille moyenne de la famille des Accipitridae (qui comprend aussi les aigles et les busards). C'est une espèce proche de l'épervier d'Europe.
Il porte de nombreux autres noms vernaculaires, qui le désignent sous les termes d'autour, d'épervier ou encore d'émouchet : autour commun, épervier autour, gros épervier, épervier bleu, émouchet des pigeons, aigle chasseur, gros ratier...
Seabhac scothbheag le sciatháin ghearra chruinne is eireaball fada. Faightear an spioróg mhór thuaisceartach sa chuid is mó den leathsféar thuaidh. Tá cineálacha eile dúchasach don Afraic, deisceart is oirdheisceart na hÁise, agus an Astráil. Áitríonn sí coillearnach, agus itheann veirteabraigh is feithidí.
O azor[3] ou azor común[4] (Accipiter gentilis) é unha ave rapaz da familia Accipitridae.
O azor é unha ave de tamaño mediano-grande, a lonxitude do corpo vai de 46 a 63 cm., e a envergadura alar de 89 a 122. O peso vai dos 0,52 kg dos machos máis pequenos aos 2,2 kg das femias máis grandes. O macho é sempre máis pequeno cá femia. As ás son relativamente curtas, anchas e arredondadas nas puntas; a cauda relativamente longa, trazos estes característicos da dos membros da familia dos Accipitridae, que viven en xeral nos bosques, e que non permiten unha grande velocidade de voo, mais si a capacidade de manobrar en espazos reducidos.
Os azores adultos son na parte superior de cor gris lousa marronosa e brancos con bandas castañas escuras por abaixo. Os exemplares novos son de cor acastañada, e na parte inferior de cor amarela clara, amarela, beige, laranxa ou asalmoada con manchas ou bandas. As patas, que son curtas, son de cor amarela igual que a cera do bico. O iris dos ollos é amarelo claro nas aves xoves, facéndose máis vermello coa idade e nas aves adultas é de cores que van do laranxa ó vermello- cereixa. A cor da plumaxe é semellante nas femias e nos machos, aínda que estes son algo mai escuros na parte de lombo e co deseño da cabeza algo máis contrastado.
O azor emite, normalmente, sons só cando está preto do niño. O son máis típico que emite é un guik, guik, guik agudo, que é repetido cando está excitado e especialmente no período de celo que vai de xaneiro a marzo. O son pódese escoitar a centos de metros de distancia en días tranquilos. O son de contacto entre as parellas é un giak curto e non moi audible. Durante a cópula os dous membros da parella emiten un son relativamente alto e repetido, unha especie de vir, vir, vir.
Os azores viven tanto en bosques de coníferas da taiga e bosques alpinos coma en bosques mediterráneos e temperados. En Norteamérica a súa distribución está limitada a bosques de montaña, en Eurasia a súa fronteira norte de distribución coa fronteira norte do bosque de coníferas en Escandinavia, Finlandia e Rusia, ó sur acada o norte de África, ó oeste chega a Grecia, Asia menor e o norte de Irán
O hábitat do azor en Europa está limitado pola necesidades de atopar bosques de idade adecuada (uns 60 anos) para poder facer os niños. Precisa tamén da presenza dunha cantidade suficiente de paxaros e mamíferos para alimentarse. En Europa están presentes en bosques máis ou menos mestos, pero tamén en áreas de cultivo que dispoñan dalgunhas zonas arboradas. Por causas descoñecidas o seu hábitat en Norteamérica redúcese a bosques pouco tocados polo ser humano.
A división das subespecies é complexa e discutida en ambientes científicos. Dependendo dos autores, o número e demarcación das subespecies varía moito. A seguinte lista baséase no Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas (Manual das aves de Europa central) (tomo 4, 1989):
Seguindo a Regra de Bergmann'schen O tamaño e peso do azor aumentan de suroeste a nordeste.
Os azores cazan preferentemente ó axexo matando a presa no chan, pero tamén despois dunha dunha persecución aérea, rápida, e se é necesario con moitas manobras, a non moita distancia do chan. Aproveitan para o voo de aproximación árbores e sebes, pero tamén casas. Cazan máis raramente a campo aberto. Na primavera e no verán cazan paxaros novos nos niños construídos na vexetación alta e nas árbores. Téñense observado azores cazando a pé, sendo neste caso as toupas son a presa máis habitual. En illas con abundancia de parrulos cazan ás veces exemplares que están incubando. A presa é suxeitada coas gadoupas e morta coas unllas fortes dos segundo e terceiro dedos. As fortes gadoupas en tarsos permítenlle ó azor a captura de presas relativamente grandes e fortes.
As presas do azor son case exclusivamente aves e mamíferos pequenos e medianos. No sur da súa distribución capturan regularmente tamén réptiles. Moi raramente capturan anfibios, peixes e invertebrados. O peso das presas vai de 5 g a 3,5 kg. O espectro en Europa vai de paxariños a gansos e de ratos a coellos. Chegan a cazar mesmo outras aves de presa de pequeno e mediano tamaño. As súas preferencias concéntranse, non obstante, en presas non superiores ó quilo de peso: pombas, tordos, córvidos, pero tamén esquíos ou pequenos coellos en zonas nas que abunden.
O azor é monógamo e estritamente territorial. Marca o seu territorio co seu chiar característico e con voos de demostración. Os posibles rivais son ameazados primeiro con berros antes de proceder a unha aproximación. O contacto corporal directo ten lugar moi raramente, posiblemente polo perigo mutuo que poden supor as fortes gadoupas e pes dos azores.
O tamaño do territorio de caza depende do sexo, da idade, do status (con ou sen parella), da época do ano e do alimento dispoñible. En Hamburgo os machos ocupan na época de celo unha media de 8,6 km², en Schleswig-Holstein 13–55 km², en Arizona 18 km² e en Alasca 39,8 km². Fora desta época as cifras varían: Schleswig-Holstein 5–64 km², os machos e 16–59 km² as femias. En Suecia central os machos ocupan en inverno unha área duns 51 km² de media (18–80 km²), e as femias 62 km² (32–92 km²). No norte de Finlandia no inverno os machos adultos ocupan de media 88 km² (79 a 97 km²), os machos novos 110 km² (50–170 km²), as femias adultas 69 km² (48–94 km²), e as novas 67 km² (31–103 km²). O tamaño da area de caza aumenta nas zonas mais ó norte pola grande redución do número de presas potenciais.
Os azores constrúen niños voluminosos exclusivamente nas árbores, en xeral en exemplares duns 60 anos. Dentro de bosques grandes prefire árbores de follaxe mesta e pechada. Escolle os exemplares dominantes da zona, de preferencia se están cerca dun camiño ou carreiro. Os niños poden servir, de maneira rotatoria, para varias temporadas. Na época do inicio do celo comezan a construír o niño con poliñas verdes.
Fan unha posta de 2 a 4 (ás veces 5) ovos ó ano. Os ovos son lisos de cor verde a azul pálido. Os polos tardan entre 37 e 39 días en saíren do ovo. En comparanza con outras aves de presa, os polos non son agresivos entre si e as mortes por loitas no niño son raras. Empezan a voar entre os 40 e 45 días, e deixan de tres a seis semanas despois o territorio de caza dos pais, non desprazándose en xeral a máis de 30 km do lugar de nacemento.
O azor cázase en boa parte da súa area de distribución por ser considerado unha ameaza para as aves de caza deportiva e as aves domésticas. En Europa foi eliminado e (posteriormente reintroducido) en Gran Bretaña. As poboacións europeas reducíronse drasticamente ata finais do século XIX. Por contra, non foi tan afectado polo uso de DDT. Grazas ás leis de protección, as poboacións aumentaron nalgunhas zonas de Europa a partir de 1970. Mesmo se dan casos de poboacións urbanas en cidades como Berlín, Colonia, Saarbrücken, Hamburgo, Moscova e Kiev.
O azor ou azor común (Accipiter gentilis) é unha ave rapaz da familia Accipitridae.
Jastreb (Accipiter gentilis) je ptica grabljivica iz porodice jastrebova (Accipitridae). Srednje je veličine. Vrlo je rasprostranjena vrsta koja nastanjuje umjerena područja sjeverne hemisfere. Uglavnom je stanarica, ali ptice iz hladnijih područja sjeverne Azije i Kanade se sele na jug. Ova vrsta je prvi put opisana 1758. od strane Linnaeusa u njegovom Systema naturae i još uvijek ima svoj stari znanstveni naziv.
Jastreb se nalazi na zastavi Azora. Azorsko otočje dobilo je svoj naziv po portugalskoj riječi za jastreba (açor), jer su istraživači koji su prvi otkrili ovo otočje mislili da su ptice grabljivice koje su vidjeli bili jastrebovi; kasnije je otkriveno da su te ptice zapravo bile škanjci.
Jastreb je najveći pripadnik roda Accipiter. On je ptica grabljivica s kratkim i širokim krilima i dugim repom, što to su prilagodbe manevriranju među drvećem u šumama u kojima živi i gnijezdi se. Mužjak je plavosiv odozgo sa sivim prugama odozdo, 49-57 cm dug s rasponom krila od 93-105cm. Ženka je mnogo veća, 58-64 cm duga s rasponom krila od 108-127cm, siva odozgo i odozdo. Mužjaci manjih podvrsta mogu težiti i samo 630 grama, a ženke većih i 2 kg.
Ova vrsta lovi ptice i sisavce u šumama, oslanjajući se na brzinu u letu kroz guste šume. Oportunisti su, kao i većina ptica grabljivica. Njihov najvažniji ptičji plijen su tetrijebi, golubovi i grlice i vrapčarke (većinom čvorci i vrane). Ponekada lovi močvarice do veličine divlje patke. Plijen je uglavnom manji od jastreba, ali ove ptice također ubijaju mnogo veće životinje, do veličine zeca.
U proljetnoj sezoni parenja jastrebovi izvode spektakularne letove udvaranja, i to je najbolje vrijeme da ih se vidi. U ovo se vrijeme ponekad može čuti njihovo kliktanje slično galebovom. Odrasli se vraćaju na svoje teritorije do ožujka ili travnja i počinju nesti jaja u travnju ili svibnju. Na ovim teritorijima se skoro uvijek nalazi veliko i staro drveće u kojem se ove ptice gnijezde. Nesu 2 do 4 jajeta. Inkubacija traje od 28 do 38 dana. Mladi napuštaju gnijezdo nakon oko 35 dana i počnu letjeti nakon sljedećih 10 dana. Mogu ostati na roditeljskom teritoriju još godinu dana. Odrasli teritorije brane agresivno od bilo čega, pa i ljudi u prolazu.
Jastrebovi se mnogo koriste u jastrebarstvu. "Finski jastrebovi" (jastrebovi iz Finske) su jako cijenjeni jer su veći i jači od zapadnoeuropskih jastrebova.
U Wikimedijinu spremniku nalazi se još gradiva na temu: jastreb
Wikivrste imaju podatke o: jastrebu Jastreb (Accipiter gentilis) je ptica grabljivica iz porodice jastrebova (Accipitridae). Srednje je veličine. Vrlo je rasprostranjena vrsta koja nastanjuje umjerena područja sjeverne hemisfere. Uglavnom je stanarica, ali ptice iz hladnijih područja sjeverne Azije i Kanade se sele na jug. Ova vrsta je prvi put opisana 1758. od strane Linnaeusa u njegovom Systema naturae i još uvijek ima svoj stari znanstveni naziv.
Jastreb se nalazi na zastavi Azora. Azorsko otočje dobilo je svoj naziv po portugalskoj riječi za jastreba (açor), jer su istraživači koji su prvi otkrili ovo otočje mislili da su ptice grabljivice koje su vidjeli bili jastrebovi; kasnije je otkriveno da su te ptice zapravo bile škanjci.
