Çığırğan qartalça (lat. Aquila clanga) - qartal cinsinə aid quş növü.
Nadirdir.
(VU). Mənfi təsirlərə həssasdır.
Cinsin 5 növündən biridir.
Bozqır qartalından az kiçikdir. Səsi bərk çıxır–“kiyak-kiyak”. Rəngi qara-qonurdur [1][2].
Avropa və Asiyada yayılıb [3]. Azərbaycanda miqrasiya vaxtında olur, düzənlikdə tək-tək qışlayır [4][5][6]
Mart-apreldə və bir də sentyabrda dağda və düzəndə görünür [7]. Seyrək hündür ağac olan sahələri xoşlayır. Azərbaycanda miqrant populyasiyası qurbağa, kərtənkələ, siçanabənzər gəmiricilər və quşlar ilə yemlənir [8]. Lakin yediyi quşların çoxu ovçular tərəfindən yaralanmış olanlardır [9].
XX əsrin axırına qədər adi saylı [10][11], sonralar isə nadir olub [12][13][14]. Qışlamasını təsdiq edən müşahidə yoxdur [15]. Son 10 ildə qışlamasını heç kim görməyib [16]. Miqrasiya dövründə isə 2000-ci ildə cəmi 46 quş qeyd edilib [17]. Son 10 ildə 30 quşdan çox olmayıb [18], yəni 35 % azalıb.
Azərbaycandan keçən populyasiyanın sayı Xəzər dənizindən şimala tərəf yerləşən ərazidən (Rusiya) asılıdır. Azərbaycanda miqrasiya dövründə olarkən zərərli hesab edilib ovlanması da nadir olmasına rəvac verib [19].
Siçan yeməsi faydalıdır. Sanitar əhəmiyyəti də var.
Ovlanması qadağandır. Bioloji müxtəlifliyin saxlanılması prinsipinə əsasən, CİTES, Bern və Bonn konvensiyalarına daxil edilib. Beynəlxalq miqyasda qorunur.
Əhaliyə tanıdılması və qorunmasının vacibliyinin əhaliyə geniş izah edilməsi.
An erer-sklank a zo un evn-preizh deiz, Clanga clanga (Aquila clanga gwechall) an anv skiantel anezhañ.
Bevañ a ra al labous en Eurazia[1].
Diouzh an evnoniourien e vez renket an erer-sklank en urzhiad Falconiformes pe Accipitriformes.
An erer-sklank a zo un evn-preizh deiz, Clanga clanga (Aquila clanga gwechall) an anv skiantel anezhañ.
L'àguila cridanera (Clanga clanga) és un gran ocell rapinyaire de la família dels accipítrids (Accipitridae) que cria en una àrea que va des d'Europa Oriental, cap a l'est, fins al Pacífic i que ocasionalment es poden albirar als països catalans en hivern.
Adult per sobre, en vol, a Bharatpur (Rajasthan, India)
Noteu les clares marques alars
Les espècies Clanga pomarina i Clanga hastata són els seus parents més pròxims i sembla que comparteixen un avantpassat de mitjans del Pliocè, fa uns 3,6 milions d'anys,[1] [2] i que potser vivia a la regió de l'Afganistan, dividint-se en dos llinatges, un al nord i altre al sud (A.hastata), arran l'avanç de les glaceres i deserts de l'última era del gel. Posteriorment el llinatge septentrional es va escindir en un oriental (A.clanga) i altre occidental (A.pomarina), probablement al voltant del límit entre el Pliocè i el Plistocè, fa menys de dos milions d'anys.
No s'han descrit subespècies.
Aquesta àguila pon 1-3 ous en un niu fet als arbres.
Els joves romanen algun temps amb els seus pares després d'emplomallar, fins que arriben a la maduresa sexual i cerquen el seu propi territori i parella.
S'alimenta bàsicament de petits mamífers i preses semblants, bàsicament terrestres.
Habita zones cobertes d'arbres. L'àrea de reproducció s'estén pel nord d'Europa i a través d'Àsia, passant l'hivern al sud-est d'Europa, Orient Mitjà i Àsia meridional. Fan la migració cap a les zones de cria bastant tard, al Bhutan per exemple es poden veure amb certa regularitat fins al final de març.[3] És un ocell territorial, però en hivern esdevé més social, formant bandades petites de fins a deu ocells, de diferents edats. També s'associen en aquesta època amb altres accipítrids com el milà negre (Milvus migrans) o l'àguila d'estepa (Aquila nipalensis).[3]
La UICN el classifica com vulnerable. La població mundial es va estimar en menys de 4000 parelles reproductores l'any 2000. Les principals amenaces són la degradació i pèrdua d'hàbitat, així com les pertorbacions humanes durant la temporada d'aparellament.[4]
L'àguila cridanera (Clanga clanga) és un gran ocell rapinyaire de la família dels accipítrids (Accipitridae) que cria en una àrea que va des d'Europa Oriental, cap a l'est, fins al Pacífic i que ocasionalment es poden albirar als països catalans en hivern.
Aderyn a rhywogaeth o adar yw Eryr brith (enw lluosog: eryrod brithion, sy'n enw gwrywaidd) a adnabyddir hefyd gyda'i enw gwyddonol Aquila clanga; yr enw Saesneg arno yw Greater spotted eagle. Mae'n perthyn i deulu'r Eryr (Lladin: Accipitridae) sydd yn urdd y Falconiformes.[1] Dyma aderyn sydd i'w gael yng ngwledydd Prydain, ond nid yng Nghymru.
Talfyrir yr enw Lladin yn aml yn A. clanga (sef enw'r rhywogaeth).[2] Mae'r rhywogaeth hon i'w chanfod yn Asia, Ewrop ac Affrica.
Mae'r eryr brith yn perthyn i deulu'r Eryr (Lladin: Accipitridae). Dyma rai o aelodau eraill y teulu:
Rhestr Wicidata:
rhywogaeth enw tacson delwedd Aquila spilogaster Aquila spilogaster Aquila wahlbergi Aquila wahlbergi
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Aderyn a rhywogaeth o adar yw Eryr brith (enw lluosog: eryrod brithion, sy'n enw gwrywaidd) a adnabyddir hefyd gyda'i enw gwyddonol Aquila clanga; yr enw Saesneg arno yw Greater spotted eagle. Mae'n perthyn i deulu'r Eryr (Lladin: Accipitridae) sydd yn urdd y Falconiformes. Dyma aderyn sydd i'w gael yng ngwledydd Prydain, ond nid yng Nghymru.
Talfyrir yr enw Lladin yn aml yn A. clanga (sef enw'r rhywogaeth). Mae'r rhywogaeth hon i'w chanfod yn Asia, Ewrop ac Affrica.
Orel volavý (Clanga clanga, do roku 2014 Aquila clanga) je středně velký orel z čeledi jestřábovitých, který je rozšířený především v Asii a východní Evropě. Živí se menšími savci, plazy, žábami a ptáky. IUCN ho vede jako zranitelný druh.[2]
Je to středně velký, kompaktní druh orla. Jeho základní barva je tmavohnědá, dospělí jedinci jsou velmi tmaví, z dálky se jeví téměř černí. Mladí jedinci mají bílé konce letek. Velmi se podobá orlu křiklavému, se kterým bývá často zaměňován, ale je poněkud větší, tmavší a má mohutnější zobák. Může být zaměněn i s orlem stepním, který je však celkově mohutnější, má oválné nozdry a delší žlutý pruh zobáku (orel volavý má kulaté nozdry). Orel volavý má na orla relativně malou hlavu. Rozpětí jeho křídel je mezi 153 a 185 cm. Samice váží od 2150 do 3200 g a samec 1600 až 2000 g. Výška těla se pohybuje od 59 do 75 cm.[3][4][5]
Orel volavý žije v nížinatých lesnatých oblastech, často blízko vodních zdrojů.[2] Hnízdí na různých druzích stromů, výjimečně i na skalách nebo na zemi. Celkově je o jeho životě známo poměrně málo. Samice snáší v polovině května 1-3 vejce, na nichž sedí 42-44 dní. Mláďata se líhnou koncem června, oba rodiče se pak o ně na hnízdě starají až do konce srpna. O vzletná mláďata rodiče dále pečují 20-30 dní.[5][6] Orel volavý se může křížit s orlem křiklavým, smíšené páry jsou poměrně běžné, počet hybridních jedinců může na některých místech dosáhnout více než 50 % (např. Bělorusko) celkové populace orlů volavých. Kříženci jsou dále plodní.[2][7][8]
Kořist je velmi různorodá. Jedná se většinou o drobné savce, především hryzce, dále žáby, plazy, ptáky. Rád loví v koloniích hnízdních ptáků. Občas se přiživuje na mršinách. Krade kořist i jiným dravcům, především luňákovi hnědému.[5][6]
Oblast hnízdění orla volavého se táhne v pásu od východní a severovýchodní Evropy až po východní Asii. Přeletové zóny a zimoviště mohou být v jižní, jihovýchodní a západní Asii, v severní a východní Africe a výjimečně i ve střední Evropě.[2]
Celková populace je odhadována na 5000-13 200 jedinců. Z toho žije 25-49 % v Evropě. Jedná se o velmi přibližná čísla, která je nutno dále zpřesnit.[2]
Hlavní hrozbou pro čistotu druhu je křížení s orlem křiklavým, které místy dosahuje značného podílu na populaci. Zároveň to ale pomáhá celkovému růstu populace, neboť populace orla křiklavého je větší. Neví se přesně jak dlouho a v jakém rozsahu tato hybridizace funguje. Dalšími problémy jsou ničení životního prostředí, vyrušování, pytláctví, travičství a úmrtí v důsledku kontaktu s elektrickým vedením. Ptáci nesnesou dlouhodobý těsnější kontakt s lidmi a jejich hlučnými aktivitami.[2][8]
V ČR se orel volavý vyskytuje extrémně vzácně, jedná se o náhodné nepravidelné zálety jedinců.[4]
Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu orel volavý ve Wikimedia Commons
Galerie orel volavý ve Wikimedia Commons
Orlovcovití Sokolovití Orel volavý (Clanga clanga, do roku 2014 Aquila clanga) je středně velký orel z čeledi jestřábovitých, který je rozšířený především v Asii a východní Evropě. Živí se menšími savci, plazy, žábami a ptáky. IUCN ho vede jako zranitelný druh.
Der Schelladler (Clanga clanga, Syn.: Aquila clanga)[1] ist eine Vogelart aus der Familie der Habichtartigen (Accipitridae). Dieser mittelgroße Vertreter der Unterfamilie Aquilinae kommt in Mitteleuropa nur im Osten Polens als Brutvogel vor, nach Osten reicht das Verbreitungsgebiet bis zum Pazifik. Die Art bewohnt naturnahe, gewässerreiche Waldlandschaften und ernährt sich vor allem von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Säugetieren und Wasservögeln.
Schelladler sind Mittel- bis Langstreckenzieher, das Überwinterungsareal umfasst die Subtropen und die Tropen von Südeuropa, Asien und Afrika. Der Bestand der Art ist zumindest im westlichen Teil des Verbreitungsgebietes vor allem aufgrund von Lebensraumzerstörung und menschlicher Verfolgung rückläufig, der Weltbestand gilt daher als gefährdet.
Schelladler gehören zu den mittelgroßen Vertretern der Unterfamilie der Aquilinae. Sie erreichen eine Körperlänge von 59 bis 71 cm und eine Flügelspannweite von 1,57 bis 1,79 m und sind damit erheblich größer als ein Mäusebussard. Der Geschlechtsdimorphismus ist bezüglich Größe und Gewicht recht deutlich ausgeprägt, Männchen erreichen im Mittel etwa 85 % der Größe der Weibchen. Männchen wiegen 1,7 bis 1,9 kg und haben eine Flügellänge von 477 bis 517 mm, Weibchen erreichen ein Gewicht von 1,8 bis 2,5 kg und eine Flügellänge von 507 bis 542 mm.[2] Wie bei allen Vertretern der Gattung Clanga und der nahe verwandten Gattung Aquila sind die Handschwingenspitzen stark gefingert und die Beine sind bis zu den Zehen befiedert. Im Flug wirken die Flügel relativ kurz und auffallend breit, der Schwanz ist an den Außenkanten deutlich gerundet.
Adulte Vögel sind insgesamt fast einfarbig sehr dunkel braun. Der gesamte Rumpf, der Kopf sowie die Oberflügel- und die Unterflügeldecken sind dunkelbraun und bilden beim fliegenden Vogel einen schwachen Kontrast zu den etwas helleren, einfarbig dunkel braungrauen Schwung- und Stoßfedern. Nur die Oberschwanzdecken sind schwach weiß gerandet. Sehr selten tritt eine helle Farbmorphe auf, die in der Literatur häufig als "fulvescens"-Varietät bezeichnet wird. Bei dieser Morphe sind der Kopf und der gesamte Rumpf sowie alle Flügeldecken hellbeige bis goldfarben. Schwingen und Steuerfedern sind wie bei normal gefärbten Vögeln dunkel braungrau.
Die Iris ist braun, die Wachshaut und die Zehen haben eine gelbe Färbung. Die Schnabelbasis ist grau gegen den im Übrigen schwarzen Schnabel abgesetzt.
Im Jugendkleid ist die Grundfarbe des Gefieders noch etwas dunkler als bei den Altvögeln. Alle Oberflügeldecken sind weiß gerandet, die hellen Spitzen der großen Hand- und Armdecken bilden ein beim fliegenden Vogel gut sichtbares helles Band auf dem Oberflügel. Die inneren Handschwingen, die Armschwingen und die Steuerfedern zeigen eine dichte, dunkle Querbänderung und sind ebenfalls weiß gerandet. Die Iris ist braun. Die Jungvögel sind nach vier Jahren ausgefärbt.[3]
Im Wesentlichen können drei Rufe unterschieden werden: Der Balzruf ist ein heiseres „krüch“, der meist in Verbindung mit Balzflügen eingesetzt wird. Bei Bedrohung, zum Beispiel durch in die Nestnähe fliegende große Greifvögel, äußern beide Partner ein lang gezogenes „hiäh“. Der auch von Jungvögeln beim Betteln genutzte Kontaktruf lässt sich mit „kjäck, kjäck“ umschreiben.[4]
Das Verbreitungsgebiet umfasst große Teile der Waldzone der mittleren und östlichen Paläarktis und reicht vom Osten Polens und des Baltikums in einem im Westen breiten und nach Osten immer schmaler werdenden Band bis zur südostrussischen Region Primorje am Pazifik. Das genaue Areal der Art ist im Westen des Verbreitungsgebietes wegen der schwierigen Unterscheidung vom Schreiadler, im asiatischen Teil der Verbreitung wegen der geringen Besiedlung durch Menschen und der abgelegenen Lebensräume vielfach bis heute unklar.
In Nord-Süd-Richtung reicht das Areal von den südlichen Bereichen der Borealen Zone (Nadelwaldzone) bis in die nördlichen Bereiche der Steppenzone. Der Schelladler bewohnt dort offene, feuchte bis nasse Wälder und Waldränder mit angrenzenden Sümpfen, Marschen, Mooren oder nassen Wiesen, außerdem Flussauen. Insgesamt ist die Art sehr an vom Menschen kaum beeinflusste, wasserreiche Waldlandschaften gebunden.
In Deutschland ist die Art im Norden und Osten ein sehr seltener Gast, wird jedoch aufgrund der nicht einfachen Bestimmung wohl auch übersehen bzw. mit dem Schreiadler verwechselt.
Trotz des riesigen Verbreitungsgebietes wurden für den Schelladler bisher keine Unterarten beschrieben. Nächster Verwandter ist der sehr ähnliche Schreiadler, das Schwestertaxon dieses Artpaares ist der Gangesadler (Clanga hastata). Diese auf den Indischen Subkontinent beschränkte Art wurde bis vor einigen Jahren als Unterart des Schreiadlers geführt, aber 2002 aufgrund morphologischer, anatomischer und brutbiologischer Merkmale sowie aufgrund von Verhaltensmerkmalen als eigene Art abgegrenzt.[5] Molekulargenetische Untersuchungen haben diesen Artstatus bestätigt, demnach ist der Schreiadler mit dem Schelladler sogar näher verwandt als mit seiner ehemaligen Unterart C. hastata.[6]
Eine weitere molekulargenetische Untersuchung ergab, dass Schreiadler und Schelladler reproduktiv nicht vollständig voneinander isoliert sind, wobei der Genfluss jedoch offenbar nur in Richtung Schreiadler erfolgt.[7] Die Ergebnisse lassen vermuten, dass Mischpaare überwiegend aus Schelladlerweibchen und Schreiadlermännchen bestehen und dass die Hybridweibchen ihrerseits wiederum mit Schreiadlermännchen brüten. Die erste Vermutung stimmt mit den bisher vorliegenden Beobachtungen von Mischpaaren überein. Die zweite Vermutung ist plausibel, da nur so der Größenunterschied zwischen den Paarpartnern bestehen bleibt, denn Schelladler sind deutlich größer als Schreiadler.
Im Detail wiesen etwa 8 % der untersuchten phänotypischen Schreiadler in der nur über die mütterliche Linie weitergegebenen mitochondrialen DNA (mtDNA) Haplotypen des Schelladlers auf. Untersuchungen der Zellkern-DNA ergaben jedoch, dass die Schreiadler mit Schelladlerhaplotypen in der mtDNA genetisch zwischen den Stichproben von Individuen beider Arten liegen, bei denen die Haplotypen der mtDNA mit den Phänotypen übereinstimmten. Das deutet darauf hin, dass diese Schreiadler mit Schelladler-mtDNA entweder direkte Nachkommen eines Mischpaares aus Schelladlerweibchen und Schreiadlermännchen (F1-Hybriden) oder Nachkommen eines weiblichen Hybriden mit einem Schreiadlermännchen sind. Der relativ hohe Prozentsatz von Schreiadlern mit Schelladlerhaplotypen weist schließlich darauf hin, dass zumindest einzelne Schelladler regelmäßig weit westlich des geschlossenen Verbreitungsgebietes der Art Mischpaare mit Schreiadlern bilden. Dass dies tatsächlich so ist, wurde unter anderem durch die Entdeckung eines Mischpaares in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern im Jahr 2003 bestätigt, weiter östlich sind einzelne Mischpaare schon seit Anfang der 1990er-Jahre bekannt.
