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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 50 years (captivity) Observations: Maximum longevity has been reported as 24 years (Flower 1925). Other estimates suggest these animals may live up to 50 years (http://www.fishbase.org/).
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Biology

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The dusky grouper is a protogynous hermaphrodite, meaning that it matures as a female but later develops into a male as it grows larger and older (5). Sexual maturity is attained fairly late, when females are around five years of age, while sex reversal of females into males takes place between the 9th and 16th year, peaking at 12 (1) (5). The grouper usually leads a solitary and relatively sedentary life, except during the breeding season when small clusters of a few tens of individuals form at specific spawning sites (1) (5). The spawning season in the Mediterranean is from June to September (5), mating is polygynous and aggregations generally have a female bias of around seven females to each male (1) (5). During this period, dominant males establish territories and demonstrate strong territorial behaviour, acting aggressively towards neighbouring males and smaller females (1) (7). The maximum reported age of a dusky grouper was about 50 years (2). Diet consists of crustaceans, molluscs and fish, with diet varying with body size (8). While younger, smaller groupers feed primarily on crustaceans, larger individuals feed on a greater proportion of fish, with the majority being reef-associated species (8) (2).
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Conservation

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Spearfishing of this species has been banned since 1993 in France (Mediterranean coast only), with evidence of small recoveries in this area (1). A number of Marine Protected Areas have also been established, where the habitat of the fish is protected or where fishing is prohibited (1) (9). In South Africa, the dusky grouper is part of a 'restricted group' of species governed by a bag limit of five fish a day (1). Additionally, the dusky grouper was recently added to the endangered teleost list in Annex 3 to the Berne Convention (1996), under which management measures must be planned and aquaculture maintaining and breeding techniques developed, in order to increase and repopulate endangered stocks (5). Unfortunately, this fish does not adapt well to living and reproducing in aquariums (2), and research into successful husbandry techniques is therefore ongoing (5).
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Description

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Jacques Cousteau reportedly said that groupers were the strangest creatures he had come across at sea (3). The dusky grouper is an extremely large fish with an oval body, big head, wide mouth and protruding lower jaw used to catch its prey (3) (4). Covered with small scales, the base colour of this sizeable fish varies but is generally a grey-brown colour with mottled pale markings (3) (4). Indeed, the Latin name, Epinephelus, loosely translates to 'with clouds on it', referring to these distinctive pale blotches (3). Males display a conspicuous silver streaked pattern during reproductive activity (5).
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Habitat

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A bottom-dwelling inhabitant of rocky reefs from the sea-surface up to 300 m in depth (1), often near Poseidonia sea grass (3). Juveniles are generally found closer to shore than adults, in rocky tidal pools (2) (6). In protected areas (no fishing), both adults and juveniles inhabit shallow waters, but depth range of juveniles is narrower (up to 20 m depth) than depth range of adults (11).
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Range

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Wide-ranging, occurring in the Mediterranean Sea and Eastern Atlantic from the British Isles round to the southern tip of Africa, and in the Western Indian Ocean, around southern Mozambique (1) (5). Also in the Western Atlantic, in waters around Southern Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (2) (10).
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Status

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Classified as Endangered (EN A2d) on the IUCN Red List 2004 (1).
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Threats

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As a popular food fish, the primary threat to the dusky grouper is over exploitation from commercial fisheries across its range (1), although adult fish are also caught as trophies, particularly by spearfishing (9). Over-fishing and spearfishing have caused a dramatic decline in numbers over the last few decades, leaving dusky grouper populations seriously depleted, mainly in the north-western Mediterranean (5). The slow growth rate, late onset of maturity and complex reproductive biology of this species compound these threats by making it harder for it to withstand or recover from high fishing pressure (1). The fact that it also forms spawning aggregations, combined with its large size, makes this fish particularly easy to catch, and therefore vulnerable to over-harvesting (1). Indeed, despite insufficient data from many range countries, alarming declines have been recorded in Europe and the Mediterranean (mainly north-western), and there are also reports that spawning aggregations are being specifically targeted in Brazil (1).
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Diagnostic Description