L'astore (Accipiter gentilis, Linneo 1758), detto anche astore comune oloartico, è un uccello rapace della famiglia degli Accipitridi.[2]
È una specie diffusa che abita molte delle parti temperate dell'emisfero nord. L'astore è l'unica specie del genere "Accipiter" trovata sia in Eurasia che in Nord America.[3] Potrebbe presentare la seconda distribuzione più ampia di qualsiasi altro membro della famiglia Accipitridae, dietro solo all'aquila reale (Aquila chrysaetos), che ha una gamma più ampia a sud dell'Asia rispetto all'astore. L'unica altra specie Accipitridae che si estende anche in Nord America e in Eurasia, secondo l'opinione attuale, è la poiana calzata (Buteo lagopus).[3][4] Ad eccezione di una piccola porzione del sud Asia, è l'unica specie di "astore" nella sua gamma e viene quindi spesso citata, sia ufficialmente e ufficiosamente, come semplicemente "l'astore". È principalmente residente, ma gli uccelli delle regioni più fredde migrano sud per l'inverno.[3]
Gli astori sono uccelli rapaci di medie dimensioni: la loro lunghezza corporea è di circa 49–64 cm, l'apertura alare va dagli 90 ai 120 cm. Il peso è tra i 0,52 kg nei maschi più piccoli e i 2,2 kg nelle femmine più grandi[5]. Queste differenze si devono al notevole aumento di dimensioni e di peso da sud-ovest a nord-est e al considerevole dimorfismo sessuale quanto alla dimensione del corpo (regola di Bergmann).
Le ali sono relativamente corte, ampie e arrotondate nelle punte, la coda è piuttosto lunga. Queste caratteristiche, tipiche dei rappresentanti prevalentemente silvestri del genere Accipiter, non dànno loro una grande velocità in volo, ma una buona mobilità in uno spazio ristretto. Gli adulti sono di color marrone grigiastro nella parte superiore, bianco in quella inferiore, con una bordatura laterale marrone scura.
I piccoli sono marroncini nella parte superiore fino alla muta, nella parte inferiore gialli chiari, gialli, beige, arancioni o color salmone con un motivo a righe o a gocce. Il piumaggio maggiore mostra in tutte le livree un'evidente bordatura su uno sfondo dal bianco al marrone beige, nei giovani su uno sfondo giallastro. Le zampe sono gialle, come anche la pelle del becco. L'iride degli occhi negli uccelli giovani è di color giallo chiaro, diventa sempre più rossa con l'età e negli uccelli anziani va dall'arancione fino al rosso ciliegia.
Il motivo del piumaggio è molto simile in entrambi i sessi; i maschi adulti sono leggermente più bluastri nella parte superiore e mostrano una colorazione del capo un po' più ricca di contrasto rispetto alle femmine.
Gli astori si scambiano gridi quasi esclusivamente nei pressi del nido. Il richiamo più frequente è un "gik, gik, gik" aspro, spesso regolare, che viene emesso di solito in caso di eccitazione, disturbo e si sente particolarmente spesso durante l'accoppiamento da gennaio a marzo.
Questi richiami si possono sentire a centinaia di metri di distanza in condizioni atmosferiche buone. Il richiamo di contatto tra i due partner di covata è un "gjak" corto, non molto forte, che si scambia, per esempio, in caso di consegna di una preda o di allontanamento dalla covata. Durante l'atto sessuale i due partner urlano entrambi un "wirr, wirr, wirr" relativamente alto e regolare. Notevoli sono anche i richiami di richiesta dei giovani uccelli dopo l'uscita dal nido, che suonano "hiiiiääh" o "klijäh" e vengono ripetuti anch'essi molto spesso.
Gli astori cacciano le loro prede (soprattutto mammiferi di piccole e medie dimensioni e uccelli) prevalentemente con un volo raso terra, o attaccando da una posizione nascosta, o rincorrendole a terra, o cercandole direttamente nel loro ambiente. La preda viene attaccata con le zampe e uccisa: gli artigli del primo e del secondo dito sono molto forti e vengono conficcati nella preda finché questa non smette di muoversi. Dopo la cattura l'uccello si nutre a terra o sopra i rami più bassi degli alberi, con esclusione del periodo di riproduzione, quando tutte le prede vengono consumate direttamente nel nido o sui rami o posatoi abituali nelle vicinanze.
Essendo l'astore un rapace che caccia e si riproduce prevalentemente in zone arboricole, la sua struttura alare si è evoluta in tal senso. Le ali sono corte e larghe per un battito potente ma poco ingombrante, la lunga coda è atta a timonare il volo nelle foreste più intricate[6].
Diverse sottospecie di astori abitano le foreste sempreverdi della taiga e delle montagne (le cosiddette zone boreali), le foreste delle zone temperate e la zona mediterranea del Paleartico. In Nord America la loro presenza è limitata alle foreste boreomontane. Nel paleoartico occidentale il confine di diffusione settentrionale coincide con il confine settentrionale della taiga di aghiformi in Scandinavia, Finlandia e Russia, a sud giunge fino al Nordafrica, ad est fino alla Grecia, all'Anatolia e al nord dell'Iran. In genere l'astore è stanziale ma alcuni esemplari migrano dal Nord Europa verso sud oppure dalle montagne si spostano verso i boschi di pianura.
I prerequisiti per un habitat favorevole agli astori in Europa è la presenza di alberi di età superiore ai 60 anni per la costruzione dei nidi e la disponibilità di uccelli e mammiferi di medie dimensioni. Gli astori amano la foresta di conifere e i boschi misti, e si possono trovare anche in praterie e terreni coltivati purché vi sia qualche macchia sparsa.
Per ragioni ancora poco chiare, in Nord America l'habitat dell'astore è limitato alle foreste vergini e la sua presenza è paragonabile a quella dell'urogallo in Europa centrale.
In Italia si trova sulle Alpi e sugli Appennini con popolazioni stanziali. Pochi gruppi si stanziano in Pianura Padana anche se sono sempre di più, in concomitanza con la sempre più crescente popolazione di astori.
Il nido viene utilizzato per più anni consecutivi e progressivamente ingrandito prima di ogni cova. La femmina depone da 2 a 5 uova di cui si prende cura in maniera quasi esclusiva mentre il maschio è impegnato nella caccia.[7]
Il numero di sottospecie nel territorio paleoartico è vario e cambia anche a seconda dell'autore di riferimento. I passaggi da una sottospecie all'altra sono molto labili e discutibili.
Generalmente vengono riconosciute dieci specie di astori, tre delle quali vivono in Nord America:
La IUCN Red List classifica A. gentilis come specie a basso rischio (Least Concern).[1] In Europa la presenza della specie è in declino a causa del bracconaggio, della distribuzione illegale di esche avvelenate per l'uccisione di predatori, del prelievo di pulli dal nido per la falconeria e della distruzione dell'habitat. In Italia è specie protetta ai sensi della legge 157/92[8].
L'astore appare sulla bandiera delle Azzorre. L'arcipelago delle Azzorre, Portogallo, prende il nome dalla parola lingua portoghese per astore, (açor), perché gli esploratori che hanno scoperto l'arcipelago pensarono che gli uccelli da preda che videro fossero astori; in seguito si scoprì che questi uccelli erano poiane comuni (Buteo buteo rothschildi). L'astore compare nello Stirling stemma del Consiglio attraverso lo stemma del Clan Drummond.
Il nome "astore" è un nome tradizionale di anglosassone "gōshafoc", letteralmente "falco d'oca".[9] Il nome implica prodezza contro una preda più grande, come le oche selvatiche, ma è stato anche pilotato contro gru e altri grandi uccelli acquatici. Il nome "falco d'oca" è in qualche modo un termine improprio, in quanto la preda tradizionale per gli astori nell'antica e contemporanea falconeria è stata il coniglio, il fagiano, la pernice e altri uccelli acquatici di medie dimensioni, che sono simili a gran parte delle prede che la specie caccia in natura. Un'eccezione notevole è nei registri della falconeria tradizionale del Giappone, in cui gli astori venivano usati più regolarmente sulle specie di oca e gru.[10] Nell'antica letteratura europea sulla falconeria, gli astori erano spesso indicati come l'uccello di Yeoman o "l'uccello del cuoco" a causa della loro utilità come compagno di caccia che cattura prede commestibili, al contrario del falco pellegrino, anch'esso un prezioso uccello di falconeria, ma più associato con i nobili e meno adattato a una varietà di tecniche di caccia e tipi di prede presenti nelle aree boschive. L'astore è rimasto uguale al falco pellegrino nella sua statura e popolarità nella moderna falconeria.[11][12]
I voli di caccia all'astore nella falconeria in genere iniziano dalla mano guantata del falconiere, dove l'uccello o il coniglio in fuga viene inseguito in un inseguimento orizzontale. Il volo dell'astore alla ricerca di una preda è caratterizzato da un'intensa raffica di velocità spesso seguita da una manovra vincolante, in cui l'astore, se la preda è un uccello, inverte il verso di volo e cattura la preda dal basso. L'astore, come altri Accipiter, mostra una spiccata propensione a seguire le prede nella fitta vegetazione, inseguendo persino le prede a piedi attraverso la boscaglia.
Astore (incisione di Johann Friedrich Naumann, 1822).
Primo piano di un astore femmina.
Primo piano di un astore maschio.
Esemplare imbalsamato
nel Museo regionale della fauna alpina di Gressoney-Saint-Jean.
L'astore (Accipiter gentilis, Linneo 1758), detto anche astore comune oloartico, è un uccello rapace della famiglia degli Accipitridi.
È una specie diffusa che abita molte delle parti temperate dell'emisfero nord. L'astore è l'unica specie del genere "Accipiter" trovata sia in Eurasia che in Nord America. Potrebbe presentare la seconda distribuzione più ampia di qualsiasi altro membro della famiglia Accipitridae, dietro solo all'aquila reale (Aquila chrysaetos), che ha una gamma più ampia a sud dell'Asia rispetto all'astore. L'unica altra specie Accipitridae che si estende anche in Nord America e in Eurasia, secondo l'opinione attuale, è la poiana calzata (Buteo lagopus). Ad eccezione di una piccola porzione del sud Asia, è l'unica specie di "astore" nella sua gamma e viene quindi spesso citata, sia ufficialmente e ufficiosamente, come semplicemente "l'astore". È principalmente residente, ma gli uccelli delle regioni più fredde migrano sud per l'inverno.
Vištvanagis (lot. Accipiter gentilis, angl. Goshawk, vok. Habicht) – sakalinių paukščių (Falconiformes) būrio, vanaginių (Accipitridae) šeimos, vanagų genties plėšrusis paukštis.
Paplitę šiaurinio pusrutulio daugiausiai vidutinių platumų ir subtropikų klimto juostose, rečiau arkties klimato zonos pietesnėse platumose.
Savaime gyvena Lietuvoje, aptinkamas ištisus metus, gana dažnas, bet įrašytas į Lietuvos raudonosios knygos 3 (R) kategorijos sąrašus.
Gyvena toliau nuo gyvenviečių miško tankmėje, o perėjimui daugiausiai pasirenka juodalksnynus, beržynus ar mišrius medynus.
Lizdą krauna 6-20 m aukštyje iš sausų šakų. Gali perėti tame pačiame lizde kelerius metus iš eilės arba užimti juodųjų gandrų, suopių lizdus. Deda 3-4 melsvus ar balsvus kiaušinius. Peri 35-38 dienas.
Minta įvairiais miško paukščiais: kėkštais, strazdais giesmininkais, kikiliais, margaisiais geniais. Migruojant medžioja vištas ir kitus naminius paukščius, varnas, balandžius. Taip pat gaudo smulkius žinduolius – voveres, kurmius, pelėnus, kiškius[1].
Kūno viršutinė pusė pilkai rusva, pilko ar rudo atspalvio. Galva tamsesnė, baltai dėmėta. Antakis baltas. Pakaušyje balti taškučiai. Kūno apatinė pusė balta su skersiniais juodais dryžiais. Uodega ilga, skersai dryžuota. Pauodegys baltas. Snapas melsvai juodas. Kojos geltonos, nagai juosvi. Patelė kiek pilkai rusva su balsvomis dėmelėmis, uodega tamsiai skersai dryžuota. Apatinė kūno pusė rusva arba balsva su juosvomis išilginėmis dėmėmis.
Vidutinio dydžio paukščiai, kurių patelės 10–25% stambesnės už patinėlius. Vištvanagių svoris nuo 0,52 kg (smulkiausi patinėliai), iki 2,2 kg (stambiausios patelės). Sparnų skersmuo 28,6–39 cm, uodega 20–28 cm, čiurna 6,8–9 cm.
Vištvanagiams galioja Bergamno taisyklių dėsniai – jų šiaurinės populiacijos stambiausios, o pietinės smulkiausios. Stambiausios vištvanagių populiacijos gyvena Suomijoje.
Vištvanagis (lot. Accipiter gentilis, angl. Goshawk, vok. Habicht) – sakalinių paukščių (Falconiformes) būrio, vanaginių (Accipitridae) šeimos, vanagų genties plėšrusis paukštis.