Ähnlich wie der nah verwandte Schreiadler jagt der Schelladler häufig im Suchflug und zu Fuß, aber seltener als der Schreiadler vom Ansitz aus. Der Suchflug findet in niedriger Höhe, aber auch hoch kreisend statt. Wenn ein geeignetes Beutetier entdeckt ist, lässt sich der Adler fallen oder geht zur Attacke im Sturzflug über. Trupps von Wasservögeln werden durch wiederholte Sturzflüge auseinandergetrieben, um dann ein abgesprengtes Individuum gezielt zu erbeuten.
Im Brutgebiet besteht die Nahrung überwiegend aus kleinen bis mittelgroßen Säugetieren und Vögeln, daneben werden auch Amphibien und Reptilien häufig erbeutet. Seltener werden kleine Fische, Insekten oder Aas gefressen. Im Winter bilden die Hauptnahrung je nach Lage des Winterquartiers sehr häufig Insekten wie Wanderheuschrecken und schwärmende Termiten sowie Aas oder, in Feuchtgebieten, überwiegend Wasservögel.
Die Balz beginnt meist unmittelbar nach der Ankunft am Brutplatz. Das Männchen vollführt dabei ausdauernde Wellenflüge, wobei es sich am höchsten Punkte einer „Welle“ mit angelegten Flügeln abwärtsbewegt, um dann mit dem gewonnenen Schwung wieder zur nächsten Welle aufzusteigen. Dabei wird intensiv gerufen.
Die Nester werden überwiegend auf Laubbäumen im Wald und meist in dessen Randzone errichtet und überwiegend selbst gebaut. Der Nestdurchmesser beträgt zwischen 70 und 110 cm. Die Nester werden oft mehrfach genutzt und können dann Höhen bis 150 cm erreichen. Die Nestmulde wird mit grünen Zweigen ausgelegt.
Die Eiablage erfolgt selten bereits Ende April, meist jedoch Anfang bis Mitte Mai. Die Gelege bestehen meist aus zwei Eiern, seltener aus nur einem Ei oder drei Eiern. Beispielsweise wurden in Belarus bei 6 Gelegen einmal 1 Ei und fünfmal 2 Eier gefunden.[8] Die Eier sind auf weißem Grund schwach bräunlich oder violett gefleckt. Eier aus Belarus maßen im Mittel 65,8 × 52 mm.[8]
Die Brutzeit beträgt 42 bis 45 Tage. Im Gegensatz zum Schreiadler ist Kainismus beim Schelladler nicht obligatorisch und es werden regelmäßig zwei Jungvögel flügge. Die Nestlingszeit dauert 63 bis 67 Tage; die Jungvögel fliegen meist Mitte Juli bis Anfang August aus.
Schelladler sind Mittelstrecken- bis Langstreckenzieher. Das Überwinterungsgebiet umfasst ein riesiges Areal in den Subtropen und den Tropen Eurasiens und Afrikas. Die Art wird dort in vielen räumlich zum Teil weit auseinander liegenden Gebieten beobachtet, in denen jedoch meist nur einzelne oder maximal einige Dutzend Individuen überwintern.
In Europa überwintert die Art in kleiner Zahl in Süd-Frankreich (Camargue), im Süden und Nordosten Italiens und auf der Balkanhalbinsel, ausnahmsweise auch weiter nördlich, z. B. in der Schweiz. Weiter östlich überwintert die Art vor allem im Westen der Türkei, im Nahen Osten und auf der Arabischen Halbinsel, im Norden des Indischen Subkontinents sowie in Südostasien und Südchina. Schließlich überwintert die Art zumindest in kleiner Zahl auch im Nordosten Afrikas und südlich der Sahara. Schelladler scheinen überwiegend Breitfrontzieher zu sein; sie werden an den klassischen Konzentrationspunkten des Vogelzuges, zum Beispiel am Bosporus, selten und nur in kleiner Zahl beobachtet.
Die Brutgebiete werden im Westen der Verbreitung bereits Mitte März erreicht, weiter östlich im April. Der Wegzug beginnt ab Ende September.
Die Art ist zumindest in Europa überall sehr selten. Der gesamteuropäische Bestand wurde 2004 laut IUCN auf etwa 900 Brutpaare geschätzt, der Weltbestand auf maximal 10.000 Individuen. Insbesondere aus dem asiatischen Teil Russlands liegen bisher jedoch kaum verlässliche Bestandszahlen vor. Zumindest in Europa ist der Bestand seit Jahrzehnten rückläufig, als Hauptursachen gelten Lebensraumzerstörung und menschliche Verfolgung. Die IUCN stuft den Weltbestand daher als „vulnerable“ (gefährdet) ein.
1999 wurde der Asteroid (8979) Clanga nach Aquila clanga benannt.
Der Schelladler (Clanga clanga, Syn.: Aquila clanga) ist eine Vogelart aus der Familie der Habichtartigen (Accipitridae). Dieser mittelgroße Vertreter der Unterfamilie Aquilinae kommt in Mitteleuropa nur im Osten Polens als Brutvogel vor, nach Osten reicht das Verbreitungsgebiet bis zum Pazifik. Die Art bewohnt naturnahe, gewässerreiche Waldlandschaften und ernährt sich vor allem von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Säugetieren und Wasservögeln.
Schelladler sind Mittel- bis Langstreckenzieher, das Überwinterungsareal umfasst die Subtropen und die Tropen von Südeuropa, Asien und Afrika. Der Bestand der Art ist zumindest im westlichen Teil des Verbreitungsgebietes vor allem aufgrund von Lebensraumzerstörung und menschlicher Verfolgung rückläufig, der Weltbestand gilt daher als gefährdet.
L'aigla cridarèla (o agla cridaira) (Aquila clanga) es un rapaç diürne qu'es de la familha deis Accipitridae.
L'aigla cridarèla (o agla cridaira) (Aquila clanga) es un rapaç diürne qu'es de la familha deis Accipitridae.
Ο Στικταετός είναι ημερόβιο αρπακτικό πτηνό, ένας από τους αετούς που απαντούν και στον ελλαδικό χώρο. Η επιστημονική ονομασία του είδους είναι Clanga clanga και δεν περιλαμβάνει υποείδη (μονοτυπικό) [2]
Η επιστημονική ονομασία του γένους, Clanga, είναι εκλατινισμένη απόδοση της αρχαίας ελληνικής λέξης κλαγγός < κλαγγή «οξεία και διαπεραστική φωνή» < κλάγγω «θρηνώ, κράζω», [4] με αναφορά στην χαρακτηριστική φωνή του πτηνού.
Τόσο η ελληνική ονομασία του είδους, όσο και η αγγλική (Great Spotted Eagle), σχετίζονται άμεσα με το χαρακτηριστικό, έντονα κηλιδωτό πτέρωμα των νεαρών ατόμων (βλ. Μορφολογία).
Το είδος περιγράφηκε από τον Γερμανό ζωολόγο και βοτανικό Π. Πάλας (Peter Simon Pallas, 1741 – 1811), ως Aquila Clanga (Ρωσία & Σιβηρία, 1811). Εμφανίζει προβληματική ταξινομική στο επίπεδο του γένους, καθόσον μέχρι το 2013, κατατασόταν στο Aquila, δηλαδή στους γνήσιους αετούς. Ωστόσο, μαζί με τον κραυγαετό, μεταφέρθηκαν στο Clanga, [5][6][7] χωρίς αυτό να σημαίνει ότι η νέα κατάσταση είναι στατική, με τα διάφορα στοιχεία -κυρίως χρωμοσωμικά- να προκαλούν διαρκείς ανακατατάξεις.
Ο στικταετός έχει το είδος Αquila (Clanga) pomarina (κραυγαετό), ως τον πλησιέστερο συγγενή του. Ο κοινός τους πρόγονος φαίνεται να είχε εμφανιστεί γύρω στη μέση Πλειόκαινο Εποχή, από τους προγόνους του σημερινού Aquila (Clang) hastata, που ζει στο Ιράν, το Πακιστάν και την Ινδία. Αυτός ο «πρωτο-στικταετός» πιθανώς ζούσε στην ευρύτερη περιοχή του Αφγανιστάν, και διασπάστηκε σε έναν βόρειο και ένα νότιο κλάδο, όταν, τόσο οι παγετώνες όσο και οι έρημοι επικράτησαν στην Κ. Ασία όταν άρχισε η τελευταία εποχή των παγετώνων. Ο βόρειος κλάδος, με την σειρά του, διαχωρίστηκε σε ανατολικό (Aquila clanga) και δυτικό (Aquila pomarina) παρακλάδι του σήμερα, πιθανώς γύρω στην Πλειόκαινο-Πλειστόκαινο Εποχή. [8]
Ο στικταετός είναι πλήρως μεταναστευτικό είδος, που απαντά αποκλειστικά στον Παλαιό Κόσμο, (οικοζώνες: Παλαιαρκτική, Αφροτροπική και Ινδομαλαϊκή), ιδιαίτερα στην κεντρική και ανατολική Παλαιαρκτική. Η ζώνη αναπαραγωγής του έχει τα δυτικά της όρια, περίπου στην Πολωνία και, μέσω Λευκορωσίας, Εσθονία, Ρωσίας και όλης της Κ. Σιβηρίας, εκτείνεται μέχρι τις ακτές του Ειρηνικού, στο γεωγραφικό πλάτος της Βόρειας Κορέας, περίπου, όπου και είναι τα ανατολικά όριά της. Σε όλη αυτή τη ζώνη (μαζί με κάποιους θύλακες στο Καζακστάν), ο στικταετός έρχεται το καλοκαίρι για να αναπαραχθεί. Μερικά άτομα, ενδεχομένως, εξακολουθούν να αναπαράγονται σε Φινλανδία, Λετονία και Λιθουανία (βάση δεδομένων της λιθουανικής Ορνιθολογικής Εταιρείας το 1999), αν και αυτό δεν έχει επιβεβαιωθεί πρόσφατα. [11]
Κατά την διάρκεια του χειμώνα, ο στικταετός μεταναστεύει νότια και, ανάλογα με τις περιοχές αναπαραγωγής, διαχειμάζει σε μια ζώνη που εκτείνεται από τη νότιο Βαλκανική (προς δυσμάς) και φθάνει μέχρι την Θάλασσα της Κίνας (ανατολικά). Κυριότεροι ενδιάμεσοι σταθμοί διαχείμασης, είναι η Ελλάδα, η Μικρά Ασία, η Συρία, ο Κόλπος της Αραβίας, η Β. Ινδία, και η Ινδοκίνα. Διαχειμάζοντα πουλιά έχουν αναφερθεί επίσης στο Χονγκ Κονγκ (Κίνα).Προς νότον υπάρχουν περιοχές διαχείμασης στην Αιθιοπία, το Σουδάν και την Νιγηρία, ενώ, ακόμη νοτιότερα εμφανίζονται άτομα στην Κένυα και την Τανζανία. [12] Πάντως, παρά το ευρύ φάσμα κατανομής, ο στικταετός είναι πολύ περιορισμένος τοπικά, δύσκολος να παρατηρηθεί (συγχέεται εύκολα με τον κραυγαετό), με τους πληθυσμούς του να βαίνουν μειούμενοι.
Η μετανάστευση προς νότον διαρκεί από τον Σεπτέμβριο μέχρι το Νοέμβριο, ενώ η εαρινή επιστροφή από τον Φεβρουάριο μέχρι τον Απρίλιο. Οι στικταετοί πετάνε σε πολύ μικρές ομάδες, συνήθως των 3 ατόμων, ενώ στο Μπουτάν, έχουν παρατηρηθεί και ομάδες των 10 ατόμων. Οι περιοχές διέλευσης είναι ο Βόσπορος και η Ερυθρά Θάλασσα. [14] Συνήθως, εγκαταλείπει τα εδάφη αναπαραγωγής μετά τον κραυγαετό. [15]
Τυχαίοι, περιπλανώμενοι επισκέπτες έχουν αναφερθεί μεταξύ άλλων από την Ιρλανδία, το Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο, την Ολλανδία, την Πορτογαλία και την Κύπρο, το Καμερούν, το Τσαντ και την Λιβύη, το Μπαχρέιν την Ινδονησία και την Ιαπωνία. [16]
Στην Ευρασία, ο στικταετός είναι μη-κοινό είδος που, ανάλογα με την περιοχή αναπαραγωγής και διαχείμασης, κινείται ανάμεσα στη ζώνη των κωνοφόρων και τη στέπα. Η ύπαρξη νερού, όμως, χαρακτηρίζει πάντα την παρουσία του, γι’αυτό συχνάζει σε δασώδεις περιοχές που γειτνιάζουν με έλη, τενάγη, βαλτώδεις και πλημμυρισμένες περιοχές, λίμνες και ποτάμια. [23] Σε ανοικτές περιοχές, παρατηρείται μόνο κατά τη μετανάστευση. [24] Συνήθως, οι στικταετοί κινούνται μέχρι τα 300 μέτρα, αλλά στις ασιατικές περιοχές μπορεί να κυνηγάνε μέχρι τα 1700 μέτρα, ενώ έχουν παρατηρηθεί κατά τη μετανάστευση και μέχρι τα 3840 μέτρα (Ιράν, Νεπάλ). [25][26]
Ο στικταετός είναι μεσαίου μεγέθους αετός, που χαρακτηρίζεται από σχετική δυσαρμονία στις αναλογίες του, με την κοντή, στρογγυλεμένη ουρά που διαθέτει. [30] Σε γενικές γραμμές είναι παρόμοιος στην εμφάνιση με τον κοντινό συγγενή του κραυγαετό, με τον οποίο μάλιστα, μοιράζεται μέρος της επικράτειάς του. Το -σχετικά μικρό για έναν αετό- κεφάλι και τα καλυπτήρια φτερά είναι πολύ σκούρα καφέ, με κάποια πορφυρή μεταλλική ανταύγεια στην περιοχή των ώμων, [31] ερχόμενα σε αντίθεση με τα πιο ανοικτόχρωμα ερετικά φτερά. Η κάτω επιφάνεια των ερετικών φτερών έχει πυκνές, σκούρες «μπάρες» που καθίστανται πιο αχνές στην άκρη, αλλά κάποια άτομα δεν τις διαθέτουν καν. [32]
Η άνω επιφάνεια της ουράς εμφανίζει, κάποιες φορές, λευκή απόχρωση στην περιοχή του ουροπυγίου, σχήματος V, [34][35][36] προσφέροντας ένα σημαντικό διαγνωστικό στοιχείο κατά την ραχιαία παρατήρηση του πτηνού. Επίσης, ένα (1) ή -σπανιότερα- δύο λευκά σημάδια, ημισεληνοειδούς σχήματος, ή κόμματος (‘comma’) μπορεί να υπάρχουν στο κάτω μέρος της πτέρυγας, στην βάση των εξωτερικών πρωτευόντων ερετικών φτερών. [37]
Πολύ πιο σπάνια, εμφανίζεται μία ελαφρά χρωματική «παραλλαγή», που έχει πάρει την ονομασία fulvescens. Σ’αυτήν, το κεφάλι και το γενικότερο παρουσιαστικό έχουν κρεμ ή ανοικτό κοκκινωπό χρώμα, εκτός από τα σκουρότερα πρωτεύοντα και δευτερεύοντα ερετικά φτερά. [38] Απαντά κυρίως στο δυτικό τμήμα του φάσματος κατανομής. [39]
Οι ταρσοί είναι φουντωτά πτερωμένοι (bushy ‘trousers’ [40]), ενώ το κήρωμα και τα πόδια είναι κίτρινα. [41] Η ίριδα είναι καφέ και το ράμφος μαύρο, εκτός από τη βάση του που έχει γκρίζο χρώμα. Τα ρουθούνια, όπως και στον κραυγαετό, είναι στρογγυλά. [42][43] Τα φύλα είναι όμοια στην μορφολογία, αλλά τα θηλυκά είναι αρκετά βαρύτερα από τα αρσενικά.
Τα νεαρά άτομα, αποτελούν ξεχωριστή περίπτωση, καθόσον διαθέτουν έντονες ασπροκίτρινες κηλίδες στο πάνω μέρος του πτερώματός τους, στοιχείο που τα διαφοροποιεί έντονα από τα ενήλικα άτομα. Αυτές οι «κηλίδες», η μία δίπλα στην άλλη, σχηματίζουν σειρές-γραμμές [44] σε όλη την επιφάνεια των καλυπτηρίων των πτερύγων, ιδιαίτερα ορατές όταν το πουλί τις έχει κλειστές. [45] Μερικές, μάλιστα, βρίσκονται και στην περιοχή του κεφαλιού και του τραχήλου σε κάποια άτομα. [46] Επίσης η λευκή περιοχή στο ουροπύγιο είναι πλατύτερη από των ενηλίκων. [47] Τα νεαρά πουλιά αποκτούν το πλήρες πτέρωμα των ενηλίκων στα τέσσερα χρόνια, περίπου. [48]
Πηγές: [49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59] [60][61]
Στους τόπους αναπαραγωγής, η διατροφή αποτελείται κυρίως από μικρά έως μεσαίου μεγέθους θηλαστικά (κυρίως τρωκτικά) και πτηνά, με τα αμφίβια και τα ερπετά (σαύρες και φίδια) να ακολουθούν. Σπανιότερα επιτίθεται σε μικρά ψάρια, έντομα, ή στρέφεται σε θνησιμαία. Κατά την χειμερινή περίοδο, η κύρια μορφή τροφής ανάλογα με την τοποθεσία, περιλαμβάνει έντομα όπως ακρίδες και τερμίτες, θνησιμαία ή σε υγρότοπους και μικρά υδρόβια πτηνά. Επίσης επιτίθεται σε μεγάλα πουλιά, όταν αυτά είναι τραυματισμένα ή ασθενικά, όπως σε πάπιες και ερωδιούς. [62]
Γενικά, η διατροφή του στικταετού είναι παρόμοια με εκείνη του κραυγαετού, αλλά με λίγο μεγαλύτερα θηράματα (μέχρι 250 γραμμάρια) και περισσότερα πουλιά. Στην Ρωσία, επικρατούν τα τρωκτικά των γενών Arvicola και Microtus, ενώ στην Ινδία οι βάτραχοι, οι φαλαρίδες και υδρόβια πτηνά. Όπως συμβαίνει και με άλλα αετόμορφα, προσελκύεται από τις πυρκαγιές για να συλλαμβάνει τα σμήνη ακριδών που πετάνε για να σωθούν. [63]
Ο στικταετός κυνηγάει σε βάλτους και υγρά λιβάδια, καθώς και κατά μήκος των παρακείμενων ποταμών, συνήθως μόνος. Προτιμάει να ερευνά το έδαφος περπατώντας και, όχι από κρυψώνα όπως ο κραυγαετός. Όταν κάνει εναέρια έρευνα, γυροπετάει σε κύκλους (soaring), από σχετικά χαμηλό ύψος και, μετά τον εντοπισμό του θηράματος, κάνει κάθετη εφόρμηση. Σε περίπτωση που η λεία είναι καλοβατικά πτηνά, τότε προσπαθεί να διασπάσει τον όγκο τους με διαδοχικές «βουτιές» και, κατόπιν, διαλέγει ένα απομονωμένο άτομο και τού επιτίθεται.