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Diagnosis: head and body dark reddish brown or greyish dorsally, usually yellowish gold ventrally; irregular white, pale greenish yellow or silvery grey blotches usually visible on the body and head and mostly arranged in vertical series; more or less distinct black maxillary streak; dark brown median fins; distal edge of anal and caudal fins, often also pectoral fins, narrowly white; pelvic fins blackish distally; pectoral fins dark reddish brown or grey; margin of spinous dorsal fin and basal part of the paired fins often golden yellow; head length 2.3-2.5 in SL; convex interorbital area; rounded preopercle, finely serrate, serrae at angle slightly enlarged; smooth subopercle and interopercle; eye diameter greater than or subequal to interorbital width in fish 10-30 cm SL, less than interorbital in fish over 40 cm SL; posterior and anterior nostrils subequal or posterior nostril slightly larger; maxilla naked, reaching to or slightly past vertical at rear edge of eye; 2-4 rows of subequal teeth on midlateral part of lower jaw (Ref. 89707).Description: body robust, its depth comprised 2.6-3.1 times in standard length; lower jaw slightly prominent; teeth of inner row depressible in both jaws; pelvic fins not reaching anus; caudal fin rounded in juveniles, truncated with rounded angles in adults; scales small, broadly imbricate, embedded in thick skin (Ref. 57293).Coloration: brown, back sometimes dark grey to reddish, belly yellowish; body and head with an irregular pattern of white spots sometimes forming diffuse vertical bars; fins dark; caudal, anal and sometimes pectoral with a tiny white edge; dorsal with a yellow-golden edge; base of pair fins often yellow-golden (Ref. 57293).
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Recorder
Rodolfo B. Reyes
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Trophic Strategy

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Prefers rocky bottoms (Ref. 5222). Solitary and territorial (Ref. 12382). Juveniles are found closer to shore (Ref. 48605) in rocky tidal pools (Ref. 48609). Feeds on crabs and octopi; larger individuals feed on a greater proportion of fishes, the majority of which are reef-associated species (Ref. 6842). Macro-carnivore (Ref. 126840). Feeds on fish and benthic invertebrates (Ref. 13352). Increase of nutritional requirements during the life cycle is satisfied by predating on larger prey instead of a greater number of preys (Ref. 75801).
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 11; Dorsal soft rays (total): 14 - 16; Analspines: 3; Analsoft rays: 8 - 9
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Life Cycle

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A monandric species (Ref. 55367). In Europe, sex reversal occurs when females are about 14-17 years of age and between 80 to 90 cm TL (Ref. 51466). From another study, sex change occurs at 88 cm TL and 12 years of age (Ref. 55367), between 52-77 cm TL and 7-17 years (Ref. 94520).Protogynous hermaphrodite species, reaching its first sexual maturity as female at 5 years and becoming male after 10 years (some females remain so for some more years). Spawning happens during summer.
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Biology

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Adults prefer rocky bottoms (Ref. 5222), are solitary and territorial (Ref. 12382). Juveniles are found closer to shore (Ref. 48605) in rocky tidal pools (Ref. 48609). Enters brackish environments (Ref. 57293). Mainly feed on crabs and octopi; larger individuals feed on a greater proportion of fishes, the majority of which are reef-associated species (Ref. 6842). A protogynous hermaphrodite (Ref. 55367). Mature individuals form spawning aggregations (Ref. 55367). Utilized as a food fish (Ref. 171). Readily caught by anglers (Ref. 5222). Not adapted well in an aquarium (Ref. 12382).
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Importance

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fisheries: highly commercial; gamefish: yes; price category: very high; price reliability: reliable: based on ex-vessel price for this species
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Epinephelus marginatus

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Epinephelus marginatus (Latin pronunciation: [epiːˈnepʰelus marɡiˈnaːtus]), the dusky grouper, yellowbelly rock cod or yellowbelly grouper, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a grouper from the subfamily Epinephelinae which is part of the family Serranidae, which also includes the anthias and sea basses. This species is the best known grouper species of the Mediterranean Sea and North Africa coast.