Vistu vanags (Accipiter gentilis) ir vidēji liels vanagu dzimtas (Accipitridae) plēsīgais putns. Tā ir viena no divām vanagu ģints sugām, kas sastopama Latvijā; otra suga ir zvirbuļvanags. Izdala 10 pasugas,[1] no kurām Latvijā sastopama nominālpasuga — Accipiter gentilis gentilis.[2]
Vistu vanaga izplatības areāls aptver ziemeļu puslodes mēreno joslu. Tas ir sastopams Eiropā, Āzijā un Ziemeļamerikā. Visbiežāk vistu vanaga populācijas ir nometnieki, tomēr no aukstākajiem reģioniem tas ziemas periodā migrē uz dienvidiem. Pasaulē vistu vanags nav apdraudēta suga.
Vistu vanags ir attēlots Azoru salu karogā. Salu nosaukums cēlies no vistu vanaga nosaukuma portugāļu valodā — açor, jo portugāļu jūras braucēji, kas atklāja salu arhipelāgu, domāja, ka pirmais putns, ko tie salā ieraudzīja, ir vistu vanags. Tomēr vēlāk noskaidrojās, ka tas bija peļu klijāns (Buteo buteo rothschildi), un vistu vanags salās nekad nav dzīvojis.
Latvijā vistu vanags ir samērā parasts ligzdotājs un ziemotājs, bet to skaits ir ievērojami mazāks nekā 20. gadsimta pirmajā pusē.[3] Ornitologi uzskata, ka vistu vanagu skaits samazinājās, 1990. gados likvidējot kolhozu lopu fermas. Caurmērā pie katras fermas pa kādam vistu vanagam medīja tuvumā dzīvojošos putnus, piemēram, mājas baložus. Pēc fermu likvidācijas vistu vanagiem nācās meklēt citas barošanās vietas, mūsdienās tas nereti novērojams pilsētā, medījot putnus.[3]
Ceļošanas laikā un ziemā Latvijas teritorijā nelielā skaitā uzturas vanagi arī no ziemeļu un austrumu teritorijām.[2] Latvijā ligzdo 2000—3000 pāri, ziemo 4000—5000 putnu.[3]
Vistu vanags ir lielākais vanagu ģints (Accipiter) putns.[4] Mātītes kā visiem vanagu dzimtas putniem ir lielākas nekā tēviņi. Mātīte var būt 10—25% lielāka par tēviņu. Mātītes ķermeņa garums ir 58—64 cm, spārnu plētums 108—127 cm, svars 2,2 kg. Tēviņa ķermeņa garums ir 46—57 cm, spārnu plētums 89–105 cm, masa 515 g.[5]
Lielākajai daļai pasugu ir zilganpelēka mugura un balta pavēdere un krūtis ar pelēkām, šaurām josliņām. Izņēmums ir Āzijas pasugas, kuras var būt gandrīz baltas vai kurām mugura ir gandrīz melna. Jaunajiem putniem muguras un šaurās krūšu josliņas ir brūnas. Vistu vanagam arī asti grezno horizontālas, melnas vai brūnas joslas. Pieaugušiem indivīdiem virs acs ir balta svītra, kas atgādina uzaci. Jauniem putniem acis ir gaiši dzeltenā krāsā, pieaugot tās kļūst tumšākas un krāsa intensīvāka. Ziemeļamerikas vistu vanagiem acis kļūst tumši sarkanas, bet Eiropas un Āzijas pasugām koši oranžas. Acis košo toni iegūst tikai putna otrajā dzīves gadā.
Vistu vanagam ir īsi, plati spārni un gara aste, kas nodrošina izcilu manevrēšanu mežā starp kokiem. Lidošanas ritms ir spārna vēziens, vēziens, planēšana. Vistu vanags lidojot spēj sasniegt 61 km/h.[6] Lidojumā to bieži sajauc ar medību piekūnu (Falco rusticolus). Eirāzijā vistu vanagu tēviņu mēdz bieži sajaukt ar zvirbuļu vanaga mātīti. Tomēr salīdzinoši vistu vanags ir masīvāks, lielāks un ar relatīvi garākiem spārniem. Ziemeļamerikā jaunos putnus reizēm sajauc ar mazāko Kupera vanagu, tomēr vistu vanags ir lielāks un masīvāks.
Vistu vanags mājo skujkoku vai jauktu koku mežos. Ligzdošanas laikā tie izvēlas mežus ar veciem, lieliem kokiem. Lai arī lielākā daļa vistu vanagu ir nometnieki, aukstās ziemās ziemeļu reģionu populācijas tie migrē nedaudz uz dienvidiem.[7]
Pavasarī, kad sākas riests, vistu vanagi debesīs izpilda iespaidīgu riesta "deju" lidojumā. Šajā laikā ir iespēja novērot citkārt tik uzmanīgo un kautrīgo meža putnu. Riesta laikā vistu vanaga sauciens atgādina kaijas kliegšanu. Pāris agresīvi aizsargā savu teritoriju no ikviena traucētāja, ieskaitot cilvēkus un lāčus.
Tas barojas galvenokārt ar maziem un vidēja lieluma putniem un zīdītājiem, upurus medījot mežā un mežmalās. Reizēm vistu vanagu var novērot zemu lidojam virs kādas nelielas pļaviņas vai gar mežmalu, pārbaudot, vai nav piemērots medījums. Tie parasti medī jebkuru upuri, kas pagadījies to ceļā. Iecienīts medījums ir dažādi rubeņu dzimtas putni, fazāni, zosis, kaijas, kovārņi, baloži, zaķi un vāveres. Salīdzinot ar citām vanagu ģints sugām, vistu vanags medī daudz dažādāku medījumu un neaprobežojas tikai ar putnu medīšanu.[7][8] Medījuma masa vidēji ir apmēram 275 grami,[9] bet reizēm tiek nomedīts medījums, kas sver divas reizes vairāk nekā pats vistu vanags, piemēram, lapsa.[10]
Ligzdošanas teritorijā vistu vanagi atgriežas martā vai aprīlī. Olas tie sāk dēt aprīļa beigās vai maijā. Mātīte parasti nosēžas koka zarā, kas tai liekas piemērota vieta ligzdas būvniecībai, un sauc tēviņu. Ligzdu būvē tēviņš. Tiek veidota vai nu jauna ligzda, vai saremontēta vecā.[10] Ligzda parasti tiek iekārtota vecā, lielā kokā, augšējos zaros, vietā, ko labi nosedz koka lapas un zari, pasargājot no nokrišņiem un citiem plēsējiem.[10] Dējumā ir 2—4 olas. Bet var būt arī 1 ola vai 5 olas. Olas tiek dētas ik pēc 1—2 dienām.[10] Ola ir 59 mm gara un 45 mm plata. Tās masa apmēram 60 g. Inkubācijas periods sākas tad, kad visas olas ir izdētas, un tas ilgst 28—38 dienas. Mazie putnēni izšķiļas visi apmēram vienā laikā.[10] Kad mazie ir izšķīlušies, māte agresīvi apsargā ligzdu, uzbrūkot pat ļoti lieliem dzīvniekiem un cilvēkiem. Tēviņš medījumu nepienes pie ligzdas, bet nelielā attālumā. Viņš nosēžas uz kāda piemērota zara un sauc mātīti, lai tai atdotu medījumu. Pieaugušu putnu apspalvojums mazajiem sāk augt pēc 18 dienām, bet apspalvojums pilnībā ir izaudzis pēc 38 dienām. Tie spēj paši paēst pēc 28 dienām, bet ligzdu pamet pēc 35 dienām. Kad jaunie putni spēj paši ēst, mātīte sāk ik pa laikam pamest ligzdu un medīt tāpat kā tēviņš.[7] Iesākumā jaunie putni uzturas koka zarā, netālu no ligzdas. Tie sāk mēģināt lidot vēl pēc kādām 10 dienām. Jaunie tēviņi ir daudz smalkāki un mazāki nekā mātītes, un tie lidot sāk ātrāk.[10] Jaunie putni uzturas vecāku teritorijā apmēram līdz gada vecumam.
Vistu vanags (Accipiter gentilis) ir vidēji liels vanagu dzimtas (Accipitridae) plēsīgais putns. Tā ir viena no divām vanagu ģints sugām, kas sastopama Latvijā; otra suga ir zvirbuļvanags. Izdala 10 pasugas, no kurām Latvijā sastopama nominālpasuga — Accipiter gentilis gentilis.
Vistu vanaga izplatības areāls aptver ziemeļu puslodes mēreno joslu. Tas ir sastopams Eiropā, Āzijā un Ziemeļamerikā. Visbiežāk vistu vanaga populācijas ir nometnieki, tomēr no aukstākajiem reģioniem tas ziemas periodā migrē uz dienvidiem. Pasaulē vistu vanags nav apdraudēta suga.
Vistu vanags ir attēlots Azoru salu karogā. Salu nosaukums cēlies no vistu vanaga nosaukuma portugāļu valodā — açor, jo portugāļu jūras braucēji, kas atklāja salu arhipelāgu, domāja, ka pirmais putns, ko tie salā ieraudzīja, ir vistu vanags. Tomēr vēlāk noskaidrojās, ka tas bija peļu klijāns (Buteo buteo rothschildi), un vistu vanags salās nekad nav dzīvojis.
De havik (Accipiter gentilis) is een middelgrote roofvogel uit de familie van de havikachtigen (Accipitridae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort werd als Falco gentilis in 1758 gepubliceerd door Carl Linnaeus.[2] De havik bewoont de arctische tot subtropische zones van het holarctisch gebied.
Een volwassen exemplaar kan een lengte hebben tussen 49 en 66 cm. Een havik heeft korte, brede vleugels en een lange, bijna rechthoekige staart. Een volwassen havik heeft een witte lijn boven het oog, een zwarte kruin en donkere veren in de oorstreek. Het verenkleed van een mannetje is bovenaan bruin en onderaan vaalwit met dunne grijze strepen. Het vrouwtje is veel groter met een bovenaan leigrijs verenkleed en onderaan grijs. Een jonge havik heeft boven een bruin verenkleed en is gestreept bruin onder. Bovendien is de witte oogstreep minder opvallend.
Een havik is een stille vogel. Slechts in de broedtijd kan men verschillende soorten gekekker horen. In Eurazië wordt de mannetjeshavik gemakkelijk verward met de sperwer (Accipiter nisus), maar de havik is iets groter en zwaarder, en heeft iets langere vleugels.
De havik vangt middelgrote vogels en zoogdieren. Hoofdprooien in Nederland zijn postduif, houtduif, gaai en konijn. Ook eksters en kraaiachtigen worden verschalkt. In terrein met veel dekking jaagt de havik vanaf een zitplaats of in een lage vlucht om een prooi te verrassen. Daarbij kan de vogel op korte stukken een relatief grote snelheid (80 km/u) ontwikkelen. Haviken vangen hoofdzakelijk de soorten die in hun habitat talrijk voorkomen. Vaak is te zien hoe een havik net als een slechtvalk vanuit een hoge vlucht op een prooi duikt.
Een paartje haviken heeft vaak meerdere nesten in hun territorium, die van jaar tot jaar worden gewisseld om parasieten te vermijden, maar maakt toch gemakkelijk een nieuw nest. Dit nest, ook wel horst genoemd, wordt met dode takken gebouwd hoog in de boomkruin in een gaffelvormige tak, of aanleunend tegen de stam.
De havik legt een tot vijf blauwwitte eieren, meestal drie of vier. Tijdens het broeden ruien de mannetjes en vrouwtjes en vindt men gemakkelijk ruiveren onder het nest van, voornamelijk, het vrouwtje, doordat zij meer aan het nestgebied gebonden is. Havikjongen die klaar zijn om het nest te verlaten beginnen met vliegoefeningen. De ouders leggen dan prooien op de rand van het nest, waardoor de jongen fladderend naar de rand gaan. En ineens duiken ze spontaan van het nest als (bijna) volleerde vliegers. De havik heeft een karakteristiek vluchtpatroon: trage klap van de vleugels, trage klap en dan glijvlucht recht vooruit.
Ze blijven hun hele leven in hetzelfde territorium, maar de haviken uit noordelijke streken migreren zuidwaarts om te overwinteren.
De havik komt voornamelijk voor in bosgebieden in gematigde streken van het noordelijk halfrond. Landbouwgronden worden echter vaak ook gebruikt om te jagen en hier en daar worden ze ook al in steden waargenomen.