Αν και έχει τη δυνατότητα σύλληψης γρήγορων θηραμάτων, προτιμάει συνήθως τα πιο αργοκίνητα, όπως λ.χ. τις πάπιες. [67] Επίσης, κλεπτοπαρασιτεί αρκετά συχνά. [68]
Ο στικταετός είναι, γενικά, μοναχικό πτηνό ή σχηματίζει ζευγάρια. Κατά την μετανάστευση είναι, επίσης, μοναχικός ή ταξιδεύει σε ομάδες των 2-3 ατόμων, σπανιότερα σε σμήνη. Όμως, στις περιοχές διαχείμασης είναι πιο κοινωνικός και μικρά κοπάδια μέχρι και δέκα ατόμων διαφόρων ηλικιών δημιουργούνται, και περιπολούν από κοινού το έδαφος. Έχουν αναφερθεί μεγάλες συναθροίσεις, όταν επιτίθενται σε σμήνη ακρίδων, τον Νοέμβριο στην ΒΑ. Αφρική. [69] Μπορούν επίσης να ενωθούν με άλλα αετόμορφα, όπως Milvus sp. ή Αquila nipalensis. [70]
Οι πτέρυγες του στικταετού διατηρούνται ίσιες κατά την πτήση όταν γυροπετάει, αλλά οι άκρες τους είναι ελαφρά γερμένες προς τα κάτω στο ύψος των καρπικών αρθρώσεων, όταν πλανάρει (gliding). [71] Τα φτεροκοπήματα είναι μάλλον ασθενικά και, από μικρή απόσταση, διακρίνονται 7 «δάκτυλα» (ακραία πρωτεύοντα ερετικά φτερά), αντί για 6 στον κραυγαετό. [72] Το πέταγμά του είναι πιο βαρύ και «νωθρό» από του κραυγαετού. [73]
Ο στικταετός είναι ιδιαίτερα φωνητικό είδος, κυρίως όταν αναπαράγεται και όταν σχηματίζει μικρές ομάδες. Το κάλεσμά του μοιάζει με εκείνο του κραυγαετού είναι όμως λιγότερο υψίσυχνο και μοιάζει λίγο με λεπτό «γάβγισμα» κουταβιού (sic). [74][75]
Ο στικταετός καταφθάνει στις περιοχές αναπαραγωγής στα μέσα της άνοιξης, περίπου, και η αναζήτηση ταιριού αρχίζει αμέσως. Η φωλιά που κατασκευάζεται με ξερόκλαδα, πάνω σε φυλλοβόλα δέντρα -σπάνια σε κωνοφόρα- συνήθως στα δασοόρια, έχει διάμετρο μεταξύ 70 και 110 εκατοστών και βάθος 1 μέτρο, [76] είναι δηλαδή σχετικά μικρή για το μέγεθος του πτηνού. [77] Ωστόσο, οι φωλιές χρησιμοποιούνται, συχνά, περισσότερο από μία φορά οπότε μπορεί να φθάσουν σε ύψη έως 150 εκατοστά με την συνεχή προσθήκη υλικών. Συνήθως τις κατασκευάζουν οι ίδιοι οι γονείς, αλλά μπορεί να χρησιμοποιήσουν και τις φωλιές άλλων πουλιών, όπως πελαργών ή γερακιών. [78] Το υλικό επίστρωσης είναι χορτάρι και πράσινα κλαδιά, που επαναπροστίθενται κατά την επώαση. Βρίσκονται σε ύψος 5-25 μ. (συνήθως 8-12 μ.) από το έδαφος, στην κορυφή των δένδρων ή κοντά σε αυτήν. [79] Ωστόσο, ελλείψει δένδρων, τις κατασκευάζουν σε χαμηλούς θάμνους ενώ, στην Σιβηρική στέπα, σε χαμηλές ιτιές. [80]
Η γέννα πραγματοποιείται συνήθως στις αρχές μέχρι τα μέσα Μαΐου, σπάνια στα τέλη Απριλίου, αν και στο Πακιστάν φωλιάζει από τον Νοέμβριο μέχρι τον Μάρτιο. Η ωοτοκία πραγματοποιείται άπαξ σε κάθε περίοδο φωλιάσματος και αποτελείται από (1-) 2 (-3) ελαφρώς υποελλειπτικά, μη-γυαλιστερά αβγά, διαστάσεων 67,5 Χ 54,0 χιλιοστών. [81] Η επώαση, που γίνεται μόνο από το θηλυκό, ξεκινάει από το 1ο αβγό και διαρκεί 42 έως 44 (-45) ημέρες. Σε αντίθεση με τον κραυγαετό, ο καϊνισμός δεν είναι υποχρεωτικός και, υπάρχει μεγάλη πιθανότητα επιβίωσης και των 2 νεοσσών. Οι νεοσσοί πτερώνονται στις 60 ημέρες, περίπου και, το πρώτο πέταγμα γίνεται στις 63 έως 65 (-67) ημέρες, ενώ τα νεαρά πουλιά παραμένουν κοντά στη φωλιά για 3 εβδομάδες ακόμη. [82] Η σεξουαλική ωριμότητα επιτυγχάνεται στα 4 χρόνια, περίπου. [83]
Παρά το μεγάλο εύρος κατανομής, ο στικταετός είναι τόσο σπάνιος και αραιά κατανεμημένος που οι αριθμοί του δεν είναι δυνατόν να υπολογισθούν με ακρίβεια. Επί πλέον, οι μικροί πληθυσμοί του φαίνεται να υποχωρούν περαιτέρω, λόγω της εκτεταμένης απώλειας των ενδιαιτημάτων του και τις συνεχείς διώξεις που υφίσταται. Στην Ευρώπη, δυτικά των Ουραλίων, ο συνολικός πληθυσμός εκτιμάται σύμφωνα με την IUCN, περίπου στα 875 αναπαραγωγικά ζευγάρια, με τα περισσότερα στοιχεία στο ασιατικό τμήμα της Ρωσίας, μέχρι στιγμής, να είναι ελάχιστα και αναξιόπιστα. Ο πληθυσμός έχει μειωθεί εδώ και δεκαετίες, καθώς οι κύριοι λόγοι είναι η καταστροφή των ενδιαιτημάτων και το παράνομο κυνήγι. Ειδικά στην Ιταλία, την Τουρκία, και τον Λίβανο, είναι πολύ συχνό φαινόμενο τα πυροβολημένα πουλιά κατά τη μετανάστευσή τους. [84]
Ένα από τα σημαντικότερα κράτη, όπου καταβάλλεται συστηματική προσπάθεια διατήρησης του είδους είναι η Εσθονία . [86] Τα περισσότερα ζευγάρια αναπαραγωγής βρίσκονται στη Ρωσία και ακολουθούν η Λευκορωσία και η Ουκρανία . [87]
Παρά την έλλειψη επαρκών δεδομένων, φαίνεται ότι ο στικταετός ήταν πιο διαδεδομένος κατά τον 19ο αιώνα στην χώρα. Στην δεκαετία του ’80, ο ετήσιος μέσος όρος παρατήρησης ήταν μόλις 10-15 άτομα που, στη μεγάλη τους πλειοψηφία, ήσαν νεαρά άτομα. [88] Ακόμη και σήμερα, οι παρατηρούμενοι πληθυσμοί δεν ξεπερνούν τα 70-80 άτομα που, έστω κι έτσι, αποτελούν το 50% του διαχειμάζοντος πληθυσμού των Βαλκανίων, πλην Τουρκίας. [89]
Αποτελεί χειμερινό επισκέπτη (από Οκτώβριο μέχρι Μάρτιο) που, επειδή δεν φωλιάζει, είναι δύσκολο να παρατηρηθεί και να διερευνηθεί η συμπεριφορά του. Απαντά σε μεγάλους υγροτόπους της Κ. και Α. Μακεδονίας, Θράκης, Δ. Στερεάς και Ηπείρου. [90][91] Μάλιστα, είναι το μόνο είδος του γένους Aquila (τώρα Clanga), που συχνάζει σε υγροτόπους. [92] Σπάνια κατεβαίνει νοτιότερα φθάνοντας μέχρι την Κρήτη. [93][94][95] Τα νεαρά άτομα, διαφόρων ηλικιών, αποτελούν την πλειονότητα των παρατηρουμένων ατόμων (ποσοστό 80%).[96]
Ο συνολικός, πολύ μικρός και έντονα κυμαινόμενος, αριθμός του πληθυσμού του, έχει κατατάξει τον στικταετό, ειδικά στην Ελλάδα, στην κατηγορία Κινδυνεύοντα EN [D] είδη. [97][98]
Οι μεγαλύτεροι κίνδυνοι που αντιμετωπίζει ο στικταετός στην Ελλάδα, είναι η λαθροθηρία και οι συνεχιζόμενες επεμβάσεις στους βιοτόπους του (αποξηράνσεις, αποψιλώσεις παραποταμίων και παραλιμνίων δασών). Άλλες απειλές είναι η ανθρώπινη όχληση, η δηλητηρίαση από μόλυβδο που εμπεριέχεται στα κυνηγετικά σκάγια και, πιθανόν, τα δηλητηριασμένα δολώματα. [99]
Είναι απαραίτητη η λήψη μέτρων για την λαθροθηρία και η αυστηρή διαφύλαξη των υδροχαρών δασών στουυς υγροτόπους όπου συχνάζει, [100] ιδιαίτερα στον Έβρο, καθώς και η προστασία των χώρων τροφοληψίας. Επίσης, έλεγχος της χρήσης δηλητηριασμένων δολωμάτων και απαγόρευση της χρήσης σκαγίων μολύβδου στους υγρότοπους. [101]
Στον ελλαδικό χώρο, ο Στικταετός απαντάται και με τις ονομασίες Φωνακλάς, Κράχτης [104] και Στικτογεράκα (Κύπρος). [105]
i. ^ Κάποιοι ερευνητές θεωρούν ότι το γένος Clanga, ανήκει στην ξεχωριστή υποοικογένεια (Buteoninae). Όμως, δεν υπάρχουν ακόμη επαρκή στοιχεία για την τεκμηρίωση αυτής της ταξινόμησης, γι’αυτό ακολουθείται η κατά Howard & Moore και ITIS άποψη, που αποτελούν τις εγκυρότερες επιστημονικές πηγές.
ii. ^ Για την συγκεκριμένη απόδοση, βλ. Ονοματολογία.
Ο Στικταετός είναι ημερόβιο αρπακτικό πτηνό, ένας από τους αετούς που απαντούν και στον ελλαδικό χώρο. Η επιστημονική ονομασία του είδους είναι Clanga clanga και δεν περιλαμβάνει υποείδη (μονοτυπικό)
Великый крикун (Aquila clanga) є середнё великый орел з родины ястрябовых.
Барзже ся подобать крикунові, з котрым є часто замінёваный, але є векшый і тмавшый. На орла є ёго голова мала. Роспятём крыл є міджі 155 і 185 цм. Саміця важыть од 2150 до 3200 ґрамів і самець 1600 аж 2000 ґ. Ёго довжка є 60-70 цм.
Великый крикун (Aquila clanga) є середнё великый орел з родины ястрябовых.
Вялікі арлец (Clanga clanga) — драпежная птушка сямейства Ястрабіныя.
Вялікая птушка даўжынёй 59—71 см з размахам крылаў 157—179 см. Маса цела 1,6—2,5 кг, асобныя саміцы да 3,2 кг.
Галава і покрыўнае пер’е(en) цёмна-карычневыя і кантрастуюць са сьвятлейшым апярэньнем. У палявых умовах цяжкаадрозны ад свайго найбліжэйшага суродзіча — малога падворліка.
Першаснае махавае пер’е чарнаватае зь сьветлымі аснаваньнямі ўнутраных апахалаў; на хвасьце — цёмна-бурае, часам з чарнаватым папярочным малюнкам. У маладых арляцоў апярэньне зь сьветлымі кроплепадобнымі плямамі, у дарослых на гузцы крыху сьвятлейшае апярэньне. Дзюба і кіпцюры чорныя. Васкавіца і ногі жоўтыя. Ногі апёраныя да самых пальцаў.
Голас падобны да сабачага брэху.
Міграцыйны від, расьсяляецца па ўсёй паўночнай паласе Эўразіі ад Цэнтральнай Эўропы да Манголіі і Кітаю. Зімуе ў паўднёва-ўсходняй Эўропе, паўночна-ўсходняй Афрыцы, Сярэднім Усходзе ды Індыйскім субкантынэнце. Вяртаньне з выраю адбываецца даволі позна. У Беларусі адна з найбольшых папуляцыяў — ад 120 да 150 параў[1].
Від схільны да вандраваньняў. Звычайна вялікі арлец ня селіцца далей за Нямеччыну, аднак час ад часу птушак можна сустрэць і далей на захад.
У зімовы пэрыяд птушкі больш трымаюцца разам, чым пры размнажэньні. Дзеля аховы тэрыторыі могуць зьбірацца разам да дзесяці арляцоў ды нават іншых ястрабіных, напрыклад чорных каршуноў або стэпавых арлоў.
Пражывае ў мяшаных лясох ды каля поймавых лугоў, балотаў, рэк і азёраў. Палюючы, лунае ня вялікай вышыні або вышуквае здабычу на зямлі.
Харчуецца дробнымі грызунамі і птушкамі.
Гняздуе ў кронах дрэваў, адно гняздо часта выкарыстоўваецца некалькі разоў. У траўні саміца адкладае 1—3, але найчасьцей 2 яйкі, уздутыя альбо амаль эліптычныя. Птушаняты вылупляюцца праз 40 дзён. Малодшае птушанё паддаецца ганеньням старэйшага і, як правіла, гіне ў першыя два тыдні жыцьця. У веку 8—9 тыдняў птушаняты стаюць на крыло, пэўны час яшчэ трымаюцца з бацькамі, а з дасягненьнем стацевай сьпеласьці шукаюць уласную тэрыторыю і пару.
Занесеныя ў сьпіс уразьлівых відаў МСАП. Зьмяншэньне колькасьці адбываецца з-за страты годных для пражываньня тэрыторыяў, умяшаньня чалавека (мэліярацыя, вырубка лясоў ля вялікіх вадаёмаў, паляваньне, набліжэньне да гнёздаў у гнездавы пэрыяд), зьмяншэньня разнастайнасьці харчовых відаў.
На зімаваньні ў Ізраілі
У палёце
Адпачынак у Індыі
На паштовай марцы Беларусі
Museum specimen
Вялікі арлец (Clanga clanga) — драпежная птушка сямейства Ястрабіныя.
Големиот орел кликач (науч. Aquila clanga) е голема граблива птица. Како сите типични орли припаѓа на фамилијата јастреби.
Големиот орел кликач е долг 59-71 см, со распон на крилјата 157-179 см и телесна тежина 1,6 - 2,5 кг, а понекоагаш женката може да биде многу голема и да тежи над 3,2 кг.[2][3] Овој средно голем орел е многу сличен на неговиот близок роднина мал орел кликач (A. pomarina), со кого споделува дел од својата распространетост. Главата и горниот дел од крилјата се многу темно кафеави во контраст со другото посветло кафеаво перје. Малиот орел кликач има посветла глава и крилја од него. Главата му е мала за орел. Разликувањето на овие два вида е тешко, а уште поотежнато поради нивното мешање и создавање хибриди.[4]
Често има помалку впечатливи бели дамки на горните делови од крилјата, но посветлите горни делови на крилјата се добар знак за распознавање. Белиот V знак кај опашката е помалку видлив кај возрасните птици отколку кај малиот орел кликач. Повикот му е како кучешко јип.
Оваа птица порано се сметала за подвид на постојаниот жител на индискиот вид - индиски орел кликач (Aquila hastata), кој во суштина многу се разликува според морфологијата, однесувањето, животната средина и ДНА анализата. Европскиот вид, всушност е многу поблизок до малиот орел кликач, чиј претходник дивергирал некаде во средниот плиоцен, пред 3.6 милиони години [5] од предците на индиските птици. Прото-орелот кликач, најверојатно живеел во регионот на Авганистан, и се разделил на северна и јужна линија кога започнало последното ледено доба. Северната линија се разделила на источните и западните денешни видови.[6]
Како група, орлите кликачи доста се разликуваат од типичните, „вистинските“ орли.
Денешниот вид понекогаш се хибридизира со малиот орел кликач. Ваквите хибриди речиси е невозможно да се идентификуваат ако не се погледнат убаво одозгора.[7]
Голем орел кликач одоздола)
Голем орел кликач одоздола
Забележи ги светлите ленти на крилјата
Museum specimen
Големиот орел кликач живее во шумските предели каде лови мали цицачи и главно копнен плен. Се парат од северна Европа преку Азија и мигрираат во југоисточна Европа, Среден Исток и јужна Азија. Овие орли снесуваат 1-3 јајца во гнездата кои се наоѓаат на дрвја. Генерално, овие птици се територијални, па младите го поминуваат времето со нивните родители додека не достигнат сексуална зрелост, а потоа бараат територии за да се парат меѓусебно. Зиме птиците се подружељубиви и формираат мали јата од десетина птици кои заедно ја облетуваат областа.
Големиот орел кликач е класифициран во категоријата ранлив[1], зашто популацијата му е помалку од 4.000 двојки. Основна закана за видот е унижтување на неговата животна средина, како и човековото вознемирување за време на сезоната на парење.[8]
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|accessdate= (помош) (англиски) Големиот орел кликач (науч. Aquila clanga) е голема граблива птица. Како сите типични орли припаѓа на фамилијата јастреби.
Кăшкăракан ăмăрткайăк — (лат. Aquila clanga — хурчка йышшисен вĕçен кайăкĕ.
Кăшкăракан ăмăрткайăк — (лат. Aquila clanga — хурчка йышшисен вĕçен кайăкĕ.
Чаар бүркүт (лат. Aquila clanga, Pallas, 1811): Шакылдактар.