Description

Epinephelus marginatus is a very large, oval-bodied and large-headed fish with a wide mouth which has a protruding lower jaw.[3] The head and upper body are coloured dark reddish brown or greyish, usually with yellowish gold countershading on the ventral surfaces; the base colour is marked by a vertical series of irregular pale greenish yellow or silvery grey or whitish blotching which is normally rather conspicuous on the body and head; the black maxillary streak varies in its markedness; dark brown median fins; distal edges of the anal and caudal fins and also often pectoral fins have narrow white terminal bands; the pelvic fins are black towards their tips while the pectoral fins are dark reddish-brown or grey; the margin of spiny dorsal fin and basal part of the pectoral fins are often golden yellow in colour.[2] There are eleven spines and 13-16 soft rays in the dorsal fin. This species can grow up to 150 cm in standard length but is more often 90 cm.[4]

Epinephelus marginatus in the Mediterranean

Distribution

Epinephelus marginatus has two disjunct distribution centres, the main one is in the eastern Atlantic from the west coast of Iberia south along the western coast of Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, extending east into the south-western Indian Ocean, as far as southern Mozambique, with doubtful records from Madagascar and possibly Oman. It is found throughout the Mediterranean too. The second population occurs in the south western Atlantic off the coast of South America in southern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina.[1] In the eastern Atlantic it is not normally found further north than Portugal but there have been rare records from the Bay of Biscay and in the English Channel as far north as northern France, Great Britain and Ireland.[5]

Habitat

Epinephelus marginatus is demersal, normally found in and around rocky reefs from surface waters down to as much as 300 metres in depth. It often occurs in the vicinity of beds of Posidonia sea grass. Juveniles are generally found more inshore than the adult fish, even being found in rock pools. Where they are protected, in marine nature reserves and no take zones, both adults and juveniles occur in shallow waters, but the depths at which juveniles are found is always shallower than the preferred depths of adults.[3]

Biology

Epinephelus marginatus adults are solitary and territorial, preferring areas with a rocky substrate but both adults and juveniles will enter brackish waters, such as estuaries. Their main food is molluscs, crustaceans, and octopuses. But as they grow larger other fish form an increasingly important part of their diet, with reef fish being preferred.[2][3]

E. marginatus is a protogynous hermaphrodite, meaning that all fish begin adult life as females but as they grow larger and older they develop into males. They attain sexual maturity at quite a late age, females begin to breed when they are around five years of age, and then between their 9th and 16th years they change into males, most commonly at 12.[3] The fish start to transform into males at a length of 65 cm,[6] although most change sex when they are between 80 and 90 cm in total length.[2] In some populations the presence of large female fish suggests that not all females change sex.[6] During the breeding season small clusters of a few tens of individuals form at specific spawning sites, an exception to their normally solitary existence. Known sites where E. marginatus traditionally gather to spawn include the Medes Islands Marine Reserve in Spain, off Lampedusa in Italy and Port-Cros National Park in France, all in the Mediterranean; fishermen in Brazil suspect there are aggregations off the coast of Santa Catarina but so far none has been definitely found.[6] In the Mediterranean spawning lasts from June to September, mating is polygynous and the spawning clusters normally have seven females to each male. Off Brazil E. marginatus reproduces in the early summer, between November and December.[7] While spawning, the dominant males set up territories and aggressively defend them from neighbouring males and smaller females. They are reported to live for up to 50 years.[3]

Dusky Grouper.JPG

Taxonomy

Epinephelus marginatus was first formally described as Serranus marginatus in 1834 by the English botanist, ichthyologist, malacologist and clergyman Richard Thomas Lowe (1802-1874) with the type locality given as "off Madeira".[8] The name Perca gigas was coined by the Danish zoologist Morten Thrane Brünnich (1737-1827) in 1768 but was unused and some authorities are of the view that this name should be suppressed by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.[9]

Fishing

Epinephelus marginatus is a popular food fish and is caught across its range by commercial fishermen while large adult fish are targeted as trophies by spear-fishing,[3] and is readily taken by anglers.[10] The slow growth rate of this species and its particular mode of reproduction make it vulnerable to over-exploitation, for example the targeting of large males by spear fishers may skew the sex ratio even further and affect reproductive productivity.[1] There have been attempts to grow and breed this fish in aquaculture in Italy.[11]