Er worden 10 ondersoorten onderscheiden:
De havik zit doorgaans onbeweeglijk op een tak en wacht tot hij een prooi ziet. Als hij een prooi gekozen heeft, duwt hij zich af en fladdert een paar keer met de vleugels. Met zijn vleugels bijna helemaal tegen zijn lichaam stort hij pijlsnel door bomen en struiken op zijn prooi af tot hij die heeft.
De havik (Accipiter gentilis) is een middelgrote roofvogel uit de familie van de havikachtigen (Accipitridae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort werd als Falco gentilis in 1758 gepubliceerd door Carl Linnaeus. De havik bewoont de arctische tot subtropische zones van het holarctisch gebied.
Hønsehauken (Accipiter gentilis) er ein mellomstor rovfugl i haukefamilien som held til i tempererte strok av den nordlege halvkula. Arten var på norsk raudliste 2006, der han hadde status som sårbar, men var i 2010 justert ned til nær truga.[1]
Hønsehauken er den største arten i slekta Accipiter. Hannfuglen er 49-57 cm lang, med eit vengespenn på 19-105 cm. Hoa er mykje større enn hannen, med ein kroppslengde på 58-64 cm og eit vengespenn på 108-127 cm og kan vega opptil 2 kg. Hannen er blågrå ovenpå og spragla grå under, medan hoa er skifergrå over og grå under.
Fuglen har korte, breie venger og ein lang stjert som hjelper han å styra mellom trea i skogane han lever i. Hønsehauken flyg karakteristisk med fem seine vengeslag og så glideflukt.
Hønsehauken er avbilda på flagget til Asorane.
Reiret til hønsehauken i eit gammalt bjørketre.
Hønsehaukegg
Hønsehauken (Accipiter gentilis) er ein mellomstor rovfugl i haukefamilien som held til i tempererte strok av den nordlege halvkula. Arten var på norsk raudliste 2006, der han hadde status som sårbar, men var i 2010 justert ned til nær truga.
Hønsehauk (Accipiter gentilis) er en art i haukefamilien og inngår i slekten Accipiter. Slekten inngår i tribuset Accipitrini i underfamilien av hauker (Accipitrinae). Hele ti underarter aksepteres i øyeblikket, men det er stor usikkerhet knyttet til både disse og arten som sådan. Den underarten som opptrer i Norge kalles eurasisk hønsehauk (A. g. gentilis) og er synonym med nominatformen.
Hønsehauk betraktes tradisjonelt som et artskompleks, sammen med mesitthauk (A. henstii), nonnehauk (A. melanoleucus) og muligvis sørgehauk (A. meyerianus), men den interne taksonomien for arten er uklar. Amerikanske underarter kan blant annet vise seg å være én eller flere selvstendige arter.[2]
Arten måler 46–63 cm cm og er kraftig bygget med tydelig kjønnspreg. Hunnen blir betydelig større enn hannen (cirka 11–28% lenger og 50–90% tyngre) og kjønnene har forskjellige fjærdrakter. Hunnen veier typisk 820–2 200 g (758–1 210 g gentilis og atricapillus), mens hannen gjerne veier cirka 517–1 110 g (677–1 010 g gentilis og atricapillus). Vingespennet utgjør omkring 89–122 cm, avhengig av kjønn.[2]
Fuglen foretrekker storvokst og gammel barskog. Den har korte, brede vinger (vingespenn ca. 100–130 cm) og lang smal hale som gjør at den er godt egnet til styrtjakt og kan fly raskt mellom grener og trær.
Redet er stort og plassert midt i treet og brukes ofte flere år på rad. Hannen bygger vanligvis redet alene. Hunnen legger eggene (vanligvis 2–4) sist i april eller i mai. De ruges (vesentlig av hunnen) i 35–38 døgn, mens ungene er flyvedyktige etter 35–40 døgn. I denne perioden bringer hannen mat til redet. Ungene vokser derfor opp på forholdsvis små byttedyr. De mates av foreldrene i ca. 70 døgn.
Arten jakter og eter andre fugler og mindre pattedyr, fordelt på et stort antall arter. Hunnhauken kan ta større byttedyr enn den mindre hannen – som hare, kråker, skjærer og storfugl. Eller tar hønsehauken mus, ekorn, småfugl, trost, duer o.l. Jaktmetoden er annerledes enn hos store falker, som gjerne stuper ned mot byttet fra stor høyde. Hønsehauken pleier å sitte og lure etter bytte, for så å slå hurtig ned på det. Den flyr med kjappe vingeslag, avbrutt av glideflukt. Som regel holder den seg lavt i terrenget, mellom trærne. Over åpen mark følger den gjerne elvedrag og diker.
En måte å få observert hønsehauk på er å legge merke til kråker som lager spetakkel og jager mot et bestemt område.
Bestanden regnes som livskraftig, men avtar. Hønsehaukbestanden i verden er anslått til 1–10 mill., hvorav 4000–5400 i Norge.[3] Den regnes som Europas 3. vanligste haukefugl, etter musvåk og spurvehauk.
Denne ornitologirelaterte artikkelen er foreløpig kort eller mangelfull, og du kan hjelpe Wikipedia ved å utvide den. Hønsehauk (Accipiter gentilis) er en art i haukefamilien og inngår i slekten Accipiter. Slekten inngår i tribuset Accipitrini i underfamilien av hauker (Accipitrinae). Hele ti underarter aksepteres i øyeblikket, men det er stor usikkerhet knyttet til både disse og arten som sådan. Den underarten som opptrer i Norge kalles eurasisk hønsehauk (A. g. gentilis) og er synonym med nominatformen.
Àutri nòm an piemontèis: ...
A l'é n'osel.
Da finì.
Distribussion
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons 
Hasło w Wikisłowniku Jastrząb zwyczajny, jastrząb, jastrząb gołębiarz (Accipiter gentilis) – gatunek dużego ptaka drapieżnego z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae).
Wyróżniono dziesięć podgatunków A. gentilis[4][2][5]:
Zamieszkuje strefę lasów borealnych i liściastych zrzucających liście na północnej półkuli. Zasiedla Europę, Azję, Amerykę Północną, Afrykę Północną. Gatunek osiadły, częściowo koczujący poza okresem lęgowym – ptaki z zimniejszych rejonów Ameryki Północnej, północnej Skandynawii i północnej Azji przelatują na niewielkie dystanse w obszary o nieco łagodniejszym klimacie.
Dorosłe osobniki mają wierzch ciała szaropopielaty, a spód jasny w poprzeczne, szare, faliste prążki (bardzo dla niego charakterystyczne; takie same występują jeszcze, spośród krajowych gatunków, u krogulca i sokoła wędrownego). Pręgowane podogonie z jasną plamą u nasady. Sterówki wachlarzowate (w przeciwieństwie do podobnego krogulca). Nad okiem charakterystyczna szeroka, biała brew. Utworzona jest, podobnie jak u innych ptaków drapieżnych, z kostnej tarczki nadocznej, która ma chronić oko ptaka w czasie lotu od oślepienia. Tęczówka jaskrawożółta do pomarańczowej lub czerwonej, ciemniejsza u samców niż u samic oraz u starszych ptaków. Cała sylwetka z krótszymi skrzydłami w stosunku do tułowia i dość długim ogonem, w porównaniu np. ze zbliżonym do samic jastrzębia rozmiarami myszołowem. Jastrzębia głowa ma charakterystyczny profil – zagięty dziób prosty u nasady skierowany jest ku przodowi, inaczej niż ma to miejsce u papug i sów, gdzie dzioby już od nasady są hakowato wygięte. Swą zwrotność w locie zawdzięcza stosunkowo krótkim i szerokim skrzydłom oraz długiemu ogonowi. Samiec jest niewiele większy od samicy krogulca (o 1/5 mniejszy od samicy), ma łupkowoszary wierzch i biały spód z ciemnymi prążkami. Podgatunki z Syberii i Kamczatki są prawie w całości białe.
samce 0,6–1 kg
samice 0,8–1,5 kg (poza sezonem lęgowym do 1130 g)
Przeważnie lata nisko, wykorzystując różne osłony takie jak rowy. Zręcznie manewruje między gałęziami w lesie, w czym pomaga mu stosunkowo długi ogon. Jest samotnikiem, jedynie w okresie godowym łączy się w pary. Jastrzębie prowadzą skryty tryb życia, rzadko krążą nad danym terenem, a gdy to robią, rozpościerają swój ogon tak, że widać na nim cztery ciemne, szerokie prążki.
To ptaki przeważnie milczące. Jedynie w okresie godowym usłyszeć można ich głośne kwilenie.
Stare, luźne drzewostany iglaste i mieszane w pobliżu łąk, pól uprawnych i innych terenów otwartych. Jesienią i zimą częściej spotykany na otwartych terenach. Preferuje zróżnicowane krajobrazy, bogate w kryjówki i długą granicę pomiędzy lasami a przestrzeniami niezadrzewionymi. Od kiedy nasilenie tępienia tego ptaka osłabło, zaczął pojawiać się w pobliżu miast, zabudowań gospodarskich lub rzadziej w ich obrębie. Może lęgnąć się w podmiejskich parkach i śródpolnych remizach. Unika jednak zapuszczania się w głąb rozległych obszarów otwartych. Przy mniejszych zadrzewieniach wybiera te, które gwarantują mu spokój i ciszę. Przez większość roku jastrzębie pozostają na swoim terytorium i zwykle widuje się je pojedynczo.
Jastrząb jest wszechstronnym drapieżnikiem. Najchętniej poluje na gołębie (stąd nazwa – gołębiarz), grzywacze i sierpówki. Poza tym łapie z zasadzki inne średniej wielkości ptaki, głównie krukowate, grzebiące i śpiewające do wielkości drozda (stanowiące ok. 85% pożywienia). Są wśród nich sójki, wrony, kawki, dzięcioły, kuropatwy oraz ptactwo domowe (nawet kaczki krzyżówki). Ze ssaków (ok. 15% składu pokarmu) poluje na wiewiórki, zające, króliki, a nawet drobne gryzonie, które stanowią znaczną część jego diety głównie jesienią (to okres ich wysokiej liczebności). Poluje samotnie, złowioną zdobycz skubie z pierza lub futra (choć połyka trochę pozostawionych niejadalnych części) i zjada w ukryciu. Niestrawiony pokarm jest zwracany w formie wypluwek, co pozwala określić jego dietę. Resztki większych ofiar zostawia do następnego dnia. Większe samice polują zwykle na zwierzęta o pokaźniejszych rozmiarach, dochodzące do gabarytów kury czy zająca.
Nogi tego ptaka są zaadaptowane do chwytania ofiar (z drzew, powietrza i ziemi). Zarówno jastrząb, jak i krogulec, mają długi skok ułatwiający wyciąganie zwierzyny ukrywającej się w gęstych gałęziach lub schwytanie jej w niskim locie. Ostre i długie szpony umocowane na silnych palcach przecinają skórę ofiary wbijając się jej głęboko w ciało i powodując jej śmierć. Gdy po pierwszym ataku uda jej się zbiec, drapieżnik rusza w krótką pogoń za nią, ale po krótkim czasie, gdy nie udaje jej się schwytać, rezygnuje. Może też polować przez nagły lot nurkowy z dużej wysokości. Zimą ze względu na trudne zdobycie pożywienia niekorzystne są dla nich przedłużające się okresy silnych mrozów. Terytorium łowieckie jednej pary w okresie lęgowym wynosi ok. 30–50 km².
Toki zaczynają się na przełomie stycznia i lutego. Wtedy można usłyszeć kwilenie jastrzębi oraz zobaczyć je krążące nad lasami. Wyprowadzany jest jeden lęg w roku, w połowie albo pod koniec kwietnia. Jastrzębie tworzą monogamiczne pary, wierne sobie często przez całe życie. Przeważnie przywiązują się na długo do swego rewiru. To większe samice ustanawiają terytorium lęgowe. Rewir ten jest zajmowany przez ptaki już kilka miesięcy przed przystąpieniem do gniazdowania. W okresie wyprowadzania lęgów prowadzą skryty tryb życia.