Евразияда түштүк Финляндиядан, Полңшадан, Румыниядан, мурунку Югославия Республикаларынан чыгышты карай Приморңеге жана Түндүк-Чыгыш Кытайга чейин. Россия Федерациясынын европалык бөлүгүндө түндүктү көздөй 64-параллелге чейин, Обң өрөөнүндө 62-параллелге, Енисей өрөөнүндө 63-параллелге чейин, Байкал башында 54-параллелге, Байкал тышында 53-параллелге, Амур өрөөнүндө жана, болжол менен, Приморңеде 49-параллелге чейин. Түштүктө Македонияга, Добруджиге, Украинада болжол менен 50-параллелге, Волга өрөөнүндө 53-параллелге, Батыш Сибирде жана Түндүк Казакстанда 52-параллелге чейин, Түштүк-Батыш Алтайга, Кентейге, Хебей провинциясынын түндүк бөлүгүнө чейин. Түндүк Индияда, Пакистанда, Непалда, Бангладеште жана Мңянмада отурукташкан канаттуу болуп эсептелет . Кыргыз Республикасында көбүнчө Чүй өрөөнүндө, кээде Ысыккөл ойдуңунда учуп өтүүдө кездешет. Мурда Кыргыз жана Алай тоо кыркаларында уялагандыгы жөнүндө маалымат бар.
Түздүктөрдү, жапыз жана орто тоолуу ландшафттарды артыксынтат, сууга жакын жашайт.
Чаар бүркүттүн саны боюнча маалымат абдан аз. Ысыккөлдүн чыгышындагы карагай токойлорунда чаар бүркүттүн саны бир квадраттык километрде 0,007 канаттууну түзөт . 2005- жылдын ноябрында А. Остащенко Жаңыжер айылынын тегерегинде Чүй дарыясынын жээгинде бир чаар бүркүттү байкаган.
Миграциялаган түр. Суу канаттуулары, майда таранчы сымалдар, бакалар менен азыктанат, көпчүлүк учурда өзүнөн кичирээк жырткычтардын азыгын тартып алат. Бактын башында отуруп шаңшыйт. Апрелден баштап уялайт. Бактын башына бутактардан жана чырпыктардан жасалган, чоң уя салат. Уясынын ортосундагы ойдуңду жалбырактар менен төшөйт. 1-2 ак түстөгү, кээде кызгылт темгилдүү жумуртка басат.
Уялоо үчүн ылайыктуу жерлердин азаюусу. Кээде – киши тарабынан кырылуусу.
Кыргыз Республикасында колдо багылбайт.
Республикада атайын коргоо чаралары жок. Түр I UCNдин Кызыл Китебине 6-категориясына Near Threatened киргизилген.
Уялоо үчүн ылайыктуу жерлерди коргоо, суу боюндагы токойлордо бак кыюуга тыюу салуу керек.
VI категория. Near Threatened, NT. Кыргыз Республикасынын фаунасында уруунун төрт өкүлүнүн бири. Монотиптүү түр.
Ҡарағош (урыҫ.Большой подорлик) (лат. Aquila clanga) — Ҡарсығалар ғаиләһендәге ҡош.
Ҡарағоштоң ҙурлығы ҡаҙҙай. Кәүҙә оҙонлоғо 65-73 см һәм ауырлығы 1,6 — 3,2 кг. Инә ҡоштар аталарына ҡарағанда эрерәк. Йәйелгән ҡанаттарының оҙонлоғо: ата ҡоштоҡо 158 - 176 см, инә ҡоштоҡо – 167 – 182 см, тәндәренең оҙонлоғо – ата ҡоштоҡо 65 – 70 см һәм инә ҡоштоҡо 67 – 73 см. Дөйөм төҫө ҡара-көрән, ҡойроҡ өҫтө һәм аяҡ ҡауырһындары арҡаһына ҡарағанда аҡһылыраҡ, ҡойроҡ аҫты һарғылт һәм ваҡ аҡ таптар бар, яурындары һорғолт. Елкәһе, муйыны аҡһылыраҡ, ҡойроғо ҡара-көрән. Ҡарағоштоң күҙе, суҡышы – көрән төҫтән ҡара төҫкә тиклем, тырнаҡтары бөтөнләй ҡара, ауыҙ тирәһе һәм аяҡтары һары төҫтә. Ҡарағош еңел оса. Йыш ергә ултыра һәм осраған бер ваҡ кимереүсене, бөжәктәрҙе эләктереп йөрөй. Бер урында оҙаҡ ҡына ҡорбандарын һағалап баҫып тора ала. Ҡарсыға кеүек, йыш ҡына йәшеренеп торған еренән һөжүм итә.
Европала Финляндияла, Польшала, Венгрияла һәм Румынияла, Азия ҡитғаһында Монголияла, Ҡытайҙа һәм Пакистанда осрай. Рәсәй биләмәләрендә Калининградтан алып Приморьеға тиклем таралған. Һиндостанда, Иранда һәм Һииндоҡытайҙа ҡышлайҙар.
Башҡортостан биләмәләрендә ҡарағош XIX быуат аҙағында XX быуат башында бөтә ерҙә лә осраған һәм оя ҡорған, таулы райондарҙа һирәгерәк. С.В. Кириков (1952), мәҫәлән 1931 һәм 1940 йылда уны Йылайыр янында Бараҡал йылғаһы һәм Ағиҙел йылғаһы үҙәнендә осратҡан. Әммә В.Е.Фомин (1983) өс миҙгел (1973-1975 йылдар) күҙәтеүҙәр ваҡытында тик бер генә затты Ағиҙел йылғаһы үҙәнендә осратҡан һәм ҡарағош беҙҙә оялауҙан туҡтаған тигән, һығымтаға килгән. Н.М. Лоскутова ла шундай фекерҙә була, ул 1985-1988 йылдарҙағы күҙәтеүҙәрендә ҡарағоштарҙы ҡоштарҙың күсеү ваҡыттарында ғына күргән. И.В.Карякин (1998) белдереүенсә, ҡарағош Благовещенск янында Ағиҙел йылғаһы үҙәненән түбәнгәсә, Һаҡмар, Нөгөш, Йылым, Сөм, Инйәр, Танып, Өфө һәм уның ҡушылдыҡтары – Әй, Йүрүҙән йылғалары буйҙарында, ә шулай уҡ Урал аръяғында – Оҙонкүл, Банное күлдәре тирәһендә 50-ләп пар оя ҡорған. 1994-2001 йылда ҡарағоштоң Кушнаренко районы Дмитриевск урмансылығы биләмәһендә осрағаны теркәлгән. Ырымбур өлкәһендә оялай.
Ҡарағош ҙур һыу ятҡылыҡтары янында һирәк аҡаслы асыҡ урындарҙа урынлаша. Асыҡ ерҙәрҙә һунар итә. Кешенән шул хәтлем ҡурҡа, хатта йомортҡа баҫып ултырған ояһынан да осоп китә.
Күсмә ҡош. Һирәк осрай. Ҡарағош глобаль юғалып барҡан ҡоштар иҫәбенә инә. Рәсәй Федерацияһының һәм Башҡортостан Республикаһының Ҡыҙыл китабына (1-се категория) индерелгән. Ҡарағошто һаҡлау өсөн аҡландарҙы, һаҙлыҡлы һыу ятҡылыҡтарын һаҡларға кәрәк. Оя ҡорған урындарҙа заказниктәр булдырыу отошло.
Күберәк ерҙә һунар итә, әммә һыу ятҡылығының һайыраҡ урындарында осоп барғанында балыҡты эләктереп ала. Уның аҙыҡтары - ваҡ кимереүселәр, һирәгерәк ҡоштар, эре тура ҡанатлы бөжәктәр. Тәлмәрйен, кеҫәртке һәм йылан да уның ҡорбаны.
Бөтә йыртҡыс ҡоштар кеүек үк ҡарағоштар ҙа парлы ғаилә булып йәшәйҙәр һәм ояларын күп йылдар ҡулланалар. Беҙгә ҡарағоштар апрелдең икенсе яртыһында осоп ҡайталар. Ҡарағоштар ояларын ағас башында 3 м-ҙан 25 м-ға тиклемге бейеҡлектә ҡоралар. Ҡайһы саҡта сит ояны ҡулланалар йәки үҙгәртеп ҡороралар.
Йомортҡа һалыу ваҡыты - май урталарына тиклем, ояла Һорғолт көрән таптар менән ҡапланған 1-3 аҡ йомортҡа була, йышыраҡ – 2. Инә ҡош 42-44 тәүлек йомортҡа баҫа, әммә ғәҙәттә берәүһе генә тере ҡала. Ҡошсоҡто ашатыуҙа ата ҡош та ҡатнаша. 6-7 аҙналыҡ ҡошсоҡ оса башлай. Август аҙағына тиклем ғаилә оя янында ҡала, һуңынан ҡышлауға осҡанға саҡлы урындан-урынға күсеп йөрөйҙәр.
Ҡарағош (урыҫ.Большой подорлик) (лат. Aquila clanga) — Ҡарсығалар ғаиләһендәге ҡош.
जीवाहार महाचील (Clanga clanga) नेपालमा पाइने एक प्रकारको चराको नाम हो । यो चरा उत्तरी युरोपदेखि युरेसिया हुँदै मध्यपूर्व, दक्षिणी तथा पूर्वी एसिया सम्म पाइने गर्छ। यसको बैज्ञानिक नाम clanga प्राचिन ग्रिक शब्द κλαγγή बाट आएको हो जसको अर्थ "चिच्याउनु" हुन्छ।[२] यसलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा ग्रेटर स्पटेड इगल (Greater Spotted Eagle) भनिन्छ।
जीवाहार महाचील ५९ देखि ७१ सेन्टिमिटर (२३-२८ इन्च) लामो तथा पंखेटा फिजाउँदा १५७ देखि १७९ सेन्टिमिटर (५.१५-५.८७ फिट) हुन्छ। सामान्यतया भालेको तौल १.६ देखि २.५ किलोग्राम (३.५-५.५ पाउण्ड) तथा पोथीको तौल ३.२ किलोग्राम (७.१ पाउण्ड)सम्म हुन्छ। यो मझौला नापको चील, छोटा र चौडा पखेटाहरु तथा गठिलो टाउको र छोटो पुच्छर हुन्छ। यसको पखेटाहरू हावामा तैरिँदा प्रष्टरूपले कुइनादेखी तल कोण परेको र आकाशिँदा पुरा सिधा हुन्छ। यसको लघु महाचील भन्दा गठिलो जसको बढी जसको बढी चौडा पखेटा र वर्गाकार पङ्खाहस्त साथै छोटो पुच्छर हुन्छ। यसको गाढाखैरो पखेटाका माथिल्ला रतल्ला पङ्खढकनी उडान पङ्खहरूसँग त्यति फरक नदेखिने र प्राय: जसो पखेटाको तल्लो भागमा कुइनाको दोस्रो सेतो सेतो खुर्पाकार चिन्ह हुँदैन। यसलाई गोपायु महाचीलसँग दाज्दा उडामा थोरै बाहिर निस्किएको टाउको साथै पखेटाहरू छोटा र कम गहिरो पङ्ख औँला भएका पखेटाका टुप्पाहरू हुन्छन्। जीवाहार महाचील विश्रामको बेलामा सुरुवाल कम खुकुलो देखिने साथै सानो ठोँड जसमा गोलाकार नाकका पोरा र मुखको कापा छोटो भएको हुन्छ। यसको वयस्क गोमायुको जस्तो उडान र पुच्छरपङ्खको तल्लो भागाम तेर्सा धर्साहरू तथा पखेटामा गाढा पृष्ठ पङ्खधार नभएको र गाढा च्यापु हुन्छ। यसको बच्चाको गाढाखैरो ढकनीमा मोटो सेतो टुप्पो भएको हुन्छ।
जीवाहार महाचीलले प्रजनन् अवधी उत्तरी युरोपदेखि युरेसिया हुँदै पूर्वसम्म विताउने गर्छ। हिउँदको मौसममा यो चरा दक्षिणी-पूर्वी यूरोप, उत्तर-पूर्वी अफ्रिका, मध्य पूर्व र नेपाल लगायतका भारतीय उपमहाद्वीपका राष्ट्रहरूमा बसाई सर्छ। यो प्रजाति २५० मि. देखि ३८४० मि. सम्म पाइने गर्छ। यो चरा ठूला नदी तालहरू तथा पानीका स्रोतहरू नजिकैको रूखले ढाकिइका क्षेत्र रुचाउने गर्छ।
वासस्थान विनास तथा क्षति यसका लागि खतराको प्रमूख कारण हो। यसले गर्दा यो प्रजाति विश्वमा संरक्षणका हिसाबले संवेदनशील अवस्थामा रहेको छ।
जीवाहार महाचील (Clanga clanga) नेपालमा पाइने एक प्रकारको चराको नाम हो । यो चरा उत्तरी युरोपदेखि युरेसिया हुँदै मध्यपूर्व, दक्षिणी तथा पूर्वी एसिया सम्म पाइने गर्छ। यसको बैज्ञानिक नाम clanga प्राचिन ग्रिक शब्द κλαγγή बाट आएको हो जसको अर्थ "चिच्याउनु" हुन्छ। यसलाई अङ्ग्रेजीमा ग्रेटर स्पटेड इगल (Greater Spotted Eagle) भनिन्छ।
मोठा ठिपक्यांचा गरुड (इंग्रजी: Greater spotted eagle; ग्रेटर स्पॉटेड ईगल) हा एक शिकारी पक्षी आहे.
मोठा ठिपक्यांचा गरुड (इंग्रजी: Greater spotted eagle; ग्रेटर स्पॉटेड ईगल) हा एक शिकारी पक्षी आहे.
बर्डलाइफ इंटरनॅशनल (२०१६). "क्लॅंगा क्लॅंगा". असुरक्षित प्रजातींची आय.यू.सी.एन. "लाल" यादी. आवृत्ती २०१६-३. इंटरनॅशनल युनिअन फॉर कंझर्वेशन ऑफ नेचर. २३-०४-२०१७ रोजी पाहिले.
The greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), also called the spotted eagle, is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs indicate that it is a member of the subfamily Aquilinae, also known as the "booted eagles."[2] This species was once thought to be a member of the genus Aquila, but was reclassified to a distinct genus, Clanga, along with the two other species of spotted eagle.[3]
During the breeding season, greater spotted eagles are widely distributed across Eastern Europe, parts of Central Europe, central Russia, Central Asia, parts of China, the Indian Subcontinent and the upper Middle East. During winter, they migrate primarily to South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, the Mediterranean Basin and parts of East Africa.[1][4]
Greater spotted eagles favor wetter habitats than most booted eagles, preferring riparian zones as well as bogs, lakes, ponds, some coasts, and other bodies of water surrounded by woodland or forested land. Floodplains are the primary breeding sites, especially ones that experience high water levels. During winter and migration they often seek out similar wetland habitats, but may appear in dry upland areas such as savanna plateaus.[4][5]
The eagle is an opportunistic forager, especially during the winter and will readily scavenge a variety of easy food sources, including carrion. Greater spotted eagles mainly eat small mammals (principally rodents), frogs, and a variety of smaller birds, especially vulnerable water birds. Reptiles and insects are eaten occasionally. This species rarely completely ceases hunting.
Greater spotted eagles are primarily aerial foragers, gliding from concealed perches over marshes or wet fields to catch prey.[4][5][6] This species builds stick nests in large trees, laying a clutch of one to three eggs. The female of a pair incubates and broods the young while the male hunts and delivers prey. Rarely is more than one fledgling produced.[7][8] As is common among birds of prey, the oldest sibling is much larger than its younger sibling(s), whom it often attacks and kills.[9]
This species' range overlaps broadly with the closely related lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina) and the two species are now known to hybridize frequently, to the detriment of populations of the rarer greater spotted eagles.[10] The greater spotted eagle is classified as a Vulnerable species by the IUCN.[1] Its populations are threatened by habitat destruction, collisions with human-made objects, and hybridization with lesser spotted eagles.[4][11]
Greater spotted eagles are members of the subfamily Aquilinae, or the booted eagles, a monophyletic group within the larger Accipitridae family. All booted eagles have feathers covering their legs. Members of this diverse, wide-ranging family may be found on every continent except Antarctica. Thirty-eight species of booted eagle are recognized.[2][4][12]
Booted eagles are often grouped with the genera Buteo and Haliaaetus, and other more heavy-set Accipitridae, but they may be more closely related to the more slender accipitrine hawks than previously believed. The greater spotted eagle's closest living relative is the lesser spotted eagle; they seem to have diverged from their most recent common ancestor around the middle Pliocene, perhaps 3.6 million years ago (mya). The estimate in Väli 2006 is certainly incorrect; it uses a molecular clock that is appropriate for small passerines with half the generation times of eagles descended from the ancestors of the Indian spotted eagle. The "proto-spotted eagle" probably lived in the general region of Afghanistan, and split into northern and southern lineages when both glaciers and deserts advanced in Central Asia as the last ice age began. The northern lineage subsequently separated into the greater (eastern) and lesser (western) spotted eagle species of today, probably around the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary almost 2 mya.[13][14][15]
The spotted eagles were long classified as part of the genus Aquila, along with several other mostly large, brownish eagles.[4] However, molecular phylogenetic studies using DNA sequences of one mitochondrial and two nuclear genes showed that the spotted eagles form a monophyletic group with each other and the long-crested eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis). Studies suggest that the spotted eagles should be grouped with Lophaetus or that all of these species should be grouped within Aquila.[2][3][16] Furthermore, a close relationship has been found between the spotted eagles and the black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) native to Asia. The spotted eagles, long-crested eagle and black eagle may comprise a species complex or clade.[17] However, the spotted eagles were ultimately reclassified as a distinct genus, Clanga, due to overwhelming genetic evidence and large divergences in morphology and ecology between spotted eagles and their sister taxa.[17][18]
The extensive hybridization between the greater spotted eagle and the lesser spotted eagle may occur because, despite a significant genetic difference between the species, they have one of the closest relationships of any closely studied accipitrid taxa.[17][18][19] The mitochondrial genetic sequences of these species have more than 3% divergence, about twice what is considered the minimum genetic difference to distinguish two species.[20] A third spotted eagle, the Indian spotted eagle (Clanga hastata), was recognized as a distinct species from the similarly sized lesser spotted eagle in 2006.[15][21] The scientific name clanga may derive from Ancient Greek κλαγγή, "scream,"[22] or its root may be the Greek word klangos (a variant form of plangos) for "a kind of eagle" mentioned by Aristotle.[5]
The greater spotted eagle is a rather large and compact eagle. Normally, it is black-brown with a contrasting yellow cere. This species has a short neck with a large, often rather shaggy-naped head, strong beak, and a short gape-line with round nostrils. The wings are broad and long, reaching the tail tip. The tail is relatively short and rounded.[4][7] The overall effect of the broad wings and short tail can give them an almost vulture-like silhouette. The feet are large, and the feathers covering the legs are less compactly arranged than on lesser spotted eagles.[4][5]
Greater spotted eagles tend to perch in the open. Most perches are on treetops at a forest edge, or more isolated vantage point such as a bush, post, or a steep river bank. It is not uncommon for greater spotted eagles to forage from the ground or rest there in a somewhat hunched posture.