In some countries the dusky grouper is considered a delicacy. Referring to its preference among restaurant guests, the Spanish say 'De la mar el mero y de la tierra el carnero' (From the sea the dusky grouper, from the land the lamb).[12]

Conservation

Epinephelus marginatus catch declined by 88% in seven countries between 1990–2001, these countries forming a significant part of its overall distribution. In other regions, such as West Africa, where this species is heavily exploited, there is little data about the status of this fish. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed E. marginatus as being Vulnerable, citing a suspected reduction in the population size reduction in excess 50% over the last three generations and where the causes of the decline continue. Conservation measures have included a spearfishing ban for ten years in France and bag limits in South Africa. In addition, a number of Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect the habitat of E. marginatus.[1] In Turkey recommended actions have included no take zones along the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea coasts and a total fisheries ban for a minimum of 3–5 years.[13]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Pollard, D.A.; Afonso, P.; Bertoncini, A.A.; Fennessy, S.; Francour, P.; Barreiros, J. (2018). "Epinephelus marginatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T7859A100467602. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T7859A100467602.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2019). "Epinephelus marginatus" in FishBase. December 2019 version.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus)". Wildscreen Arkive. Archived from the original on 2017-08-04. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
  4. ^ C.J. Hureau (ed.). "Bass (Epinephelus guaza)". Marine Species Identification Portal: Fishes of the NE Atlantic and the Mediterranean. ETI Bioinformatics. Retrieved 19 July 2017.
  5. ^ Kelig Mahé; Marie-Laure Cochard; Jean Claude Quéro; et al. "First record of Epinephelus marginatus (Serranidae: Epinephelinae) in the eastern English Channel" (PDF). Cybium. 36 (3): 485–486.
  6. ^ a b c Áthila Bertoncini AndradeI; Leonardo Francisco Machado; Maurício Hostim-Silva; João Pedro Barreiros (2003). "Reproductive biology of the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834)". Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 46 (3): 373–382. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132003000300009.
  7. ^ Leopoldo Cavaleri Gerhardinger; Matheus Oliveira Freitas; Áthila Andrade Bertoncini; Maíra Borgonha; Maurício Hostim-Silva (2006). "Collaborative approach in the study of the reproductive biology of the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834) (Perciformes: Serranidae)". Maringá. 28 (3): 219–226. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.429.7525.
  8. '^ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "'Serranus marginatus". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  9. ^ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Species in the genus Epinephelus". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  10. ^ Bailly, Nicolas (2008). Bailly N (ed.). "Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834)". FishBase. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  11. ^ M.T.Spedicato; G. Lembo; P. Di Marco; G. Marino (1995). "Preliminary results in breeding dusky grouper Ephinepeplus marginatus (Lowe, 1834)" (PDF). Marine aquaculture finfish species diversification; Seminar of the CIHEAM Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM), 1995/06/14-17, Nicosia (Cyprus). CIHEAM, Zaragoza. pp. 131–148.
  12. ^ "Del mar, el mero; de la tierra, el cordero" (in Spanish). Instituto Cervantes. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  13. ^ "Current Status of the Dusky Grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) in Turkey and Recommendations for its Protection". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
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Epinephelus marginatus: Brief Summary

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Epinephelus marginatus (Latin pronunciation: [epiːˈnepʰelus marɡiˈnaːtus]), the dusky grouper, yellowbelly rock cod or yellowbelly grouper, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a grouper from the subfamily Epinephelinae which is part of the family Serranidae, which also includes the anthias and sea basses. This species is the best known grouper species of the Mediterranean Sea and North Africa coast.

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Description

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Prefers rocky bottoms. Occurs in shallow water out to depths of 50 m, and is readily taken by anglers. Feeds on crabs and octopus; larger individuals feed on a greater proportion of fishes, the majority of which are reef-associated species (Ref. 6842).

Reference

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Editors). (2023). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. version (02/2023).

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