Gniazdo, płaska platforma, zwykle znajduje się na skraju lasu lub w jego głębi, w starych zadrzewieniach, przy pniu, w środkowej partii korony drzewa, około 10–20 metrów nad ziemią. Zbudowane ze świeżych gałązek, na brzegach przystrojone zielonymi gałązkami sosny czy świerka, co odróżnia je od podobnego gniazda myszołowa. Wgłębienie niewielkie, wyściełane suchymi trawami, o średnicy ok. 60–80 cm i wysokości ok. 50 cm. Budową zajmuje się w większości samica. Gniazdo wykorzystywane jest przez wiele lat, więc może powiększać swe rozmiary. Na jego wierzchu przy zewnętrznej krawędzi dorosłe ptaki stale dokładają świeże i zielone gałązki, które odłamują w locie. Czasem jednak wykorzystują parę konstrukcji lęgowych na przemian w kolejnych sezonach.
Samica składa zwykle 3 niebieskawe jaja (czasami 2–6), w odstępach 2–4 dni w marcu i kwietniu. Jaja zmieniają kolor: początkowo białe, następnie siwozielonkawe, oliwkowe lub jasnobrązowe, z tłustymi plamami od ciała wysiadującej samicy. Wymiary: 58 × 47 mm.
Jaja wysiadywane są od zniesienia pierwszego jaja przez okres 35-40 dni przez obydwoje rodziców (głównie jednak samicę). To powoduje, że pisklęta wykluwają się stopniowo. Obserwowana w czasie polowań krwiożerczość dająca temu ptakowi negatywną opinię kontrastuje z troskliwością jastrzębia w okresie lęgowym i jego życiem rodzinnym. W okresie lęgowym karmieniem samicy zajmuje się samiec. Matka rozrywa mięso i podaje młodym. Tylko ona ma instynkt równego porcjowania pokarmu, chyba że zginie i wtedy zaczyna go wykazywać też samiec. Następuje to jednak zwykle późno i pisklęta mogą zginąć z głodu. Przez pierwsze 9–14 dni matka ogrzewa swym ciałem młode. Po 35 dniach jej potomstwo zaczyna wychodzić z gniazda na sąsiednie gałęzie, z których zaczyna podejmować pierwsze próby latania. Pisklęta opuszczają gniazdo po 41–43 dniach i od tej pory jako tzw. „gałęźniki” chowają się wśród gałęzi w koronach drzew, aż nie staną się w pełni lotne. Jednak rodzice karmią je do 70. dnia życia, potem młode są już w pełni samodzielne. W tym czasie dorosłe ptaki bronią zaciekle swego gniazda przed intruzami. Nie wahają się też wtedy zaatakować ludzi. Podobnie jak krogulce, dojrzałość płciową uzyskują po 10 miesiącach życia. Momentami, w których na te drapieżniki czyha największe zagrożenie to czas, kiedy samica składa jaja, opiekuje się młodymi i gdy te uczą się latać.
W Polsce objęty ochroną gatunkową ścisłą[10].
Od dawna przez myśliwych, hodowców gołębi i rolników był uznawany za szkodnika. Negatywny wpływ na jego liczebność miała również kultura masowa. W okresie PRL w produkcjach animowanych, takich jak Przygód kilka wróbla Ćwirka, był demonizowany, a twórcy przedstawiali go jako okrutnego, przebiegłego złoczyńcę, żyjącego po to, by krzywdzić z reguły osłabione i bezbronne ofiary. Opinia ta przeniosła się do społeczeństwa wiejskiego, które przypisywało mu jak najgorsze cechy, obwiniając o znaczne straty w ptactwie domowym i zwierzynie łownej. Znane są przypadki, kiedy mieszkańcy wsi szukali w lesie gniazd jastrzębi, a następnie niszczyli znajdujące się w nich jaja, zabijali pisklęta, a nawet dorosłe ptaki stające w obronie potomstwa.
Jest jednym z najbardziej prześladowanych gatunków dzikich ptaków. Badania w tym zakresie pokazały, że poluje nie tylko na bażanty, kuropatwy i zające, ale też występujące liczniej i mające mniejsze znaczenie dla człowieka sroki, wrony, dzikie gołębie, sójki i kosy. Nie należy jednak oceniać jego szkodliwości lub pożyteczności w środowisku, biorąc pod uwagę tylko konkurencję z człowiekiem o pokarm.
Jastrząb zwyczajny, jastrząb, jastrząb gołębiarz (Accipiter gentilis) – gatunek dużego ptaka drapieżnego z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae).
O açor (Accipiter gentilis), do latim acceptore, significando que voa rapidamente, é uma ave de rapina da família Accipitridae, distribuída por todas as regiões temperadas do hemisfério norte.
É a ave que aparece na bandeira dos Açores. O arquipélago dos Açores deve o seu nome ao açor, porque quando os descobridores do arquipélago lá chegaram pensaram ver açores. Mais tarde, concluiriam que as aves eram, afinal, uma subespécie local da águia de asa redonda (Buteo buteo rothschildi), apelidadas hoje em dia pelos açorianos de "milhafres" ou "queimados".
Outra teoria aponta que o Açores provém do nome azzurro em italiano ou azureus em latim, que significa Azul em português, como referência ao céu azul num dia brilhante e claro aquando da descoberta ao longe das ilhas. Esta teoria é sustentada por uma outra que afirma que as ilhas dos Açores já apareciam inclusive em portulanos genoveses do século XIV.
É um ave de rapina diurna, parecida com o falcão, com um comprimento de aproximadamente 50 cm, cor preta e ventre branco com manchas pretas; asas e bico pretos, cauda cinzenta, manchada de branco e pernas amareladas. Era muito apreciado antigamente em falcoaria.
A espécie americana, A. atricapillus, mede cerca de 60 cm de comprimento. Estas intrépidas aves, notáveis pelos seus habilidosos voos com que seguem todos os movimentos das suas presas, constituem, juntamente com o gavião, os mais implacáveis inimigos dos passarinhos.
Esta ave caça outras aves menores e pequenos mamíferos confiando no efeito surpresa, aproveitando posições elevadas para o efeito. São predadores oportunistas e as suas principais presas são esquilos, galináceos, piciformes, como pica-paus, e pássaros.
A época de acasalamento é a melhor altura para observar esta ave. Nesta altura, o seu chamamento, parecido com o da gaivota, torna-o fácil de localizar.
O açor (Accipiter gentilis), do latim acceptore, significando que voa rapidamente, é uma ave de rapina da família Accipitridae, distribuída por todas as regiões temperadas do hemisfério norte.
Uliul porumbar (Accipiter gentilis) este o pasăre răpitoare de talie mijlocie (50–65 cm) din familia accipitridelor (Accipitridae), ordinul falconiformelor (Falconiformes), cu un penaj cafeniu-cenușiu pe spate, pieptul albicios cu dungi transversale întunecate, mai rare pe coadă, care are pene albe la rădăcină. Are coadă lungă, aripi scurte, late și cu vârful rotunjit. Tinerii prezintă pete lunguiețe pe abdomen. Adulții au deasupra ochiului o sprânceană de culoare deschisă. Are un zbor rapid și foarte abil printre copaci, cu planări întrerupte de câteva bătăi dese din aripi, atacând și prăzi mai mari decât el. Atacă păsări și mamifere mici, mai ales din mediul împădurit. Cuibărește prin copacii din mijlocul pădurilor, în arbori la șes ori în regiunea de deal, mai rar la munte în Europa, nordul și centrul Asiei, nord-vestul Africii, America de Nord și Mexic. Cuibărește în România și Republica Moldova, unde rămâne și în sezonul rece. În Dicționarul limbii române, tom XVII, elaborat de Academia Română[2] se menționează că pentru uliul porumbar mai există variantele: uli porumbac, uli mare, uli cenușiu.
Uliul porumbar populează pădurile (în special cele de conifere) cu poieni mari și spații deschise adiacente, biotopuri în care aceasta vânează de preferință. Activitatea sa de pasăre de pradă se extinde în câmpii, pajiști mărginite de garduri vii, mlaștini și lacuri cu malurile împădurite. În general, evită totuși spațiile deschise de mari dimensiuni.
În unele țări, uliul s-a adaptat la mediul urban: în Rusia (în apropiere de Moscova, în timpul iernii, în Olanda (Amsterdam), în Letonia (Riga) și în Germania (Köln).[3]
Conform Alan P. Peterson, această specie este alcătuit din următoarele subspecii:
Accipiter gentilis striatulus nu mai este recunoscută de către majoritatea clasificărilor taxonomice.
Uliul porumbar (Accipiter gentilis) este o pasăre răpitoare de talie mijlocie (50–65 cm) din familia accipitridelor (Accipitridae), ordinul falconiformelor (Falconiformes), cu un penaj cafeniu-cenușiu pe spate, pieptul albicios cu dungi transversale întunecate, mai rare pe coadă, care are pene albe la rădăcină. Are coadă lungă, aripi scurte, late și cu vârful rotunjit. Tinerii prezintă pete lunguiețe pe abdomen. Adulții au deasupra ochiului o sprânceană de culoare deschisă. Are un zbor rapid și foarte abil printre copaci, cu planări întrerupte de câteva bătăi dese din aripi, atacând și prăzi mai mari decât el. Atacă păsări și mamifere mici, mai ales din mediul împădurit. Cuibărește prin copacii din mijlocul pădurilor, în arbori la șes ori în regiunea de deal, mai rar la munte în Europa, nordul și centrul Asiei, nord-vestul Africii, America de Nord și Mexic. Cuibărește în România și Republica Moldova, unde rămâne și în sezonul rece. În Dicționarul limbii române, tom XVII, elaborat de Academia Română se menționează că pentru uliul porumbar mai există variantele: uli porumbac, uli mare, uli cenușiu.
Jastrab veľký (iné názvy: jastrab obyčajný, jastrab lesný[3]; lat. Accipiter gentilis) je dravý vták z čeľade jastrabovité (Accipitridae). Žije v lesoch holarktídy. Obýva celé územie Európy[4]. Na Slovensku hniezdi od lužných lesov až po horské lesy 1 000 m n. m.[5] Podľa Medzinárodnej únie na ochranu prírody a prírodných zdrojov jastrab veľký patrí medzi najmenej ohrozené druhy, trend celkovej populácie nie je známy, v severnej Amerike má posledných 40 rokov stabilnú populáciu, v Európe poklesli jeho stavy za obdobie troch generácií (21 rokov) o 25%.[1]
Jastrab veľký meria asi 48 – 61 cm, s rozpätím krídel 98 – 117 cm[6] a s hmotnosťou 523 – 900 g (♂♂), 1050 – 1600 g (♀♀).[7]
Samica je výrazne väčšia ako samec. Obaja majú podobné zafarbenie. Chrbát majú tmavosivý, nad očami široký belavý pás. Aj hruď a brucho majú bielosivé s hustými vlnitými priečnymi pásmi. Podchvostové perá majú čisto biele. Oči a ozobie majú žlté.[8]
Mláďatá majú svetlohnedý chrbát a na hrudi a bruchu nemajú priečne čiary ale hnedé škvrny v tvare kvapky.[8]
Jastrab vyniká svojimi letovými schopnosťami[8], pre ktoré má široké uplatnenie v sokoliarstve. Na rozdiel od väčšiny dravcov nekrúži tak často, hlavne v skorých jarných mesiacoch počas toku[7], ale vďaka širokým krídlam a dlhému chvostu má vynikajúce manévrovacie schopnosti aj v zalesnenom teréne. Obratne kľučkuje medzi kríkmi a stromami, lieta aj veľmi nízko nad zemou a tak prekvapí svoju korisť. Typické je pre neho striedanie aktívneho a kĺzavého letu.[8]
Na hniezdisku sa ozýva hlasom „kjy kjy kjy kjy...“[6] alebo „gi-gi-gi“[8]. Vábiaci hlas znie trasľavo „piiii-iä“[6] alebo „hi-e“ a využíva ho samica pri kontakte so samcom.[9]
Odhadovaný počet hniezdiacich párov v rokoch 1980 – 1999 bol 1 600 - 1 800, zimujúcich jedincov 3 000 - 5 000. Veľkosť populácie mala mierny pokles od 20 - 50%. Veľkosť územia, na ktorom sa vyskytoval, bola stabilná, maximálna zmena do 20%. Hniezdenie bolo dokázané v 70,90 % a zimovanie v 85,30 % mapovacích kvadrátov. Hniezdna hustota sa v strednej Európe pohybovala medzi 1 - 5 párov / 100 km².[5] Ekosozologický status v roku 1995 žiadny. V roku 1998 LR:LC LR - menej ohrozený druh, LC - najmenej ohrozený taxón. V roku 2001 LR - menej ohrozený.[10] Európsky ochranársky status nezaradený SPEC. Stupeň ohrozenia S - vyhovujúci ochranársky status.[5]
Odhadovaný počet hniezdiacich párov v rokoch 2008 – 2012 bol 900 – 1200 párov. Krátkodobý trend i veľkosť územia na ktorom hniezdil za posledných 12 rokov (2000 – 2012) aj z pohľadu dlhodobého trendu od roku 1980 (1980 – 2012) bol klesajúci. [11] V roku 2014 NT* C1 - takmer ohrozený.[2][12][13]
Odhadovaný počet hniezdiacich párov v rokoch 2013 – 2018 bol 900 – 1200 párov. Krátkodobý trend za posledných 12 rokov (2007 – 2018) aj dlhodobý trend od roku 1980 (1980 – 2018) bol klesajúci. Veľkosť územia na ktorom hniezdil za posledných 12 rokov ako aj z pohľadu dlhodobého trendu bola stabilná.[14]
Jastrab žije v starých lesoch rôzneho druhu. Ak ide o veľké súvislé komplexy, obývaj okraje. V lesoch vyhľadáva prítomnosť okrajov lesa, pasienkov a lúk. Od nížin až po 1200 – 1 300m m n. m., vo Vysokých Tatrách bol pozorový aj 1 700 m n. m..[7]
Hniezdenie začína koncom zimy, vo februári a v marci. V tomto čase sa často ozývajú a krúžia nad lesom. Vo svojom rozsiahlom teritóriu majú aj viacero hniezd. Niekedy striedajú hniezda a niekedy sa vracajú do toho istého aj viacero rokov po sebe (napr. 4 roky[7]). Hniezda si stavajú samy a umiestňujú ich vysoko na strome. Býva tesne pri kmeni stromu alebo v rázsoche silných konárov. Hniezda boli nájdené na bukoch, duboch, topoľoch, jelšiach, vŕbach, na ihličnatých stromoch ako jedľa biela a smrek.[7]
Na hniezdo, ktoré si zvolili, nosia aj zelené vetvičky s listami. Hniezdny materiál zabezpečujú obaja rodičia, úpravu priamo na hniezde vykonáva samica. Transportujú ho v pazúroch i v zobáku. Veľkosť hniezda býva 70 cm priemer a 30 – 40 cm výška.