Adult greater spotted eagles are generally a rather uniform dark brown to blackish brown, though the coloration may appear purplish and glossy, or appear more starkly contrasted, when freshly moulted.[4][5]
The upperwing coverts are often a shade paler than the rest, though these eagles generally appear uniformly dark with two contrasting features: a pale cere and a narrow white U above the tail, though this is usually concealed at rest. The species is dimorphic or even polymorphic, but pale and intermediate phenotypes are rare, although can be slightly more common farther east.[4][23]
As for pale adults (sometimes referred to as Clanga clanga fulvescens), the plumage is bicolored, with the tail, flight feathers, and greater wing coverts all blackish, but the body and the rest of the wing coverts appear light yellow or pale golden buff, and can become creamy when aged. The buff colour of the fulvescens phenotype is usually contrasted with diffuse dark colouring around the eyes, on the leading edges of wings, and more rarely and sparsely on the chest.[4][24] Intermediate and other variants are very rare, but include those with a slightly paler body and variable yellowish-brown streaking or mottling on the fore upperwing coverts (which can make them look similar to juvenile lesser spotted eagles), or mottled yellow-brown with a dark-streaked breast and pale-tipped wing coverts (like the juvenile eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca)). These intermediate types may show typical dark brown to black on the upper body, but in flight display pale mottled grey wing linings, or even normal coloration apart from the contrasting paler underbody.[4][5][24]
The juvenile greater spotted eagle is generally uniformly black-brown with whitish to yellowish drop-shaped spots. Some juveniles appear very heavily spotted all over, others less so, but they always show an obvious row of spots along the upperwing coverts, forming clear wing bars tail and flight feathers, except the outer primaries. The feathers underneath on juveniles are often broadly cream tipped, often showing some buffy streaks below, especially on the flanks and trousers. In fulvescens type greater spotted eagles, juveniles are like the pale adult but show the typical heavily spotted wings and tail of typical juveniles and often show some darker centers to the scapulars and median coverts. By the 2nd-3rd year, the plumage is often considerably worn but white tips still create sufficiently prominent wing bars (unlike in lesser spotted eagles) until the 2nd winter, when most coverts are then newly moulted and with smaller pale tips. In subsequent immatures, from about the middle of 3rd year on, the plumage is more adult like with a few indistinct spots left or none, but remiges are of unequal age and untidy looking.[4][24] The subadult is generally more uniform but often still shows some pale tips to the greater coverts.[4] Maturity is obtained by about the fifth year, though sometimes they may not breed until the sixth.[4][25] The bare parts change little in colour at different ages, with eyes being dark brown, while the cere and feet are yellow in all ages. This is a large, dark raptor in flight often looking bigger even than its true size, with well protruding head, quite long wings (which often look shorter due to their broadness), slightly bulging secondaries and rather squared seven-finger tips, although juveniles can look more rounded winged.[4] On the wing, greater spotted eagles appear heavy bodied, which often is suspended below wings and relatively short broad tail. Comparatively, they tend to have quick wing beats with little upstroke and appear to have comparatively lighter flight actions than steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis), but they appear somewhat more heavy, less graceful and less Buteo-like than lesser spotted eagles.[4] Greater spotted eagles soar on almost flat wings, with hand often slightly lowered and the primaries well spread. When gliding, the wings are bowed with a clear angle between arms and hands, emphasizing the short look of wings.[4]
On their upperwings, greater spotted eagles variably show a pale primary patch formed mainly by white based shafts and partially pale outer webs on all ages but these much smaller and less obvious on adults.[4] The underwing almost invariably has a single white crescent formed by white base of outermost three primaries, secondaries and innermost primaries with nine to eleven dense narrow dark bars fading toward wing tips, these visibly only at close range.[4] When seen in flight, the normal adult is uniformly blackish with a faint pale U above tail, barely paler wing coverts and paler quills. It is not unusual to have slightly paler wing linings (to contrary of literature) similar to lesser spotted eagles but only 1 not double whitish crescent at the base of primaries. In fulvescens/pale morph adults, most of the wing coverts on both surfaces and body are contrastingly buffy to tawny.[4][26] Juveniles on the wing normally appear very dark with liberal spotting both above and below, though some juveniles appear with spots restricted to wings, scapulars and trousers. All juveniles when seen well always show the characteristic white end spots on wing coverts forming two to three wing bars.[4] Otherwise, the juvenile has a creamy trailing edge to the wings and tail. Below juvenile greater spotted eagles have largely black (apart from the creamy crissum) wing linings contrasting with paler greyer-soot flight feathers. Other juvenile plumages are variably paler but with quills as those of a typical juvenile.[4] The birds that breed in the Ural-Volga area are slightly larger and more muted in plumage characteristics and slightly smaller sizes in the species seem to be prevalent farther west, i.e. Europe; there appears to be a near 5% size difference in favor of Indian wintering birds over Middle East ones.[27]
The greater spotted eagle is a medium-sized eagle and a large raptor.[7] Despite their similar plumages, this species shows strong sexual dimorphism in favour of the female. The size difference is up to 26% linearly and females not uncommonly can be as much as twice as heavy as the males, making them rival the martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) as perhaps the most sexual dimorphic member of the Aquilinae on average.[4][7] However, on the contrary, some of the largest male greater spotted eagles can overlap in most linear and mass measurements with smaller females.[24][28] Total length of full-grown greater spotted eagles can vary from 59 to 74 cm (23 to 29 in).[29][30] In wingspan, males have been reported to measure 155 to 177 cm (5 ft 1 in to 5 ft 10 in) while females can measure from 167 to 185 cm (5 ft 6 in to 6 ft 1 in).[29][31][32] One sample of males averaged 166.4 cm (5 ft 6 in) and of females averaged 174.7 cm (5 ft 9 in).[7] Body mass for males has been reported as ranging from 1,537 to 2,000 g (3.389 to 4.409 lb).[7][33] A sample of 3 males was found to average 1,733 g (3.821 lb), a sample of 8 males to average 1,689 g (3.724 lb), a sample of 4 to average 1,743 g (3.843 lb) while an unknown sample size averaged 1,702 g (3.752 lb).[7][34][28] Females have been found to range in body mass from 1,820 to 3,250 g (4.01 to 7.17 lb).[34][28] Four females were found to average 2,678 g (5.904 lb), 8 to average 2,419 g (5.333 lb), another 8 to average 2,264 g (4.991 lb) and an unknown sample size averaged 2,586 g (5.701 lb).[7][34][28] Among standard measurements, wing chord can range from 477 to 519 mm (18.8 to 20.4 in) in males and from 507 to 545 mm (20.0 to 21.5 in) in females.[4][33] In two samples males averaged 503 and 503.4 mm (19.80 and 19.82 in) in wing chord while females averaged 521.4 and 529 mm (20.53 and 20.83 in).[7][35] The shortish tail varies from 227 to 249 mm (8.9 to 9.8 in) in males and from 235 to 268 mm (9.3 to 10.6 in) in females.[4] The fairly long tarsus is from 97 to 105 mm (3.8 to 4.1 in) in males and from 96 to 112 mm (3.8 to 4.4 in) in females.[4][36] Reportedly, the culmen length can range from 32.5 to 39 mm (1.28 to 1.54 in).[37]
The greater spotted eagle is quite noisy when breeding and is often very vocal in winter, especially when in small loose flocks.[4] The commonest call is often heard during inner or intra species conflicts and is a soft, one-syllable, penetrating, high-pitched, urgent whistle variously transcribed as kyack, kluh, tyuck or dyip. The call is not unlike that of lesser spotted eagles but is slightly deeper and more ringing. However, their calls are higher pitched than steppe eagles and much higher pitched than those of the eastern imperial eagles, the latter having a guttural call somewhat reminiscent of a big frog.[4][7] Additionally, a not dissimilar agonistic three-syllable bark is seemingly used to warn off intruders at a feeding site, sometimes considered a harsh chrr-chrr-chaa-chaa, kyak-yak-yak and kyew-kyew-kyew. The cumulative effect of the repeated call is not unlike that of a "small hound" it is said.[7][33][38] As with many raptors, the female’s tone is lower pitched and hoarser.[7] One individual greater spotted eagle recorded over two days was found to utter an unusual ringing call that sounded remarkably similar to the first two syllables of the typical call of the crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela).[5]
Despite a fairly unique appearance, field identification of greater spotted eagle can be quite difficult.[39] Primarily this species is told from lesser spotted eagles by structure and proportions, though distant birds may be practically indistinguishable.[4][23] The adult compared to the lesser appears very broad winged, which in turn makes the head look relatively small though it is important to remember that greater spotted juveniles can appear less bulky looking, narrower and more rounded along the wing and longer-tailed making their proportions closer to the lesser.[4][23] Size can be clearly larger in the greater spotted eagle, with female greater spotted eagles effectively dwarfing most lesser spotted but there is a very broad size overlap between the two spotted eagle species, and in some cases male greater spotteds can be scarcely larger than even male lesser spotted eagles.[4][5] Side-by-side, it is fairly conspicuous how much darker a pure greater spotted eagle typically is than a lesser spotted eagles.[29][23] Greater spotted eagles, when compared to the lesser spotted eagles, are notable for their lack of nape patch, dark uppertail coverts, blackish-brown uniform arms, or uniform, dark upperwing coverts (not contrastingly rusty brownish).[23] Some intermediates are difficult to tell from young lesser spotted eagles, but can be told by the greater spotted eagles intermediate’s usually darker wing linings, morphology, differences in appearance of primary patch and carpal arc.[4] The juvenile usually lacks pale nape patch of the lesser spotted eagle, but it is sometimes present "albeit only slightly paler than rest of plumage and never ochre or orange".[40] Typically the spotting and barring pattern is much stronger in juvenile greater than in lesser spotted eagles but this is not always reliable.[23] Causing higher difficulty, the hybrids of the two spotted eagles often are often muddled and varied in appearance, some hybrids being much closer to one species or the other.[23] Pure greater spotted eagles can be told from pure lesser spotted eagles via in hand measurements such as bill height, width and extent of white spots on the juvenile and the length of middle toe.[41][42] The greater spotted eagle in the Indian subcontinent might be confused with Indian spotted eagles, more so greater spotteds in faded plumage.[5] The Indian species is smaller (of a size or slighter even than the lesser spotted eagle), somewhat narrower-winged and longer-tailed than the present species, with primary fingers more deeply cut and square ended. The Indian species has a more distinct pale window in primaries, paler and less distinctly streaked underparts, and paler upperparts (more like a steppe eagle in colour) with less distinct, more diffuse pale tips to the larger wing-coverts. Furthermore, the Indian spotted eagle has a notably deeper gape extending behind its eye.[5][29]
From non-spotted eagles of similar or of larger sizes, the greater spotted eagle tends to be fairly compact in features with proportionately broad (and short-looking) wings, a shortish tailed and an overall darker and distinct patterned plumage.[5] One rather similar eagle is the steppe eagle which is larger and bulkier than the greater spotted eagle. Compared to the steppe eagle, the greater spotted eagle has a shorter neck, smaller bill with a shorter gape line, no pale nape patch (seen in adult steppe), narrower and less baggy trousers, and generally much shorter, slightly broader wings. At a distance they can look quite alike, but in favourable light you may look for the steppe eagle's bolder, more extensively barring on the greyer flight feathers, complete lack of carpal arcs below, paler throat and above paler nape and larger but more diffuse primary patch.[4][29] Greater spotted eagles of the fulvescens and intermediate morphs resemble a large number of eagles, are separated by underwing colour and pattern such as their distinct carpal arc and thinly dark barred quills, from pale or intermediate morph of the similarly sized tawny eagle (Aquila rapax), which is usually less dark backed without the defused dark face and possessing more typical, less broad wing proportions. Juveniles of the eastern imperial eagle can resemble fulvescens greater spotted eagles but are larger and clearly structurally different. The imperial has much longer and narrower wings, a longer neck, a bigger, more prominent beak with an oblong (rather than oval) nail, a longer and narrower gape line, more conspicuous pale inner inner primaries, no carpal arc, a brown-streaked breast (though greater spotteds can show some diffuse marks), unmarked tarsal feathering, pale irides and obvious pale window on inner primaries.[4][43] Against the paler morph greater spotted eagles, beyond structural dissimilarities, subadult steppe eagles can be told by the thicker well-spotted quill bars and paler underwing diagonal.[4] In the eastern portion of range, can be told apart from the even darker black eagle via that eagle being much slimmer with paddle-shaped wings and long and clearly barred tail.[4]
This raptor is distributed primarily in the Palearctic and the Indomalayan regions.[4] Its breeding range in Central Europe and most of Southeastern Europe is highly restricted today to small pockets such as far eastern Poland with isolated pockets spilling over seldom into western Belarus as well as in far southwestern Ukraine, far southwestern Romania perhaps spilling over into northeastern Serbia and probably formerly in eastern Hungary.[1][19][44] A more continuous breeding range begins in Eastern Europe including eastern Estonia, eastern Latvia, eastern Lithuania, Belarus from the central region broadly to the east and much of eastern Ukraine.[1] A questionable number of breeding birds spill over into far eastern Finland.[45] They are found quite broadly almost throughout European Russia where habitat is favorable up through much of Arkhangelsk Oblast to as far as the lower coasts of the White Sea. They are found across much of Central Russia, rarely far to the north, but can range to their probable northern limits as breeders in Shuryshkarsky and Pitkyarantsky. They are also found in a broad strip across southern Siberia reaching in Russia well into the Amur region.[1][33][46] Their range out of Russia includes much of northern Kazakhstan with isolated breeding areas known in the East Kazakhstan Region and in southern Kazakhstan. Greater spotted eagles will also breed in a broad but generally isolated area from Kyrgyzstan and adjacent areas of Russia down to as far Xinjiang in China.[1][46][47] Greater spotted eagles at times have been known to breed in the Indian subcontinent, reportedly Gujarat northwards to Punjab and even recorded breeding as far south as Saurashtra, (unsuccessfully) in Keoladeo National Park and as far as northern Maharashtra. However, this may have only been historically and almost certainly there is not a stable breeding population today.[5][48][49][50] They are also distributed as breeders in northern Mongolia, rather far Northeastern China and northern North Korea.[1]
Greater spotted eagles may disperse widely during migration, usually by about October (or sometimes September) on through November as well as February to April in spring, being found more broadly in distribution than during breeding or wintering.[1][5][19] While migrating, greater spotted eagles may be seen in much of Eastern Europe, Anatolia and almost throughout the Middle East, Central Asia (from Kazakhstan south) and western South Asia.[1][19][51][52] This species is prone to vagrancy, which has been reported in several countries in Europe including the Netherlands, Great Britain, Gibraltar and the Czech Republic.[53][54][55][56] They are sometimes documented in central and east Afghanistan.[57] Its regular breeding range no longer extends as far westwards as Germany but birds are still occasionally seen there with a few records per decade. Even young birds disperse widely; the Staatliches Museum für Tierkunde Dresden has a specimen (C 21845) shot in November 1914 near Bernsdorf in Saxony. It is a juvenile, and though its exact age cannot be determined it is heavily spotted and probably less than 20 months old.[58] Additionally, vagrancy has been reported in several nations of Africa including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Cameroon, Chad, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Botswana.[19][59][60][61][62] They also may distribute in East Asia across the southern part of the Russian Far East, eastern China and discontinuously in Southeast Asia from Myanmar and Thailand down through the Malay Peninsula.[1][63] Occasionally, a greater spotted eagle may be documented even in Indonesia (i.e. Sumatra).[64]
Dedicated wintering areas tend to be more limited and isolated than where the species is seen in migration.[1] The central wintering areas for the species are principally the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Indomalayan realm.[5][65][66] Small pockets may exist in southwestern Spain and bordering Portugal, South France, northeastern Italy, western Greece (where sometimes even considered the most common wintering eagle), small areas of southern Bulgaria, eastern Romania and southern Moldova.[1][19][67][68][69][70] Other wintering areas including northeastern Egypt, southern Sudan and adjacent South Sudan, north-central Ethiopia, scattered areas of the Middle East including northern Israel, Kuwait and central Syria.[1][19][71][72] More continuously they are found through much of the southern coastal Arabian Peninsula, including broadly along the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia coast as well as west and southern Yemen, southern Oman, coastal United Arab Emirates and eastern Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, they winter in southeastern Turkey, Azerbaijan, southeastern Georgia, rather eastern Iraq, broadly in western, northern and eastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, western Afghanistan and far western Pakistan.[1][73][74][75][76] They are also found discontinuously in eastern Pakistan, northern India, Bangladesh, southern Bhutan into northwestern Myanmar. In India, the winter range is through Indo-Gangetic Plain to Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal to Assam (including the North Cachar hills) and northeastern hill states extending south through central India. They were once reasonably common in the Malabar and Carnatic coasts but likely only back over a hundred years ago.[5][14][77][78] After another gap, they are found in much of southern and central Myanmar, central and southern Thailand, southern Laos, the northern tip of Vietnam, discontinuously in southeastern Vietnam and much of Cambodia and southern coastal Malaysia.[1][79][80][81][82] In China wintering greater spotted eagles range from Jiangsu and Anhui continuously down to northern Guangdong across to Taiwan, as well as seldom in Korea.[1][83][84]
The greater spotted eagle is found in open wet forests and forest edge, often adjoining marshy, swampy patches, bogs or wet meadows, as well as quite often river-valley woodland and floodplain forests.[4] They generally show rather greater attachment to wetlands than lesser spotted eagle, even where there is more human activity but can be found in drier hillside forest in Central Asia.[4] The differences in habitat preferences between the species was confirmed in northeastern Poland where the wooded areas nested in by the greater spotted eagles were in floodplains with considerably more annual flooding than those used by lesser spotted eagle.[85] Although typically scarce while breeding in areas modified by heavy human development, they have been seen to hunt over cultivated land in Estonia and also it is seen migrating over lowland farms typically in the Czech Republic.[4][56] Predominantly in Russia, it is found at the intersection points of taiga forest and open steppe often coincide around river valleys as well as pine forests, nearly dwarf forest, in wet, wooded areas of the steppe, and in forested swamps.[46] In Kazakhstan, riparian forests in lowland steppes and forest-steppes mosaics are thought to be the primary habitat they use.[47] In winter, much like during breeding, they usually occur in wetter habitats than most other eagles, including river deltas with some trees, mangroves, marshes, lakeshores and in India especially jheels.[4] However, greater spotted eagles have been documented in semi-arid Acacia savanna in northeastern Africa.[4] Reportedly in Eritrea, they occurred in open moorland, around villages and lowland grasslands while in Sudan were reportedly usually in shrubby areas.[86][87] One seen wintering in Ankara in Turkey was in an upland forest area.[88] In the Mediterranean Basin, a study found that the most preferred habitats by far of wintering greater spotted eagles were salt marshes and coastal lagoons with freshwater areas and upland areas much more supplemental.[66] They are not uncommon in paddy fields and sometimes garbage dumps in Asia during winter, being much more adaptable to human-modified areas in this season, though by and large prefer assorted wetlands and mudflats, large rivers, estuaries and mangroves.[29][14][82][89] In Arabia, they are largely found now in manmade habitats, such as sewage farms, reservoirs and irrigated cultivation since the native mangrove and Phragmites reed-beds that once lined the coastal bays and supported the greater spotted eagles was almost entirely eliminated (all habitats used by the late 2000s were created or altered subsequent to 1990).[90] In southern Iran, they are usually found in mangrove areas.[91] Key habitat in Iraq is the Mesopotamian Marshes.[92] Wintering habitats in Israel are the wettest available valleys and damp open zones, chiefly cultivated fields and fish ponds near patches of trees, mainly Eucalyptus with similar habitats used in Oman.[73][90] Greater spotted eagles are typically found from sea level to 100 m (330 ft), mostly below 300 m (980 ft) and are characteristically a lowland bird. However, greater spotted eagle may hunt up to 1,700 m (5,600 ft), and in passage recorded to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) or more in Nepal and 4,000 m (13,000 ft) or more in northern Iran.[4] One greater spotted eagle was recorded on migration recorded to at least 4,370 m (14,340 ft) in Ladakh in the Himalayas.[29]
Greater spotted eagles are almost entirely migratory birds. However, it is not usually considered a long-distance migrant compared to other birds of prey.[93] They commence movements by late August or any point in September, with peaks of migration usually falling some time in October. Autumn migration can last more erratically throughout November as well. The return spring flight is quite early, sometimes right around February, with a typical peak of March and into the end of April, seldom to early May.[4][19][56][94] However, migration has been documented well into May, even late into the month, in Bosphorus in Turkey.[95][96] Migration may peak earlier on average farther east, such as in Bhutan, where they often passing in largest numbers by late February.[97][98][99] During migration, they migrate later (by around 2 weeks) than lesser spotted eagles and return earlier than that species as well, with far fewer numbers of the greater than the lesser spotted eagles at nearly all migration sites.[7][29][100] Migratory greater spotted eagles breeding in Europe may move from short to long distances including to southern France, especially Camargue, some down to Spain, Italy and points eastward, sometimes also Sweden. Western breeding birds also regularly wind up in North Africa, with a few in Morocco, maybe Egypt, the Nile Valley and Sudan, some into Ethiopia and points south. Birds from various origin sites may wind up in the Middle East (mainly Arabia), South Asia (from Pakistan, most often Punjab and Sind, mostly northern India and Nepal), east to Indochina, Malay Peninsula and south and east China.[4] Predominantly, migrating greater spotted eagles on an East European track migrate to the Middle East or Northeast Africa, while other migrate through the Carpathian Mountains to the Balkan Peninsula and thirdly through Central Europe and Western Europe to Southwestern Europe.[93] The main wintering sites of the Asian populations are located in the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Subcontinent, the Indochina Peninsula and East China.[93] During migration, greater spotted eagles commonly cover around 150 km (93 mi) per day but can cover up to 350 km (220 mi) within a day.[101][102] The flight speeds of migrating eagles of the species was documented as 26.6 to 45.5 km/h (16.5 to 28.3 mph) in the Baikal region, with peak movements times from noon to 6:00 PM.[103]
There’s limited information on discrepancies in how different ages and sexes migrate but in Malaysia, immatures outnumbered adults six to one.[104] At Lake Baikal, 96% of migrating greater spotted eagles were observed to be adults, a concerning imbalance per researchers.[103] It is said that lesser numbers are generally recorded in spring migration compared to autumn passage.[7] Generally migrants of the species move on broad fronts in singles or pairs, large groups considered as up to 10 in northbound over Bhutan in late February. Greater spotted eagles tend to be scarce at traditional migratory bottlenecks such as Bosphorus and the straits of the Red Sea.[4][95] Old claims of as many as a thousand migrating eagles in the fall at Bosphorus are possibly erroneous (although there’s possibly been a reduction of up to 75% from what was once the peak migrating numbers).[7] In South Baikal in Irkutsk Oblast within Russia, greater spotted eagles accounted for only 0.2% (7-34 individuals annually; 137 individuals over 8 years) of the observed migrating raptors in autumn migration.[103] The largest (modern?) counts have been found to be 86 and 74 at Suez in Egypt in autumn and spring, respectively, with smaller numbers recorded crossing into Africa at Bab-el-Mandeb, although a maximum of 85 has been recorded in northern Israel in autumn.[94] An adult captured near Mecca in western Saudi Arabia in late October was radiotracked 850 km (530 mi) to Yemen, where it spent from late November-early February, before returning 5,526 km (3,434 mi) via southern Iraq, across the Iranian highlands, skirting the south edge of the Aral Sea back finally to the Siberian breeding area near Omsk, covering 4,516 km (2,806 mi) of return journey in less than a month.[4] Satellite tracking has of an Estonian breeding bird confirmed it consistently used the same wintering ground in coastal Catalonia, eastern Spain, over 7 consecutive years.[94] Despite some individual devotedness to wintering grounds, one radiotracked individual initially trapped in the United Arab Emirates was found to go to Pakistan instead the following winter from its Kazakh breeding grounds, showing some variability in this regard.[105] A wintering greater spotted eagle in southwest Saudi Arabia (from a Western Siberia breeding area) was found to utilize an average home range in winter of 65 km2 (25 sq mi), which contracted 24% before it migrated in the spring, taking from late February to late April to complete its over 5,500 km (3,400 mi).[106] The southernmost record of the greater spotted eagle ever was one that traveled 9,270 km (5,760 mi) from the Polish Biebrza National Park to Zambia in southern Africa.[107] Several other purportedly greater spotted eagles were tracked to several areas of Africa but nearly half were actually hybrids with lesser spotted eagles and were migrating in more typical fashion and location to that species.[102] Improbably, at least seven records show immature greater spotted eagles staying through the summer in Saudi Arabia.[96] Similarly, records show lingering numbers of this species in at least May in Peninsular Malaysia.[82]
This species hunts mainly on the wing, quartering over relatively open ground a bit like a harrier or soaring high above, dropping or diving steeply when prey is spotted.[4][5] Brown & Amadon describe the hunting greater spotted eagle as "Although not a very active species it is not exactly sluggish, and on the wing it has the look of a true eagle".[7] Greater spotted eagles will scatter waterfowl by stooping low over their flock, then selecting isolated individuals for attack.[4] Sometimes the greater spotted eagle still-hunts from a perch, a method more commonly employed by other eagles of similar distribution, and often hunts on foot as well. It mostly takes prey on ground or on the water.[4][5] Also some kleptoparasitic attacks are carried out on other birds of prey.[4] Although scavenging for carrion seems to occur almost aseasonally, it is likely rather more prevalent during non-breeding times, with mostly fresh prey brought to greater spotted eagle nests.[6][5] Greater spotted eagles are attracted often to grass fires and swarming locusts, often along with other predators such as steppe eagles, during non-breeding times.[4] During the breeding season in Biebrza National Park in Poland, hunting behaviours were studied. It was found that the peak flying and hunting times were 10:00 AM to 2:00 PM, with the eagles rarely flying before 9:00 AM and often in repose from 2:00 to 4:00 PM. Prey deliveries may have been more varied when involving the male, the main food provider, than later into the season when the female resumed hunting. In Biebrza, hunting territories defended from conspecifics as well as lesser spotted eagles and other large birds of prey. Per the Biebrza data, the hunting success was 34% for the male up to mid-July after which success declined to 20%.[108] The hunting success rates of greater spotted eagles seems to rather high, as aforementioned 34% for much of the breeding season, which is much higher at comparable times than golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), which has a hunting success rate of around 20%, lesser spotted eagles with a success rate of 24% and somewhat higher than Bonelli's eagles (Aquila fasciata), at a 28.5% hunting success rate.[109] Pellets are considered the most reliable way to determine greater spotted eagle foods as prey remains alone can be biased towards birds.[29]
The greater spotted eagle is a slightly opportunistic predator but tends to favor rather particular prey types.[5] The diet tends to be composed mostly of small mammals.[4] There is some dietary similarity to the better-known lesser spotted eagle but the greater spotted includes more birds in foods and favors larger prey.[4] Beyond mammals and birds, the greater spotted eagle will sometimes prey on amphibians, reptiles (mainly small-to-mid-sized snakes) and occasionally small fish and insects.[4][24] As can be expected by their habitat preferences, they tend to focus on vertebrates that are associated with water.[4][19] Generally its prey spectrum is somewhat diverse, at slightly fewer than 150 known prey species, more diverse than the known diet of steppe eagles, similar in diversity to that of the lesser spotted eagle but possibly about half as diverse of the diet of the eastern imperial eagle.[6][5][110][111] It is sometimes stated that they tend to take prey mostly up to only 250 g (8.8 oz).[4] This was backed this up via estimations from another source that around 22% of the diet will weigh 63 g (2.2 oz) or less, 37% of diet will weigh 63 to 125 g (2.2 to 4.4 oz) and around 30% will weigh 125 to 250 g (4.4 to 8.8 oz) and that generally most prey will weigh under 1,000 g (2.2 lb). Based on this source, the mean estimated prey size for the greater spotted eagle may fall around approximately 157 g (5.5 oz).[9] A large food study from Belarus found that 41.9% of prey had a body mass of 51 to 200 g (1.8 to 7.1 oz) and 38.3% was made by prey estimated at 11 to 50 g (0.39 to 1.76 oz); however, the primary source of prey biomass was from prey weighing 601 to 1,200 g (1.325 to 2.646 lb) at 34% of the biomass and prey weighing over 1,200 g (2.6 lb) made up 16% of the biomass.[110] The mean estimated size of male prey deliveries in an Estonian study was merely 57.8 g (2.04 oz).[112] This is as opposed to study from Belarus where the mean estimated size of prey deliveries by males was 161.2 g (5.69 oz).[110] The mean prey sizes are roughly similar to those of larger steppe eagles and somewhat higher than those of lesser spotted eagles, which tended to heavily focus on prey weighing under 63 g (2.2 oz) weight range of prey (around 60% of diet), however most Aquila eagles tended to take prey typically that were slightly to considerably higher in weight than the prey typical of greater spotted eagles.[9] However, sometimes the greater spotted eagle is credited with successful attacks on large prey.[5][19]
In the largest known food study for greater spotted eagle the diet was studied in 3 different habitats in Belarusian Polesia, from natural to mixed to modified habitats. 797 prey items were identified total, but often not to species. Many, surprisingly, were unidentified invertebrates which made up 15.8%, with beetles (also unidentified to species) being a further 14.9%. Assorted Microtus voles were important in Polesia, namely the common (Microtus arvalis), tundra (Microtus oeconomus) and East European voles (Microtus mystacinus) made up collectively 23.4% of the diet by number. Other significant prey were European water vole (Arvicola terrestris) at 8.9%, common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) at 4.1%, mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) at 3.3%, water rail (Rallus aquaticus) 3.1%, unidentified small passerines 2.9%, spotted crakes (Porzana porzana) 2.6% and grass snakes (Natrix natrix) 2.3%. Significant in biomass but less so to numbers were the northern white-breasted hedgehog (Erinaceus roumanicus), European mole (Talpa europaea), Anas dabbling ducks, grey herons (Ardea cinerea), Eurasian bitterns (Botaurus stellaris) and black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), with very small numbers of very large birds being taken. Bird prey in Polesia made up 68% of the diet, mammals 25.3%, reptiles 3.4%, fish 3% and amphibians 0.3%.[110] Of 102 prey items in the Belarusian Smolenskoye Poozerye National Park, 38.2% were European water voles, 7.8% were European moles, 5.9% each Sorex shrews, Microtus voles, and unidentified passerine species and 8.7% were common frogs.[113] At a nest in Estonia, of 105 visually identified prey items, Microtus species and further unidentified rodents comprised some 63% by number, however they made up only 28% by biomass, while birds formed only 19% numerically but 56% of biomass.45% of avian prey species were medium-sized, e.g. hazel grouse (Bonasa bonasia), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and hooded crow (Corvus cornix).[112] Other European studies have been largely confined to wintering greater spotted eagles. In the Amvrakikos Wetlands of Greece, 95 prey items were determined, being composed almost exclusively of water birds. The main prey here were common teal (Anas crecca) (17.9% by number, 15.9% by biomass), common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) (16.8% by number, 14.9% by biomass), Eurasian wigeon (Anas penelope ) (11.6% in number, 27.4% in biomass), unidentified Anas ducks (5.3%, 7.8% in biomass), Eurasian coot (Fulica atra) (4.2% by number, 8.7% by biomass) and little egret (Egretta garzetta) (3.2% by number, 4.7% biomass), with a smallish contribution by ground beetles, passerines and snakes.[114] Over 8 years of study in Natural Park of El Fondo in the Spanish Province of Alicante almost entirely large prey was taken here, i.e. few to none small rodents such as voles. Among the 100 prey items found, the main prey were common moorhen (23.1% by number, 15.2% in biomass), common teal (8.97% by number, 6.44% by biomass) and black rat (Rattus rattus) (7.69% by number, 3.01% by biomass), with unidentified Rattus making up 7.69% by number, 2.76% by biomass. Other notable regular prey here were black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus), Eurasian coots and northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), while large prey, making up much of the biomass were common carp (Cyprinus carpio) at 18.9% of biomass, grey heron at 11.7% of biomass and European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) at 9% of the biomass.[115]
In nests in Western Russia, a mean total of 53% of the diet was small mammals and 45% was birds.[112] The diet upon study in the Leningrad region was led by European water vole at nearly 51% of 79 prey items followed by introduced muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) at 13.9% of diet and common teal 3.8% of diet, with 20.2% of diet made up of by frogs, most probably common (Rana arvalis) but also some moor frogs (Rana temporaria).[116] 322 non-carrion prey items were found for greater spotted eagles in the Belaya River, 59% of which were mammals. The diet was largely European water vole at 32.6%, followed by smaller voles and mice. It was found that the Belaya eagles ate a large balances of reptile prey, which were found to comprise 19.5% of the diet. 15% of all vertebrate prey, in fact, was European adders (Vipera berus), adders and grass snakes being the primary reptile prey. The greater spotted eagle took average sized snakes and were not seen to prey on small snakes, nor to take many particularly large snakes, usually with the snake sizes estimated at up to 40 to 45 cm (16 to 18 in) long, occasionally 60 cm (24 in) or more. The eagles in Belaya are often seen grasping snakes about the head. In Belaya, only 6.5% of the diet was birds and they were mainly significant only in the Oka Nature Reserve and the eagles of the region occasionally partook in carrion feeding, including moose (Alces alces) carcasses.[117] In a compilation study from the Volga region, Ural Mountains and Western Siberia, 74.7% of the diet was mammalian in 482 prey items in the regions. The main prey species was the European water vole at an average of 32.4% of diet (28.1-36.8%), followed by common vole at avg 11.4% (0-17%), tundra vole at 6.2% (1.9-16.9%), birds comprised about 16% of diet, most importantly Eurasian coots and Podiceps grebes, followed by rooks (Corvus frugilegus).[6] In the Tyva Republic, more terrestrial, upland hunting can be projected since the Daurian pika (Ochotona dauurica) was reportedly the main prey for greater spotted eagles. Similarly, in Khakassia, the greater spotted eagle were said to hunt mostly the long-tailed ground squirrel (Spermophilus undulatus), the only area known where ground squirrels were said to be preferred over voles in breeding areas for these eagles.[118]
The diet is generally more erratically known in non-European wintering areas, while, like many other raptors of similar region, migrating greater spotted eagles typically fast until they reach their wintering terminus point.[7][5] The most well-studied Asian wintering population of the species in terms of dietary behaviour is likely in Bharatpur in India, particularly in Keoladeo National Park. It was found that the greater spotted eagles here occupied a greater range of habitat than other spotted and Aquila eagle. Winter numbers are up to 30 for this species, with them recorded to exploit the full 9 km (5.6 mi) length of the local marshland, their numbers peaking in November and December and then diminishing after January. Here greater spotted eagles are non-territorial and free ranging. Like most other wintering migrant raptors here, the greater spotted eagle becomes a highly opportunistic feeder that shows a preference for easily attainable foods, akin to the milvine kites they often overlap with in the winter quarters. The greater spotted eagles regularly come down to carrion, pirate food from other birds, feed on stranded fish and, perhaps most regularly, hunting and taking young herons, storks and other water birds from heronries. When regularly hunting around them, the greater spotted eagles often approach the heronry in a hover, creating tumult throughout the heronry, as the heronry settles they often suddenly drop onto singled out nest, the eagle defeathers the squab (nestling water bird) on the nest itself and commences feeding. The Bharatpur greater spotted eagles tend to shows a slight preference for slow moving prey, but also takes fast flying birds like waders and ducks and often tests flocks of coots with low flights over water and continually "buzzing" the birds until an opportunity presents itself via an individual isolated. Often perches extensively on a favorite lookout post with Acacia nilotica favored in Bharatpur. Some possible nighttime hunting has been inferred for greater spotteds in Bharatpur but they typically hunt by day. During inclement weather in Bharatpur, the eagles may pause hunting. As many as 7-10 greater spotted eagles are attracted by a conspecific’s heronry kill and subsequently often jostle each other. Often this results in the eagle’s accidentally drop the kill into the water, though those dropped onto dry ground frequently become food for wild boars (Sus scrofa) and golden jackals (Canis aureus). In one case, two adult greater spotted eagles and a single immature eastern imperial eagle destroyed at least 30 water bird nests in a single day. Out of 79 hours of observation on greater spotted eagles, 49% of the time was spent foraging, increasing to 72% by March due to scarcer foods. Meanwhile, they spent 26.4% of observed time resting and 20.6% of the time soaring, with soaring rising to 35% in February. The greater spotted eagles consumed a daily mean of 240 g (8.5 oz) per day, with most foods nourishing them over several days, and they reportedly hunted the most diverse prey range of any raptor of the region.[5][119][120][121][122] In the general Indian subcontinent, greater spotted eagles are known to freely scavenge carrion, as well as to feed on small wetland dwellers such as frogs, especially Indus valley bullfrogs (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus), and chameleons and Calotes lizards on land nearby. A general aptitude in the region has been reported for avian prey, largely larger rails such as moorhens, Eurasian coots and gray-headed swamphens (Porphyrio poliocephalus), as well as waterfowl and (mostly young) storks, herons and egrets; however upland birds such as rufous treepies (Dendrocitta vagabunda), Eurasian collared doves (Streptopelia decaocto) and Indian rollers (Coracias benghalensis) seem to be in the spectrum there too. Though rare at large carrion, greater spotted eagles in the Indian subcontinent seem to be attracted to terrapins maimed or partially eaten by Pallas's fish eagles (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), Egyptian (Neophron percnopterus) and red-headed vultures (Sarcogyps calvus). The Indian wintering eagles do not appear to shun hunting terrestrial creatures and have been seen to hunting also snakes, rodents and other small mammals in the region.[5][29][123]