Vajíčka začínajú znášať koncom apríla alebo v máji. Samička znáša v odstupoch 2 – 4 dní. Farba vajíčok je zelenkavo-biela. V znáške ich býva (2) 3 – 4 (5).[7]
Na inkubácii sa podieľajú obaja partneri, najmä však samica. Niekedy zasadnú po znesení druhého vajíčka alebo až na úplnú znášku. Na vajíčkach sedia 35 – 38 dní. V jednom roku hniezdia len raz, prípadne ak dôjde k zničeniu znášky, môžu mať náhradné hniezdenie.[7]
Po vyliahnutí mláďat ich kŕmi a zohrieva samička, samec nosí potravu. Zistilo sa, že samec nevie nakŕmiť mláďatá, iba prinášať korisť. Pri úhyne samice uhynú v tomto veku aj mláďatá. Starostlivosť na hniezde trvá 40 dní. Rodičia ich kŕmia aj po vyletení z hniezda, mláďatá sa roztrúsia po okolí a svojim hlasom označujú polohu, aby ich mohli rodičia nájsť. Toto obdobie trvá asi do 10 júla, potom sa postupne osamostatňujú.[7]
Loví buď tak, že si sadne do koruny stromu, málokedy na vrcholec, alebo letí nízko nad zemou, či sa nestretne s nejakou korisťou. Jastrab loví prevažne vtáky ako sú holuby, vrany, bažanty, prepelice, jarabice, divé kačky atď. Z cicavcov sú to hlavne veveričky, ale je schopný uloviť aj zajaca, je to však skôr výnimka.[7]
Prvý ho taxonomicky zaradil Carl Linné v roku 1785. Rozlišujú sa viaceré poddruhy (9[9]), ich presný počet je kruhoch odborníkov stále otvorenou otázkou.
A. g. gentilis. Nominátna rasa. Obýva väčšinu areálu rozšírenia druhu v západnej Palearktíde.[9]
A. g. arrigionii. Táto rasa žije na Korzike a Sardínii. Jedinci tohoto poddruhu sú drobnejšej postavy, majú tmavý chrbát a silne pásikavú hruď.[9]
A. g. buteoides. Severská rasa rozšírená od severného Švédska smerom na východ po rieku Lenu.[9]
Je zákonom chránený, spoločenská hodnota je 3220 € (Vyhláška MŽP č. 579/2008 Z.z.).
V 19. a v 20. storočí poklesli stavy jastraba veľkého kvôli prenasledovaniu a odlesňovaniu. V 50. a 60-tich rokov 20. storočia znovu poklesli stavy kvôli vplyvom pesticídov a ťažkých kovov. Prenasledovanie patrí stále medzi ohrozujúce faktory, rovnako ako vykrádanie hniezd za účelom sokoliarstva. Silný negatívny vplyv majú aj farmy veterných elektrární. Podľa zistení aj na Aljaške, veľké holoruby, rovnoveké porasty, lesné hospodárenie s krátkou rubnou dobou a odstraňovanie starých porastov znižujú kvalitu biotopu jastraba.[15]
Mladý jastrab, samica, nedávno opustila hniezdo (A. g. gentilis)
Štyri mladé jastraby, vek 30 dní, (A. g. gentilis)
Kompozitná fotografia - pomôcka na ľahšie spoznanie druhu
Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Jastrab veľký
Wikidruhy ponúkajú informácie na tému Jastrab veľký
Jastrab veľký (iné názvy: jastrab obyčajný, jastrab lesný; lat. Accipiter gentilis) je dravý vták z čeľade jastrabovité (Accipitridae). Žije v lesoch holarktídy. Obýva celé územie Európy. Na Slovensku hniezdi od lužných lesov až po horské lesy 1 000 m n. m. Podľa Medzinárodnej únie na ochranu prírody a prírodných zdrojov jastrab veľký patrí medzi najmenej ohrozené druhy, trend celkovej populácie nie je známy, v severnej Amerike má posledných 40 rokov stabilnú populáciu, v Európe poklesli jeho stavy za obdobie troch generácií (21 rokov) o 25%.
Kragulj (latinsko znanstveno ime Accipiter gentilis) je vrsta ujede iz družine kraguljev (Accipitridae).
Kragulj je srednje velika ujeda, pri čemer je samica večja od samca. Odrasel kragulj meri v dolžino od 48 do 61 cm. V letu ga spoznamo po zaobljenih perutih in po dolgem repu. Kragulji niso značilni jadralci, zato v letu pogosto zamahujejo s krili.
Hranijo se s pticami in manjšimi sesalci do velikosti zajca. Plen presenetijo z napadom iz grmovja, ptice pa pogosto tudi dolgo zasledujejo.
Ta ptica je razširjena po Evropi, Aziji, Afriki (od severne drevesne meje do Maroka) in v severni Ameriki do Mehike. Njegovo življenjsko okolje so iglasti, včasih pa tudi v mešani in listnati gozdovi.
Kragulj gnezdi v krošnjah dreves, v gnezdu, ki ga vsako leto zgradi na novo. Gnezdi v aprilu in maju, samica pa znese dve ali tri jajca.
Kragulj (latinsko znanstveno ime Accipiter gentilis) je vrsta ujede iz družine kraguljev (Accipitridae).
Duvhök (Accipiter gentilis) är en medelstor kraftfull hökartad rovfågel som placeras i släktet Accipiter. Den har ett mycket stort utbredningsområde som sträcker sig över de tempererade områdena på norra halvklotet. Duvhöken är den enda arten i sitt släkte som förekommer både i Eurasien och i Nordamerika. Den beskrevs första gången 1758 av Linné i hans Systema naturae. IUCN kategoriserar arten som livskraftig (LC).
Duvhöken är en medelstor kraftfull rovfågel som väger 700–1200 gram och har breda, rundade vingar och proportionellt kort, tydligt bredbandad stjärt. Honan är betydligt större än hanen med en längd på 58–64 cm och ett vingspann på 108–120 cm jämfört med hanens omkring 49–56 cm och vingspann på 90–105 cm.[2]
Den adulta hanen har gråblå ovansida, ljus undersida med talrika täta grå tvärvattringar. Den har mörkt gråblå hjässa och kinder, tydligt vitt ögonbrynsstreck och gul näbbas. Adult hona har brungrå rygg och hjässa och är grovt tvärvattrad på buken. Den har breda höfter, yviga vita undre stjärttäckare och mycket grova gula tarser som saknar fjädrar på nedre delen. Den juvenila fågeln är grovfläckat brun på rygg och hjässa, och beige eller vit på undersidan med droppformade mörkbruna längsstreck (ett bra kännetcken gentemot sparvhök som i alla dräkter har tvärvattrad undersida). Ungfåglarna har klargul iris som övergår till rödorange hos de adulta fåglarna.[2]
Den adulta fågeln är mycket lik sparvhöken men är ett nummer större. Främsta skillnaderna är i övrigt duvhökens grova tarser, som är ungefär tre gånger så grova som sparvhökens "strumpstickor" till ben. När stjärten är utspärrad har duvhöken rundade stjärthörn medan sparvhöken har spetsiga. I flykten ses sparvhökens mycket längre stjärt medan duvhöken upplevs kortstjärtad, bredhöftad och bukig.[2] Den bästa dräktkaraktären hos en adult duvhök är de mörkare örontäckarna.
Duvhöken beskrevs första gången taxonomiskt av Linné 1758 under det vetenskapliga namnet Falco gentilis. Detta vetenskapliga namn använde Linné för att beskriva den juvenila duvhöken. Senare i samma källa beskriver han den adulta duvhöken under namnet Falco palumbarius.[3]
Dess vetenskapliga släktnamn härstammar från latinets accipiter som betecknade rovfåglar i allmänhet och falkar och hökar i synnerhet. Ordet härstammar förmodligen från latinets accipiō som betyder "fånga" eller "gripa".[4]
Duvhöken tillhör en grupp kraftigare hökar där följande arter ingår:
DNA-studier visar att kärrhökarna i Circus är inbäddade i Accipiter så som släktet ser ut idag.[5][6][7][8] Faktiskt är kärrhökarna förvånande nog närmare släkt med duvhöken än vad duvhöken är med sparvhöken. Det medför att antingen flyttas de distinkta kärrhökarna till Accipiter eller så delas Accipiter upp i flera mindre släkten. För duvhökens del skulle det innebära att den därför behöver flyttas till ett annat släkte, möjligen Astur.
Duvhöken förekommer cirkumpolärt över främst de norra delarna av norra halvklotet men utbredningsområdet sträcker sig som sydligast till Marocko och Mexiko. Merparten är stannfåglar eller strykfåglar, men de populationer som exempelvis häckar i nordligaste Asien flyttar söderut om vinter. Även ungfåglar brukar dra sig söderut under vintern.
Arten brukar delas upp i åtta underarter som i sin tur ofta placeras i två släktgrupper:[9]
Vissa erkänner även underarten marginatus som häckar från Italien och Balkan till Kaukasus och Iran samt apache som förekommer i sydvästra USA och nordvästra Mexiko. Dessa inkluderas här i gentilis respektive atricapillus.
Duvhöken häckar i hela landet upp till trädgränsen men inte i fjällen. Två underarter av duvhök förekommer regelbundet i Sverige: Nominatformen A. g. gentilis och den ljusare A. g. buteoides som har sin främsta utbredning österut. Den senare ses främst på vintern när ungfåglarna drar omkring, men i norra Sverige förekommer det också att den häckar.
Arten föredrar skogsmiljö, helst med inslag av gamla barrträd. Boet byggs av ris och fylls med gräs, lav och mossa. Boet byggs på varje år, främst på höjden. Dock använder sig paret ofta av samma bo i högst tre år i sträck, förmodligen på grund av parasiter. Paret har i sitt revir ofta ett antal bon som de väljer mellan varje vår. Honan lägger i snitt tre till fyra ägg, främst i maj och ruvar mellan 36 och 38 dygn. Ungarna blir flygga efter 40 till 43 dygn.
Duvhökar lever av fåglar och mindre däggdjur som hare, ekorre, större fåglar upp till tjäderns storlek, emellanåt även andra rovfåglar.[10] Den lever även av as, främst vintertid. På grund av att honan är så pass mycket större än hanen kan hon också slå betydligt större byten.