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Ancedotal evidence of the diet of wintering greater spotted eagles was attained in the central plains of Thailand. Here they were seen to eat dead fish in drained ponds as well as to actively hunt and to pirate food from other raptors. They were seen to prey on domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) that became separated from their large farm flocks as well as to feed on dead lesser whistling ducks (Dendrocygna javanica) found to be killed by poisons meant to kill off snails.[80] One farther prey species reported to be likely highly important to this region’s greater spotted eagles is the ricefield rat (Rattus argentiventer).[4][29] Despite not being an eagle considered to show an aptitude for attacking large or varied prey, sometimes greater spotted eagles seem to be capable of taking very varied and sometimes substantially sized prey.[5][9][108] It has been detected that small invertebrates may be taken at times, including ground beetles, locusts and non-native red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).[110][115] The greater spotted eagle takes a range of birds ranging down to the size of the 18.4 g (0.65 oz) common reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus). They can take fairly large water birds up to the size of grey herons, mallards, fledgling painted storks (Mycteria leucocephala), Asian openbills and greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) as well as some cormorants and flamingoes. Most such water bird prey may weigh somewhere between 1,200 and 3,000 g (2.6 and 6.6 lb).[5][28][110][115][124] Sometimes the greater spotted eagle will attack or feed on cranes, although they not infrequently scavenge these as well. Many attacks attempted against cranes are reportedly unsuccessful against these tough prey. Likely cases of predation on adult common cranes (Grus grus) have been reported while one a demoiselle crane (Grus virgo) was unsuccessful while they were considered a potential threat possibly to the young of red-crowned cranes (Grus japonica). In some cases, they may taking cranes weighing up to some 5,000 g (11 lb).[110][125][126] Outside of avian prey, less varied prey is known to be taken of other taxa, though mammals have been taken ranging from Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) and common shrew (Sorex araneus), weighing no more than 8 g (0.28 oz) up to the size of a nearly grown European hare (Lepus europaeus), potentially weighing up to 3,000 g (6.6 lb). Sometimes greater spotted eagles may prey upon around a half dozen species of mustelid mostly assorted weasels and stoats but also including larger species such as minks and martens.[108][110][127][128]
Greater spotted eagles often overlap broadly with a number of similar eagle species in both its breeding and wintering haunts.[4][24] Although they are most obviously similar in dietary biology to the lesser spotted eagles, in the larger portion of their breeding range, the greater spotted eagles are allopatric from the lesser spotted.[41] Where they do overlap, the greater spotted eagle has a somewhat similar diet to that of the lesser spotted eagles but tends to focus more so water-friendly species and to take relatively more birds, whereas the lesser spotted eagle often focuses variously on voles, small snakes such as grass snakes and frogs.[129] Expectedly from its prey, the lesser spotted eagle tends to nest in slightly drier environments, usually somewhat away from wetlands and floodplains, adapting rather more readily to patchwork areas where human development has occurred.[8][85][130] More similar in central distribution are larger eagles such as the eastern imperial eagle and steppe eagle.[4][7]
Furthermore, these species undertake roughly similar migratory routes, though the steppe is clearly the most populous and regular migrant (in spite of its extreme decline), appearing in numbers from Africa to South Asia, while the greater spotted and eastern imperial eagles are regular to as far west as the Middle East and appear scarcely to rarely in Africa.[131][132][133] The greater spotted eagles is clearly partitioned, however, from the other eagles in its favoring of wet and partial wooded habitats and liking for animals that dwell in them as prey. The eastern imperial eagle also nests in woods but usually in rather upland areas and favors both social and solitary terrestrial mammals and birds, including hares, hamsters, ground squirrels and hedgehogs as well as pheasants, corvids and other mid-sized birds.[134][135] Meanwhile, the steppe eagle favours typically rather dry and very open habitats in the steppe, usually nesting on a rise or outcrop in the flat, sparse habitat, and much favours ground squirrels, supplemented by other rather small terrestrial species such as pikas, voles and zokors.[136][137] Usually habitat keeps these eagles rather separated from the greater spotted eagle while nesting, however in some winter quarters such as India, the Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East, considerable convergence occurs.[5][119][124][138]
All three eagles are well established to be rather unpicky opportunists and scavengers during winter, freely coming to human refuse, though favoring livestock carcass dumps, scavenging unclaimed carrion, robbing other birds of prey of their catches, killing the young of prey such as water birds, finding insect swarms or emergences (though more so the steppe than the others) and following grass fires. Of these three, the steppe tends to be least actively predatory in winter typically, the imperial the most likely to continue to live-hunt (and perch most extensively) and the greater spotted eagle somewhere in the intermediate behavioral zone. The greater spotted is the least likely of the three to visit carrion or carcass dumps but in the Indian subcontinent, they all heavily share food sources such as nestling water birds.[4][5][119][120] When conflicts arise, the body size of eagle imparts its position in the hierarchy, with the eastern imperial eagle dominant, followed by the steppe eagle while the greater spotted eagle is somewhat subservient to both. The three eagles were well studied in Bharatpur, where they competed against the shorter distance migrant, the Pallas's fish eagle, which vied with the imperial eagles for the dominant raptor position while all the larger eagles dominated the smaller competing resident Indian spotted eagles.[120] A non-eagle raptor often associated with wintering greater spotted eagles, attracted to similar feeding opportunities, is the black kite (Milvus migrans).[139]
While scavenging, the greater spotted eagles tend not to come to carrion if Old World vultures are present.[5] The greater spotted eagles is an accomplished pirate during the winter season. They often rob a variety of other raptors including black kites (Milvus migrans), ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), western (Circus aeruginosus) and eastern marsh harriers (Circus spilonotus) and even other eagles including larger species like white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) and steppe eagles. Despite their typically inferior position to them, the greater spotted eagle was observed to often successfully displaced the steppe eagle in Bharatpur from disputed food, with the steppes being more tractable when gorged. They tend to rob the other raptor aerially when the victim is trying to take initial flight with the prey, taking advantage of the other bird’s attempt to balance itself, during which they yank away the prey and escape fairly rapidly.[5][80][119][123][140]
More infrequently, greater spotted eagles will exploit other raptors as prey. Some species they been known to prey have including black kites, booted eagles (Hieraeetus pennatus), western marsh harriers and common buzzards (Buteo buteo) as well as some owls like long-eared (Asio otus) and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus). Additionally, they were considered a potential predator of small nestlings of the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus).[5][110][115][141] The greater spotted eagles themselves have few well documented predators.[7] While this is probably due in part to scant research, usually as a quite large and powerful bird of prey, it usually fulfills the role of an apex predator.[24][127] However, one well documented predator of likely any aged greater spotted eagles is the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo).[142][143] Furthermore, European pine martens are known to feed on nestlings of greater spotted eagles.[108]
Often the greater spotted eagle occurs in pairs or solitary, but in winter sometimes occurs in small to large flocks, especially around attractive food source.[4] The species is often seen singly seen in migration, though sometimes in twos or threes or more.[4]
The display of this eagle on territory is not well known but includes single or mutual high circling, soaring high and the male diving down on half-closed wings towards the female, all with much calling.[4] Territories can be from 15 to 30 km2 (5.8 to 11.6 sq mi) in ideal regions, usually within the confines of a protected area, though are much larger elsewhere.[29]
In the past, it has been reported that greater spotted eagle nests have been found as close as 100 m (330 ft) from each other and in one case 4 pairs nested in an area of merely 0.6 km2 (0.23 sq mi), a more typical range may be in the zone of 40 to 52 km2 (15 to 20 sq mi).[7] The density of greater spotted eagles was 4.76 (per confirmed numbers) to 6.15 (per projections based on available habitat) breeding pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) of forested area in the Volga-Ural region while in the Western Siberia region, it was 6.55 to 8.76 breeding pairs in the metric estimates on 100 km2 (39 sq mi).[6] The highest density though was in Volga-Ural area, with up to 3.58-17.01 pairs where the locally preferred habitat (flooded alders) was available. The mean distance between nests in the Volga-Ural area was 7.3 km2 (2.8 sq mi).[6] In the Ishim River basin of Kazakhstan there are about 0.54 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), while in the Kazakh Irtysh pine forests there was a density of 1.08 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in internal edges of pine forests and a much higher density of 13.23 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) of edges of forests along lakes and bogs in the Irtysh basin.
However, the possible highest density of pairs in Kazakhstan is possibly the region of the Ishim River, holding perhaps 39% of the nation’s breeding pairs.[144] Based on wintering greater spotted eagles in Spain, a wintertime territory may be similar or slightly smaller, at around 27.2 km2 (10.5 sq mi).[145] Furthermore, in well suited Russian habitats, nests were said (at least historically) to be found every 1.6 km (0.99 mi) of riverside, with fairly consistent pair reuse in following years.[7] This species breeds from late April to August in much of its range.[4] However, when breeding in Pakistan and elsewhere in the Indian subcontinent, they may do so in different reports from November to March, sometimes further into June to July, indicating an inconsistent nesting schedule there.[4][5]
The species builds a large stick nest which may measure about 70 to 110 cm (28 to 43 in) across and be up to 100 cm (39 in) deep.[4] Apparently nests appeared significantly smaller in the Indian subcontinent than in their more typical northerly nesting haunts, at around 60 cm (24 in) across, shorter than the eagle’s own total length, and merely around 5 to 15 cm (2.0 to 5.9 in) deep.[5]
The nests built by this species tend to have some particular features.[6] Namely, the species tends to utilize fresh branches with foliage or green needles (where nesting in conifer predominated forests) still attached for their nest sticks (most other acciptrids prefer sparse or leafless branches while building nests).[6] Nests are lined with green leaves, pine needles and grass, as is common in accipitrids, and they may be added continuously throughout the breeding cycle.[4][7] The nest is normally located in a tree usually in the main fork, a large lateral branch or even the top of typically large broadleaf trees just inside forests.[4][6]
Russian compilation studies reflect that about 68.7% of found greater spotted eagle nests were on deciduous trees with the remaining balance in coniferous trees.[6] In the Russian Nizhny Novgorod region nests were typically located on birches (10 out of 11 that were found) and one on a black alder (Alnus glutinosa).[146] In Poland, birch such as downy birch (Betula pubescens) appear popular in use.[108] In the Volga-Ural area, alder forests were preferred, with 71.4% of pairs with found active nests using it, while in Western Siberia they prefer pine forests, 55.9% of the time.[6] Within the Altai-Sayan region, preferred nest trees were birch (50% of the time) and larch trees (31.25% of the time).[118] Acacia arabica and Mangifera indica were reportedly used in Pakistan, and Mitragyna parvifolia in India, and were reportedly sometimes even on agricultural land.[5][29]
In essentially every Russian study, nests were almost invariably in floodplain forests.[6][118][146] Nesting sites in the Volga-Ural area averaged 510.7 m (1,676 ft) from the nearest forest edge, but were often in the densest part of the forest stands.[147] The nest can be 5 to 25 m (16 to 82 ft) above the ground or water, though usually 8 to 12 m (26 to 39 ft).[4] In Nizhny Novgorod, nest heights were from 7 to 14 m (23 to 46 ft) above the ground [146] From a sample of 83, in the Volga-Ural area, the average nest height was 9.58 m (31.4 ft) while in Western Siberia it was 7.22 m (23.7 ft), ranging variously from 3 to 20 m (9.8 to 65.6 ft), nest sites appearing lower in the more conifer based Western Siberia area.[6] Nest heights were lower still at a mean of 6.5 m (21 ft) in the Altai-Sayan region.[118]
Rarely, nests are recorded in treeless regions in shrubs, for instance in a Western Siberian steppe on a Salix shrub at just under 3 m (9.8 ft) above the ground.[4] A nest in Altai-Sayan was reportedly only 2 m (6.6 ft) above the ground.[118] Even more rarely, nests have been reportedly located on the ground.[29] At times, they may use the nests of other birds, most likely other birds of prey but even a Eurasian magpie (Pica pica) nest was reportedly once used.[29][148]
In Russia, they reportedly seldom lay eggs until May, but sometimes as early as late April, with similar if mildly earlier laying times farther west.[7][29] The clutch size is typically two though sometimes the nest contains one to three eggs.[4][7] The eggs are broad ovals that are grayish white in colour and tend to be glossless and often unmarked. However, sometimes they may manifest a few dark brown spots or blotches and sparse grey shell-marks.[7]
The eggs may range in height from 63 to 74 mm (2.5 to 2.9 in), with an average of 67.5 mm (2.66 in) in one sample and 68.9 mm (2.71 in) in another, by 47.8 to 56.7 mm (1.88 to 2.23 in) in diameter, with an average of 54 mm (2.1 in) and 54.4 mm (2.14 in).[6][7][149]
The incubation stage lasts 42–44 days per most sources, but in southern Belarus, an incubation stage of only 39 days was documented.[4][150] Incubation begins with the first egg.[7] The male of the pair was once thought to not to take part in incubation (typically, as in many raptors, they primarily have the responsibility of prey deliveries).[7] However, in the aforementioned Belarusian study, the male incubated an average of 57.3 minutes during daylight.[150]
In the Altai taiga region, among 6 greater spotted eagle territories, the average brood size was 1.33 nestling per successful nest or 1.0 nestling per occupied nest. Two of the Altai greater spotted eagle territories were on the abandoned territories of eastern imperial eagles.[151] Meanwhile, in the Volga-Ural and Western Siberia areas, the mean brood sizes were 1.24 and 1.42, respectively.[6]
The body size between the greater spotted eagle nestlings differs markedly when the second eaglet hatches and the younger usually dies, often via siblicide.[7] Competition often resulting in starvation or intentional killing of the younger chick by its elder sibling is not uncommon in birds of prey, especially the eagles, and is often hypothesized as a kind of insurance process wherein the younger sibling acts an insurance if the elder sibling is somehow killed, otherwise the younger sibling (which is not necessarily in ill health) is possibly expected to die.[152][153] However, this species raises two fledglings at least somewhat more commonly than the lesser spotted eagle.[7][154] Out of 50 nests in the Oka Nature Reserve, though, only one pair managed to produce two fledglings in a year.[155]
In an experiment in a nest in Poland, a younger sibling was taken out of the nest to save it, with the younger eaglet weighing 310 g (11 oz) against 1,050 g (2.31 lb) for the older sibling at the point of extraction. After being taken out of the nest, the younger eaglet was raised with minimal interactions, to avoid imprinting, beyond feeding in captivity by humans. The eaglet shared a cage with an eastern imperial eagle and a lesser spotted eagle both of which were indifferent towards and did not in any way care for or feed the young greater spotted eagle. At the point of fledgling the young eagle was successfully reintroduced to its own parent's nest, fledged and attained independence.[155]
The mother greater spotted eagle can be a somewhat tight sitter but can abandon the nest when disturbed by humans, in a Belarusian study for a full day before returning.[7][150] By late July to early August, the young are fully feathered, soon takes its first flight in not more than 5 days.[7] Fledgling is at 60–67 days, averaging close to 62 days.[4] In Altai-Sayan region, the mean number of fledglings per successful nest could vary from a mean of 1 per nest in Tuva to 1.8 in Khakassia.[118] In Kazakh studies, a mean of 1.38 fledglings were produced in 11 nests.[144] In Western Siberia, a mean of 1.44 fledglings were produced in 66 broods.[156]
Further dependence on the parents lasts to 30 days more after fledgling.[4] Before dispersing for good, the young greater spotted eagles may wander locally into the open steppe for a little while.[7] Female greater spotted eagles were found to leave 2–3 days before their young in a study in Poland,. Meanwhile, the male tends to leave leave last, at about 1 week after the female. In the Polish study, adults headed straight for Bosphorus while juveniles were sometimes less direct.[157] Most were gone from Poland by the end of September, juveniles also seen to wander in elsewhere in Poland during autumn before finally migrating.[157]
At one time, it is possible that greater and lesser spotted eagles were largely isolated from each other via different habitat usage, although the ranges may have long since abutted one another.[3] Climate changes at the conclusion of the last ice age (at some point early in the Holocene) permitted forest growth where there were once grassy boundaries, allowing the two species of spotted eagles to expand into each other’s ranges.[3][158] Hybridization is now known to occur extensively with hybrids occurring in the entire overlapping range of the two species, which is some 600,000 km2 (230,000 sq mi), with interbreeding mostly determined via conjecture in the European Russia area, where hybridization possibly occurred the most recently (this being the eastern limits roughly of the lesser spotted eagle’s range).[10][146][159]
Hybrids between the species often show a nape patch, absent in pure greater spotted eagles, an intermediate amount of spotting about the wings and a typically larger body size than pure lesser spotted eagles.[160] Despite their intermediate characteristics and larger size than lesser spotteds, the hybridization of the species is thought to be an indication of the abandonment of greater spotted eagle territories and the replacement of them by the more adaptive and populous lesser spotted eagles, as was indicated in an Estonian study.[10]
The Estonian study reflected that the number of hybrid greater-lesser spotted eagle pairs was twice as high in the nation than pure greater spotted eagles.[10] The situation was even graver in Lithuania where not a single pure pair of greater spotted eagles could be found any longer by the mid-2000s, with only 2.7% of 161 breeding spotted eagles being greater spotteds, the rest being lesser spotted eagles.[161] Lesser spotted eagles were estimated to number around 1000 breeding pairs in Lithuania, with an estimated 37 or so of these containing one mate that is a greater spotted eagle.[161]
Both Polish and Estonian studies reflected a probable high turnover of mates in hybrid pairs, with the Polish data finding about 71% of the males of the pairs being supplemented in subsequent years.[10][162] Furthermore the Polish data shows that the hybrids are favouring the habitats of lesser spotted eagles farther away from the wetter habitats of the greater spotted eagle and often nearer human development, with a local 50% reduction of pure greater spotted eagle pairs and 30% increase in hybrid pairs.