Duvhöken hör till de rovfåglar som bäst uthärdat förföljelse från människan och verkar inte ha drabbats så hårt av miljögifter. Arten har ett mycket stort utbredningsområde och likaså är den globala populationen stor och populationstrenden är på ett globalt plan stabil. På grund av detta kategoriseras den som livskraftig (LC) av IUCN.
Stammen i Sverige minskade kraftigt från 1800-talet till mitten på 1900-talet på grund av jakt. Under 1950-talet var det istället miljögifterna som gick hårt åt stammen men efter förbud mot vissa miljögifter har stammen återhämtat sig. Idag finns en livskraftig population i Sverige på mellan 5 000 och 10 000 häckande par som dock minskar.[11] Arten är i Sverige fredad från jakt, men tillstånd till skyddsjakt i syfte att skydda fåglar som är uppfödda för att sättas ut för jakt kan ges, men får endast avse fångst av duvhök för förflyttning till en annan plats för att åter släppas fri.[12] I Artdatabankens rödlista från 2015 kategoriseras den som nära hotad (NT).[13]
Den äldsta kända källan där artnamnet duvhök förekommer är från 1755 men namnet är förmodligen äldre.[14] En äldre benämning på duvhök är hönshök[15], vilket förekommer i många olika dialektala varianter som bohuslänska hönsehög[16] och västerbottniska hönshöjk[17]. I Norge heter arten just hønsehauk. Både duvhök och hönshök refererar till artens tänka rov, det vill säga en idé om att dess huvudsakliga föda var duvor eller hönsfåglar. Ett annat folkligt namn är slaghök som dock användes för andra medelstora rovfåglar, som ormvråk och bivråk.[18] Andra folkliga namn är harhök och duvfalk.[19] Dialektalt har den i Västerbotten kallats hönsspänning och röjspänning.[17] Det portugisiska ordet för duvhök är açor, varifrån ögruppen Azorerna har fått sitt namn.
Wikimedia Commons har media som rör duvhök.
Wiktionary har ett uppslag om duvhök.Duvhök (Accipiter gentilis) är en medelstor kraftfull hökartad rovfågel som placeras i släktet Accipiter. Den har ett mycket stort utbredningsområde som sträcker sig över de tempererade områdena på norra halvklotet. Duvhöken är den enda arten i sitt släkte som förekommer både i Eurasien och i Nordamerika. Den beskrevs första gången 1758 av Linné i hans Systema naturae. IUCN kategoriserar arten som livskraftig (LC).
Bayağı çakır kuşu (Accipiter gentilis), atmacagiller (Accipitridae) familyasından kıvrık, kısa gagalı, ince uzun keskin pençeli, bir atmaca türü.
Sırtı koyu kahverengi veya gri tüylü, göğsü beyaz ve enine kahverengi çizgili atmacaların en irisi olup, 55–60 cm boyundadır. 120 cm kadar kanat açıklığına sahip, çok iştahlı ve saldırgan bir kuştur. Alçaktan uçtuğu için doğan avcılar tarafından, tavşan ve keklik avında kullanılır. Ateş ve sarımsı bir ışık gibi parlayan gözleri vardır.Atmacadan biraz daha büyüktür ve kanatları daha dar ve kalındır.Boyu aşağıdan yukarı uzundur.Atmaca ise kısadır.Çok süzülerek uçar ve genelde sık ormanda yaşar ama yaşadıkları yerler bozkır ormanlarıdır.Fethiyeden Ankara ya kadar geniş bir alanda yaşar.Atmacalar ise kuzeyde karadeniz ve edirne taraflarında yaşar.
Ömürleri 7-11 yıla kadar varan bu kuşların Türkiye'de yaşayanları kış mevsiminde Kuzey Afrika ve Akdeniz'e göç ederler.
Yaşam şekli Diğer atmacalar gibi kısa geniş kanatlarının uçları yuvarlanmış ve yelpaze gibi açılan uzun kuyruğu sayesinde ağaçlar arasında rahatça manevralar yaparak avını takip eder.
Güvercin, ada tavşanı ve sincap,saksağan,küçük karga türleri gibi hayvanları avlayarak beslenir. Tavukları kümeslerine kadar kovaladığı olur. Yuvasına yaklaşan insana hırsla saldırır. Bazı bölgelerde "çıkıp-çakar" adı çok eskilere dayanır. Erkekler dişilerden küçüktür.
Yüksek ağaç tepelerinde yuva kurarlar. Yuva içini saç, kıl ve kök püskülleriyle döşerler. Nisan ve Mayıs'ta 3-5 yumurta yumurtlar. Dişi 40 gün kadar (35-42 gün) kuluçkaya yatar, yavrular bir buçuk ay kadar (36-40 gün) yuvada kalarak anne tarafından beslenir. Genç çakır kuşları açık kahverengi tüylü ve sarı gözlüdür.
Virtual Birds'de Bayağı çakır kuşu kuşunun kuş sesi bulunur. Bayağı çakır kuşu (Accipiter gentilis), atmacagiller (Accipitridae) familyasından kıvrık, kısa gagalı, ince uzun keskin pençeli, bir atmaca türü.
Sırtı koyu kahverengi veya gri tüylü, göğsü beyaz ve enine kahverengi çizgili atmacaların en irisi olup, 55–60 cm boyundadır. 120 cm kadar kanat açıklığına sahip, çok iştahlı ve saldırgan bir kuştur. Alçaktan uçtuğu için doğan avcılar tarafından, tavşan ve keklik avında kullanılır. Ateş ve sarımsı bir ışık gibi parlayan gözleri vardır.Atmacadan biraz daha büyüktür ve kanatları daha dar ve kalındır.Boyu aşağıdan yukarı uzundur.Atmaca ise kısadır.Çok süzülerek uçar ve genelde sık ormanda yaşar ama yaşadıkları yerler bozkır ormanlarıdır.Fethiyeden Ankara ya kadar geniş bir alanda yaşar.Atmacalar ise kuzeyde karadeniz ve edirne taraflarında yaşar.
Яструб великий має також інші синонімічні назви — яструб голуб'ятник (Шарлемань, 1927)[3].
За розміром дещо більший від сірої ворони. Виражений статевий диморфізм — самиці більші за самців. Забарвлення верху тіла темне, сіро-буре, нижня частина білувата з поперечними сірими смужками. У дорослого самця над очима виражені білі «брови». Колір очей у дорослих особин червоний або червоно-коричневий, у молодих особин — яскраво-жовтий. У молодих птахів верхня частина, голова і зовнішня частина крил бурі, груди білі з вертикальними бурими смугами.
Маса самців 630—1100 г, довжина в середньому 55 см, розмах крил 98—104 см. Самиці трохи більші: маса — 860—1360 г, довжина — 61 см, розмах крил — 105—115 см.
Яструб великий поширений у Європі, Азії та Північній Америці. В Україні трапляється на всій території. Заселяє переважно хвойні і листяні ліси. Віддає перевагу гніздуванню в лісі, який багатий старими і високими деревами, має середню освітленість і невеликі галявини або узлісся неподалік, для полювання.
Це один з найпоширеніших хижих птахів Європи, його чисельність оцінюється у 160—210 тис. пар. В Україні, за оцінками, гніздиться 6,9—10,3 тис. пар[4]
Період розмноження триває з початку квітня до середини червня. Пара починає будувати гніздо ще за два місяці до відкладання яєць. Зазвичай гніздо влаштоване на гілці біля стовбура або у розгалуженні стовбура. Гніздо має близько метра в діаметрі, розташовується переважно на висоті 10—25 м над землею і будується з сухих гілок, по краю лотка трапляються соснові гілки зі свіжою хвоєю. Відкладання яєць триває з початку квітня — у другій декаді цього місяця. Зазвичай самиця відкладає 2—4 яйця з інтервалом в 2—3 дні. Яйця шкарубкі на дотик, блакитно-білого кольору. Насиджування триває в середньому 37 діб. Пташенята зазвичай з'являються у гніздах з ІІІ декади травня. Молоді птахи перебувають у гнізді близько 45 діб. Після вильоту молодь ще не менше двох тижнів знаходиться у районі гнізда.
Яструб великий живиться переважно птахами, яких добуває сам. 80—90 % здобичі складають дрозди, дятли, сойки, сірі ворони, граки, голуби. Значно рідше ловить він тетеруків, орябків, молодих глухарів, качок, домашню птицю; зрідка також зайців та вивірок.
У Німеччині встановлено, що пара яструбів великих на 30—50 квадратних кілометрів лісу буде не тільки нешкідливою, але й навіть корисною для підтримання здорового стану популяцій дичини. У Норвегії повністю знищили яструбів, щоб збільшити поголів'я білих куріпок. Вийшло ж навпаки — зникли яструби — катастрофічно почали вимирати куріпки. Вони помирали від хвороб, яким яструби не давали поширюватися, виловлюючи хворих птахів.
Як і інші види хижих птахів, яструб великий знаходиться під охороною, полювання на нього заборонене. В Європі має охоронний статус видів з найменшим ризиком.
Ưng ngỗng (Accipiter gentilis) là một loài chim săn mồi có kích cỡ trung bình thuộc họ Accipitridae. Loài này phân bố rộng rãi ở các khu vực ôn hòa của bắc bán cầu. Chúng là loài không di trú nhưng ở các khu vực lạnh hơn thì loài này di cư về phương nam vào mùa đông. Loài này đã được mô tả lần đầu bởi Linnaeus trong tác phẩm Systema naturae vào năm 1758 dưới tên khoa học hiện nay.[3] Loài ưng ngỗng này xuất hiện trên quốc kỳ Azores.
Ưng ngỗng (Accipiter gentilis) là một loài chim săn mồi có kích cỡ trung bình thuộc họ Accipitridae. Loài này phân bố rộng rãi ở các khu vực ôn hòa của bắc bán cầu. Chúng là loài không di trú nhưng ở các khu vực lạnh hơn thì loài này di cư về phương nam vào mùa đông. Loài này đã được mô tả lần đầu bởi Linnaeus trong tác phẩm Systema naturae vào năm 1758 dưới tên khoa học hiện nay. Loài ưng ngỗng này xuất hiện trên quốc kỳ Azores.
Ястреб-тетеревятник[1] (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — вид хищных птиц рода ястребов семейства ястребиных, широко распространённый в Европе, Азии и Северной Америке.
Название ястреб в старославянском языке встречается в варианте «astreb»[2]. Украинское — ястріб, яструб, сербохорватское јастријеб — ястреб, дающее прилагательное јастребаст — «пестрый, крапчатый», чешское — jestrab, древне-чешский — jastrab, польское — jastrząb, верхнелужицкое — jatrob, и нижнелужицкое — jastreb; интересно латинское astur[3]. Название, вероятно, сформировано на основе древне-славянского корня *str в значении «скорость» ostrъ (стриж, стрела, стремнина, стрежень). Окончание rebъ имеет значение «рябой, пестрый». Характерная черта охоты ястреба — молниеносный заключительный бросок на жертву, а поперечно-пестрый рисунок на груди общеизвестен и дает в языке прилагательное «ястребиный»[4].
Ястребы-тетеревятники — самый крупный вид рода ястребов. Самцы обычно весят 630—1100 г, их длина составляет в среднем 55 см, размах крыльев варьирует в пределах 98—104 см. Самки немного крупнее, весят 860—1600 г, в длину около 61 см, размах крыльев 105—115 см. Все ястребы, включая и ястреба-тетеревятника, имеют характерные белые полосы перьев над глазами, что создаёт впечатление белых бровей. У ястреба-тетеревятника они более широкие и длинные, чем у других представителей рода, и почти сходятся на затылке. Цвет глаз у взрослых особей красный или красно-коричневый, у молодых особей ярко-жёлтый.
Окраска как у самцов, так и у самок варьирует от синевато-серого до чёрного. Спина, голова и кроющие перья крыльев обычно более тёмные; нижняя часть светлая с отчётливой серой поперечной рябью. Хвост светло-серый, с тремя или четырьмя тёмными полосами. У молодых ястребов окраска заметно отличается от взрослых особей: их верхняя часть, голова и внешняя часть крыльев коричневые, грудка белая с вертикальными коричневыми полосками.[5]
Живут в горных и лесных территориях Евразии и Северной Америки. Населяют хвойные и лиственные леса. Гнёзда предпочитают вить в лесу, состоящем из старых и высоких деревьев со средней освещённостью и небольшими опушками неподалёку для охоты.[5][6]
Большинство популяций ведёт оседлый образ жизни и, как правило, придерживается одной территории в течение всей жизни. Единственной перелётной популяцией считается та, которая гнездится на севере и северо-западе Северной Америки — на зиму они мигрируют на юг.
Ястребы-тетеревятники строго придерживаются своей территории, и гнездящаяся пара перед и во время строительства гнезда отчётливо демонстрирует воздушные пируэты. Если кто-либо вторгается на их территорию, пара отчаянно будет её защищать. Индивидуальная территория у самцов, как правило, выше, чем у самок. Территории могут пересекаться у разных особей, за исключением района гнездования. Во время гнездовья индивидуальная территория в целом составляет от 570 до 3500 гектаров.
Как и другие ястребы, ястребы-тетеревятники общаются между собой посредством звуковых сигналов, издавая высокий звонкий клёкот. Особенно их общение заметно во время гнездовья, когда и самец, и самка издают одинаковые вибрирующие звуки, только у самки голос получается ниже и громче.[5][6]
Ястребы-тетеревятники — хищные птицы, охотятся на птиц, млекопитающих, беспозвоночных, средних и крупных рептилий. Жертва может составлять до половины веса хищника. Диета разных популяций отличается друг от друга и зависит от окружающей территории, но в общем случае они охотятся на зайцев, белок, дикуш (Falcipennis spp) и рябчиков (Bonasa spp).[5][6]
Размножаются ястребы-тетеревятники один раз в год, в период между началом апреля и серединой июня, причём пик активности приходится на конец апреля-май. Пара начинает строить гнездо ещё за два месяца до откладки яиц. Обычно гнездо устраивается в перестойном лесу, на ветке возле ствола, недалеко от открытых пространств — дорог, болот, лугов и т. п. Гнездо имеет около метра в диаметре, строится из сухих веточек, обвитых зелёными побегами или пучками хвои и кусочками коры.
Обычно самка откладывает 2—4 яйца с интервалом в 2—3 дня каждое. Яйца размером 59×45 мм, шершавые на ощупь, голубовато-белые. Птенцы начинают появляться на свет через 28—38 дней. Насиживает в основном самка, но самец заменяет её во время охоты. После появления потомства самка продолжает оставаться в гнезде в течение ещё 25 дней, в этот период все заботы о добыче для самки и потомства ложатся на самца. Вылупившиеся птенцы остаются в гнезде 34—35 дней, после которых начинают перебираться на соседние ветки того же дерева. Летать они начинают в возрасте 35—46 дней, и тем не менее, продолжают кормиться от родителей до тех пор, пока им не исполнится 70 дней. Полное покидание родителей часто происходит внезапно, и 95 % всех молодых ястребов становятся полностью независимыми уже на 95 день своего рождения. Период половой зрелости у молодых ястребов наступает через год[5][6].
Различают следующие подвиды ястреба-тетеревятника:
Ястреб-тетеревятник (лат. Accipiter gentilis) — вид хищных птиц рода ястребов семейства ястребиных, широко распространённый в Европе, Азии и Северной Америке.
蒼鷹（學名：Accipiter gentilis），別名牙鷹，是鷹科鷹屬中一種中到大型的猛禽。與其他鵟屬及鷹等一樣都在日間活动。
苍鹰廣泛分布在北半球的溫帶地區。在北美地区被稱为Northern Goshawk，是當地的留鳥。但在較冷的地區，如亞洲北部及加拿大等地的蒼鷹則會迁移到南方過冬。
蒼鷹的图案也出现在葡萄牙領土亞速爾群島的旗幟上。因为最初來到這個群島的葡萄牙探險者踏上這片土地時正好看到一只猛禽在上空盤旋，他们認為那是一只蒼鷹。事實上亞速爾群島上從来沒有蒼鷹出沒。經过後來的學者研究，那应该是普通鵟的一个亞種。
蒼鷹是鷹屬鳥類中體型最大的一員[2]，首先於1758年由卡爾·林奈在其〈自然系統〉（Systema naturae）一書中介紹及命名[3]。其翅膀短而寬闊，並有長長的尾羽，這是林棲鳥種適應高密度樹林生活的重要特征。苍鹰有明顯的兩性異形現象，雄鳥上半身灰藍，下半身則為有條紋的灰，體長49至57厘米、翼展為93至105厘米。雌鳥比雄鳥體型更大，可長達58至64厘米，翼展達108至127厘米，上半身暗藍灰、下半身則為純灰。最小的雄鳥體重只有630克，但最大的雌鳥則可重達2.4公斤。亞成鳥上半身是有條紋的灰色，下半身則為純灰色。牠們常展現出獨有的飛行特徵──五次緩慢的拍翼後滑翔而去。
在歐亞大陸上，雄鳥常與雌性的北雀鷹（Sparrowhawk）相混淆，但一般它們都有肥胖的體型和相對较長的翅膀。
在北美洲，苍鹰幼鳥容易與小型的條紋鷹及雞鷹相混淆，但人们还是能够通过比较體型将它們区分开来。
蒼鷹主要捕捉其他細小的鳥類及哺乳動物為食，常常集体進行掠地飛行，越过茂密的森林，並对獵物突然發起袭击。與大部分猛禽一樣，蒼鷹也是“機會主義者”，只要看到合適的獵物就會出擊。但牠們還是對鳥類情有獨鍾，特別是披肩雞（ruffed grouse、鴒形目的鳥種及雀形目中的椋鳥等。水鳥當中，體型小於綠頭鴨的鳥類也是牠們的目標。此外，蒼鷹也偶尔捕捉一些體型較大的動物，如雪兔及長耳大野兔等。
进入春天的繁殖季節，雄鳥就會開始牠們如過山車般的飛行表演，而這時也是觀察這種神秘鳥类的最佳時機。成鳥會在三至四月回到牠們築巢的地方，並在四至五月期間下蛋。巢內一般有1到5顆鳥蛋在內，大小為59 x 45mm，約重60克。孵卵期在28到38日內。幼鳥則在35日起開始離巢，10日後便會尝试飛行。即使在一年後，幼鳥仍會在其父母身边活動，這與成鳥會保護整個區域有關。牠們對任何入侵者均沒有好感，即使是路過的人類也會遭到牠們激烈的驅趕。因此，即使是它们的鳥蛋或幼鳥也极少被捕掠。蒼鷹偶爾也會招到如雕鴞和鵟屬猛禽的攻擊。
19世紀时，蒼鷹因为受到收藏家的青睞及被當地的獵場看守人猎杀而在英國灭绝了，但近年有不少來自歐洲大陆的蒼鷹重新移居英国。目前在英國諾森伯蘭的開爾德森林內已發現了牠們的蹤影。
蒼鷹（學名：Accipiter gentilis），別名牙鷹，是鷹科鷹屬中一種中到大型的猛禽。與其他鵟屬及鷹等一樣都在日間活动。
苍鹰廣泛分布在北半球的溫帶地區。在北美地区被稱为Northern Goshawk，是當地的留鳥。但在較冷的地區，如亞洲北部及加拿大等地的蒼鷹則會迁移到南方過冬。
蒼鷹的图案也出现在葡萄牙領土亞速爾群島的旗幟上。因为最初來到這個群島的葡萄牙探險者踏上這片土地時正好看到一只猛禽在上空盤旋，他们認為那是一只蒼鷹。事實上亞速爾群島上從来沒有蒼鷹出沒。經过後來的學者研究，那应该是普通鵟的一个亞種。
ワシントン条約附属書II類 分類 界 : 動物界 Animalia 門 : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata 綱 : 鳥綱 Aves 目 : タカ目 Accipitriformes 科 : タカ科 Accipitridae 属 : ハイタカ属 Accipiter 種 : オオタカ A. gentilis 学名 Accipiter gentilis (Linnaeus, 1758) 和名 オオタカ 英名 Northern Goshawk オオタカ（大鷹、accipiter gentilis）は、タカ目タカ科に属する中型の種である。日本における鷹類の代表的な種である。古今、タカといえば、オオタカを指すことが多い。
雄の全長約50cm、雌の全長約60cm、翼開長約100-130cm。日本の亜種は白い眉斑と黒い眼帯が特徴である。北海道ではユーラシアの亜種が往来するので別種とされていたが、現在は本州の亜種と同じものとして扱われている。
北アフリカからユーラシア大陸、北アメリカ大陸にかけて分布する。日本列島では南西・南方諸島を除く全域に分布する。
留鳥として周年生息するオオタカもあるが、一部のオオタカは、越冬のため南下を行う場合もある（鷹の渡り）。
平地から山岳地帯にまで生息している。飛翔能力が高く、中小型の鳥類（ハト・カモ等）や小型哺乳類（ネズミ・ウサギ・オコジョ等）を空中あるいは地上で捕らえる里山の猛禽類。食物連鎖の頂点に位置するため、生態系の自然が健全でないと生息できない（ただし今日では人里に進出しているのが確認されている、後述）。飛ぶ速さは水平飛行時で時速80km、急降下時には時速130kmにも達する。
一度狙いをつけた獲物は執拗に追い続け、それゆえ狩りの時間は長くなることもある。一日に一度の狩りで食を満たすことができる。
1980年代までめったなことでは森から出てこなかったが、野鳥の保護により人を怖がらなくなり街中に進出している[1]。2009年には、東京近郊のダム湖ではオオタカが体格的に互角のカラスを狩っていると報道されている[1]。首都圏のオオタカについて、日本野鳥の会でも情報の収集を行っている[2]。
優れたハンターであることから、厳しい訓練を経た後、鷹狩りに使われた。鷹狩りは仁徳天皇の時代にはすでに行われており、江戸時代中期には盛んに行われた。現在、国内のオオタカの捕獲が禁止されているため、海外から輸入されるオオタカで伝統技術の承継が行われている。
日本国内では、生息地の大規模開発などによって数が激減し、1984年の調査で約400羽とされ、絶滅の恐れも指摘された。そのため、1993年に種の保存法が施行されると、オオタカは「希少野生動植物種」に指定され、保護対象となった。結果、数は急速に回復し、2006年にはレッドデータブックから外され、2008年の調査では関東地方とその周辺だけでも生息数は約5800羽が確認された[3]。
2017年8月には、「希少野生動植物」の解除が決定された。解除の施行は2017年9月となる。個体数の増加を理由とする指定解除は、ルリカケスについで2例目となる。なお、規制解除後も鳥獣保護法に基づき、学術研究などを除き、捕獲・流通・輸出入は規制される[4]。
オオタカ（大鷹、accipiter gentilis）は、タカ目タカ科に属する中型の種である。日本における鷹類の代表的な種である。古今、タカといえば、オオタカを指すことが多い。
참매(northern goshawk)는 북반구에 널리 분포하는 수리목 수리과의 수리매의 일종이다.[3] 몸 길이는 약 50-56cm이며 무게는 수컷이 보통 800g, 암컷이 1kg 정도이다. 등은 회갈색이며, 배에는 회갈색 줄무늬가 빽빽히 나있다. 조선민주주의인민공화국의 국조로 지정되어 있다.
‘매’는 15세기 문헌에서부터 ‘매’([maj])로 표기하고 있다. ‘보라매’라는 말은 중세 몽골 문어로 ‘어린 사냥매’를 뜻하는 단어 boro에서 왔다.
산림에 단독 또는 암수가 함께 생활하며, 암컷은 2-4개의 알을 낳는데, 알은 엷은 청색 또는 엷은 푸른 잿빛이 난다.
한국·일본·유럽·북아메리카·시베리아·중국 동북지방 등지에 분포한다. 대한민국에서는 수리과의 다른 새들과 함께 천연기념물 제323호로 지정하여 보호하고 있다.
송골매와는 다른 방식으로 사냥한다. 주로 매복 사냥을 선호하는데, 주 먹이는 비둘기, 꿩, 오리 등 작은 조류와 토끼, 청설모 같은 소형 포유류도 사냥한다.
참매(northern goshawk)는 북반구에 널리 분포하는 수리목 수리과의 수리매의 일종이다. 몸 길이는 약 50-56cm이며 무게는 수컷이 보통 800g, 암컷이 1kg 정도이다. 등은 회갈색이며, 배에는 회갈색 줄무늬가 빽빽히 나있다. 조선민주주의인민공화국의 국조로 지정되어 있다.
Wikimedia Commons hää bilen of filmer tu: 
Wikispecies hää en artiikel tu: 
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(86749327).jpg)
_(14596415950).jpg)
_%27Just_missed_him%27.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