The habitat alterations to the environment by humans are thought in general to be partially beneficial to lesser spotted eagles and normally harmful to greater spotted eagles.[162][163]
Despite maintaining a fairly vast breeding range, covering at least 9 million square kilometres, in a band from the Baltic Sea in Europe right across to the Pacific Ocean with minor outpost in the Indian subcontinent, this eagle occurs at extremely low densities.[4]
The populations and trends of the species have been considered fairly poorly studied in the past, but a strong declining trend has been detected.[4][29] Rough estimates in the 1990s indicated some 11 pairs in a huge area of northeastern Poland, around 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) and only some 20-30 pairs in a huge study area of 85,000 km2 (33,000 sq mi) in European Russia, with no more than 900 pairs west of the Urals.[4] More refined subsequent efforts put the number of breeding pairs in the European Union at 810 to 1100 breeding pairs.[19]
Furthermore, in the 1990s, it was extrapolated from Indian wintering populations that the more eastern population is surely less than four figures.[4] Birdlife International in the 1990s estimated the Russian population at 2800-3000 pairs. More recently, Birdlife has estimated the global population as no more than 3800-13,200 total mature individuals worldwide.[1][4][29]
Color-banding recovery studies have determined that of 1370 European band recoveries of spotted eagles, only 3.6% were greater spotted eagles, while hybrid greater x lesser spotted eagles comprised 2.7%, the remaining numbering being all lesser spotted eagles.[164] Greater spotted eagles are considered extripated as a breeding species from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic (where they may have never consistently bred) and Slovakia, as well as Israel where they last bred in the 1960s. Meanwhile, the Finland breeding population is also likely almost gone.[4][29][19]
Steady reduction in Ukraine down to 40-50 pairs by 1985 and a 12-20% overall reduction of the Ukrainian population was estimated, from 1920s to 1990s.[4][165] The numbers of greater spotted eagles in Estonia declined 14% in the period merely from 2004 to 2010, with declines having been detected for some time there.[11][166] The number of breeding pairs in Belarus is as many 150-200 pairs (with confirmed counts of somewhat over 100 breeding pairs) and this is considered the most important breeding area known outside of Russia.[19]
Where the total numbers in European Russia were once estimated at around 1000 breeding pairs in the 1960s, it is estimated that there are fewer than 700 pairs left there.[29][167] The range has shrunk in the Russian Far East, where it once widely found but is now restricted to below the middle Amur, along the Ussuri and south Primorsky although anecdotal information suggests that it is still somewhat common in the whole Western Siberian lowlands from the Ural Mountains to the middle Ob River.[29] In Kazakhstan, there are an estimated 74-97 breeding pairs of the species.[144]
Wintering estimates are more scattered and efforts to tabulate numbers in India show they continue to occur quite broadly but in perhaps slightly lowered and more scattered numbers.[5][168][169][170] In Armenia, it is considered one of the two rarest of the nation’s 30 raptor species, along with the eastern imperial eagle.[171] Wintering numbers of greater spotted eagles in the Mediterranean Basin were found to total about 300-400 individuals, with a bit under 34% of these in Israel, just under 32% in Greece, 16% in Turkey, somewhat smaller numbers in Romania and Spain and tiny numbers in Southeastern Europe, Montenegro and France.[66] Around 50 individuals winter in Turkey per other sources.[88]
The species appears fairly rarely in Ethiopia and Eretria where they are seen singly and sparsely in most cases.[71] In essentially every nation of its distribution, the greater spotted eagle has a Vulnerable status.[19] As a species, the greater spotted eagle is classified as vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN.[1]
The primary threats are habit degradation and habitat loss.[1][29] Greater spotted eagles appear to be highly sensitive to habitat alterations, especially drainage of wetlands, intensified agricultural practices and abandonment of floodplain management practices.[85][172]
Detrimental wetland management processes have additionally effected the species on their wintering grounds, where in Saudi Arabia at least, the effect has been offset by the greater spotted eagles adapting to man-made bodies of water (unlike in winter, though, there is no evidence that they adapt well to man-made areas during breeding).[173][174] The amount of usable manmade habitats has shrunk in Thailand with a change to dry season rice field cropping and the creeping presence of urbanization, along with probable rodenticide usage and other poisonings, likely harming numbers of the species able to winter there.[80]
Other threats are known to include human disturbance during the mating season, with forestry operations known now to be a major cause of disturbance at the nest site.[29][172] Furthermore, greater spotted eagles are threatened by mostly inadvertent poisonings and collisions with man-made objects, especially electrical wires.[4][175] Poisonings were known to be a serious cause of mortality in Shanxi reserve of China where the eagles were seen to hunt down sickly or dying common pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) that had been poisoned and then subsequently dying themselves, this becoming the primary local source of mortality.[29][176]
In the Malay Peninsula, subsequent to a brief increase of the species from the 1960s to the 1980s due to environmental changes favorable to avian scavengers, a crash in numbers down to almost none there was thought to be quite likely due to pesticide and other poison usage.[19][82] The real trends of greater spotted eagles are sometimes masked by misidentifications.[4]
Furthermore, as aforementioned, the species is at threat of hybridization and ultimate supplanting by the lesser spotted eagle as that species’ range creeps farther east.[3][10] The greater spotted eagle is legally protected in a scattered amount of nations, making conservation efforts difficult.[1][29] Among the nations where they are legally protected are Belarus, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Russia and nominally in Thailand. A working group specifically to address spotted eagles has been established as of the 21st century.[1][29][177] The working groups have managed to undertake conservation efforts in Belarus, Estonia and the Ukraine, among the core breeding areas left in Europe for the species and they’ve successfully instituted restrictions of forestry activities near the nest sites during the breeding season.[1][29][177]
The building of artificial nest platforms did not seem to greatly aid greater spotted eagles in Nizhny Novgorod, unlike other raptors such as the osprey, the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and the golden eagle, as only one pair of greater spotted eagles were recorded to use a platform as a nest and higher survey numbers of greater spotted eagles in that region were likely only due to more extensive surveying.[146][178] In an exceptional positive note, it was found the European population of greater spotted eagle, as studied via microsatellites, retains quite high genetic diversity, meaning that there is no eminent threat of a genetic bottleneck for the species.[3][179][180]
The greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), also called the spotted eagle, is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs indicate that it is a member of the subfamily Aquilinae, also known as the "booted eagles." This species was once thought to be a member of the genus Aquila, but was reclassified to a distinct genus, Clanga, along with the two other species of spotted eagle.
During the breeding season, greater spotted eagles are widely distributed across Eastern Europe, parts of Central Europe, central Russia, Central Asia, parts of China, the Indian Subcontinent and the upper Middle East. During winter, they migrate primarily to South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, the Mediterranean Basin and parts of East Africa.
Greater spotted eagles favor wetter habitats than most booted eagles, preferring riparian zones as well as bogs, lakes, ponds, some coasts, and other bodies of water surrounded by woodland or forested land. Floodplains are the primary breeding sites, especially ones that experience high water levels. During winter and migration they often seek out similar wetland habitats, but may appear in dry upland areas such as savanna plateaus.
The eagle is an opportunistic forager, especially during the winter and will readily scavenge a variety of easy food sources, including carrion. Greater spotted eagles mainly eat small mammals (principally rodents), frogs, and a variety of smaller birds, especially vulnerable water birds. Reptiles and insects are eaten occasionally. This species rarely completely ceases hunting.
Greater spotted eagles are primarily aerial foragers, gliding from concealed perches over marshes or wet fields to catch prey. This species builds stick nests in large trees, laying a clutch of one to three eggs. The female of a pair incubates and broods the young while the male hunts and delivers prey. Rarely is more than one fledgling produced. As is common among birds of prey, the oldest sibling is much larger than its younger sibling(s), whom it often attacks and kills.
This species' range overlaps broadly with the closely related lesser spotted eagle (Clanga pomarina) and the two species are now known to hybridize frequently, to the detriment of populations of the rarer greater spotted eagles. The greater spotted eagle is classified as a Vulnerable species by the IUCN. Its populations are threatened by habitat destruction, collisions with human-made objects, and hybridization with lesser spotted eagles.
La Granda kriaglo, foje nomata Punktaglo, (Aquila clanga), aŭ nur Kriaglo, estas granda rabobirdo, kiu longas ĉirkaŭ 65 cm kaj havas enverguron de ĉirkaŭ 160 cm. Kiel aliaj agloj, ĝi apartenas al familio Akcipitredoj, kiuj enhavas ankaŭ aliajn tagajn rabobirdojn kiel cirkuojn, milvojn, akcipitrojn, ktp.
Ĝi reproduktiĝas el nordorienta Eŭropo tra Siberio ĝis Manĉurio, kaj migrantas suden vintre al respektivaj proksimaj tropikaj zonoj: tiuj de nordorienta Eŭropo al sudorienta Eŭropo, valo de rivero Nilo en Afriko kaj Mezoriento, tiuj de Centra Azio el Irano ĝis Barato, tiuj de Mongolio kaj Manĉurio al suda Ĉinio kaj Hindoĉinio ĝis insulo Sumatro en Indonezio. Ties medio estas arbara.
Temas pri mezgranda aglo -el 60 ĝis 75 cm (mezaveraĝe ĉ 65 cm) longa kaj kun enverguro el 155 ĝis 180 cm (mezaveraĝe ĉ 160 cm)-, tre simila al sia plej proksima parenco nome la Malgranda kriaglo, Aquila pomarina, kun kiu kunhavas teritoriojn kaj similajn ĉefajn aspektajn ecojn. Inoj estas iomete pli grandaj ol maskloj, ĉar tiuj pezas el 1,8 ĝis 3,2 kg dum tiuj ĉi el 1,7 ĝis 2 kg. Ties kapo kaj supraflugiloj estas tre malhelbrunaj kontraste kun la ĝenerala mezbruna plumaro (Malgranda kriaglo havas pli helbrunajn kapon kaj supraflugilojn). La kapo estas pli malgranda ol tiu de aliaj agloj.
Dumfluge la Malgranda kriaglo, montras blankajn centrajn flugilajn makulojn duonlunformajn, dum la Granda kriaglo ne montras ilin. Krome tiu ĉi specio havas pli grandajn kaj larĝajn flugilojn kaj pli larĝan voston. Estas puga blanka marko kun formo de V.
La simileco de la Granda kriaglo kun la Malgranda kriaglo ofte rezultas al misidentigo inter ambaŭ. Tion komplikas eventualaj hibridoj inter ambaŭ specioj.[1]
Junuloj montras dumripoze striojn de helaj makuloj ĉu flavaj ĉu blankaj en pintoplumaro de supraflugilo, multe pli ol la Malgranda kriaglo, kaj ankaŭ pli etajn flavajn makuletojn en krurplumaro.
Vintre, ĝi loĝas en la teritorioj de la Hindia kriaglo (A. hastata). El tiu ĵus validata parenco, ĝi povas esti distingata pro la pli malhela koloro kaj pli hela okulo (ne pli malhela ol la korpoplumaro je distanco, pli hela deproksime), kaj ĉe junuloj, pro la markata punkteco. Ĝi estas ankaŭ iom pli granda - kvankam tio povas esti nefidinde konstatata en naturo- kaj ĉe vintrejoj ĝi preferas humidejajn habitatojn.
Tiu aglo demetas 1 ĝis 3 ovojn -plej ofte 2- en arba nesto el bastonetoj ĉirkaŭ unumetra granda kaj preskaŭ unumetra alta enhavanta herbon. Nestoj kutime estas izolitaj je centoj da metroj el la arbarbordo en centro de ampleksega teritorio -foje ĝis 30 km²- kaj estas reuzataj dum sinsekvaj jaroj: ofte paroj uzas 2 aŭ 3 nestojn unu post la alia. La kovado daŭras el 35 ĝis 43 tagojn. Idoj estas grizblankaj aŭ grizbrunaj; dua ido kutime mortas pro kainismo; ili elnestiĝas post du monatoj kaj estas zorgitaj de la gepatroj dum unu plia monato.
Granda kriaglo elflugas el arbaro -foje eĉ montara arbaro- al malferma malseka kamparo -kun marĉejoj, lagetoj, ktp.- kie ĉasas etajn mamulojn -ratoj- aŭ similajn bestojn -ranoj, reptilioj, fiŝetoj, ktp. -ĉefe surtere. Foje ili manĝas kadavraĵojn kaj foje klopodas rabi predojn de aliaj rabobirdoj, sed ne ĉiam sukcese. Ili povas uzi tri malsimilajn teknikojn: ekde ŝvebado, ekde gvatejo kaj ekde surtere.
La voĉo estas kvazaŭ hunda bojado “jip”.
La Malgranda kriaglo (A. pomarina) estas la plej proksima vivanta parenco de tiu specio; ties komuna praulo ŝajne diverĝis ĉirkaŭ meza Plioceno, eble antaŭ ĉirkaŭ 3.6 milionoj de jaroj (mj),[2] el la prauloj de la Hindia kriaglo (A. hastata) kiu loĝas ĉe Irano, Pakistano kaj Barato. La "prakriaglo" probable vivis en la ĝenerala mondoregiono de Afganio, kaj disiĝis en kaj norda kaj suda stirpo kiam kaj glaĉeroj kaj dezertoj antaŭeniris en Centran Azion kiam komencis la lasta glaciepoko. La norda stirpo sekve separiĝis en la orienta (Granda) kaj okcidenta (Malgranda) specioj nunaj, probable ĉirkaŭ la limo inter Plioceno kaj Pleistoceno autaŭ ĉirkaŭ 2 mj.[3]
La kriagloj kia grupo estas tre distingaj el la tipaj membroj de la genro Aquila, la "veraj agloj". Ili probable estos inkludata kun siaj “adoptaj” tropikaj parencoj de la genroj Lophaetus aŭ Ictinaetus, aŭ movataj al propra genro baldaŭ.
Tiu palearktisa specio ne estas monde minacata, nur lokaj populacioj. Totala loĝantaro povas atingi kelkajn milojn.
Tiu estas specio de arbara kamparo, kiu ĉasas malgrandajn mamulojn kaj similajn, ĉefe surgrundajn predojn. Ĝi reproduktiĝas el norda Eŭropo tra Azio, kaj vintras en sudorienta Eŭropo, Mezoriento kaj Suda Azio. Migrado al reproduktejoj okzas malfrue; en Butano ekzemple birdoj povas esti vidataj iom regule ĝis la fino de marto[4].
Ĝenerale en teritorio junulo pasas ioman tempon kun siaj gepatroj post elnestiĝo, ĝis tiu atingas la seksan maturecon kaj serĉas siajn proprajn teritorion kaj partneron. Ĉe vintrejoj la specio estas pli sociema. Videblas foje malgrandaj aroj de ĝis ĉirkaŭ 10 birdoj, de varia aĝo, kiuj kunflugas la teritorion. Ili ankaŭ asociiĝas kun aliaj Akcipitredoj en vintrejoj, kiaj lokaj aŭ migrantaj individuoj de Nigra milvo (Milvus migrans lineatus kaj govinda) aŭ Stepaglo (A. nipalensis), distinge pli malgrandaj kaj pli grandaj rabobirdoj, respektive.[4]
Tiu specio emas al vaganteco. Ties regulaj reproduktaj teritorioj ne plu atingas ĝis Germanio nuntempe, sed ili ne estas rare trafataj en tiu lando, kaj kelkaj birdoj vidiĝas ĉiun jardekon. Eĉ junuloj disiĝas amplekse; la Staatliches Museum für Tierkunde Dresden havas specimenon (C 21845) mortpafitan en novembre de 1914 en Großgrabe ĉe Bernsdorf en Saksio. Temas pri junulo de necerta aĝo kaj tre punkteca, probable malpli ol 20monata.[5]
Plenkreskulo de Granda kriaglo estis kontrolita per satelita transmisilo en 1993 por sciigi pri ties migrado. La kontrolita aglo migris totalon de 5,526 km el siaj vintrejoj en Jemeno al siaj reproduktejoj en okcidenta Siberio. Ĝi flugoveturis 150 km averaĝe ĉiutage, sed tio pliiĝis ĝis 280 km ĉiutage dum la birdo flugis super Mezopotamio.[6]
La specio estas klasita kiel Vundebla al formorto fare de la IUCN. Ĉirkaŭ la jaro 2000, la monda populacio de tiu aglo estis ĉirkaŭkalkulata je malpli da 4,000 reproduktantaj paroj. La ĉefaj minacoj estas habitatodetruo kaj habitatoperdo, same kiel homa ĝenado dum la reprodukta sezono.[7]
La Granda kriaglo, foje nomata Punktaglo, (Aquila clanga), aŭ nur Kriaglo, estas granda rabobirdo, kiu longas ĉirkaŭ 65 cm kaj havas enverguron de ĉirkaŭ 160 cm. Kiel aliaj agloj, ĝi apartenas al familio Akcipitredoj, kiuj enhavas ankaŭ aliajn tagajn rabobirdojn kiel cirkuojn, milvojn, akcipitrojn, ktp.
El águila moteada[2] (Clanga clanga) es una especie de ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae. No se reconocen subespecies.[3]
Es un águila robusta, con las alas anchas y cola más corta que el ancho de las alas y de forma ligeramente cuneiforme.[4] Los ejemplares adultos son uniformemente oscuros, en cambio los jóvenes e inmaduros presentan manchas de color blanco en las coberteras alares.[4] Cuando alcanzan su fase oscura pueden ser fácimelte confundidas con el águila pomerana (Clanga pomarina) y el águila rapaz (Aquila rapax). En vuelo parece negra por la parte inferior, excepto en la base de las alas que suelen ser más claras.[5]
Mide entre 65 y 73 cm de longitud[5] y su envergadura es de unos 160 cm, aunque puede llegar hasta los dos metros.[6]
Se encuentra ampliamente distribuida en Asia, el nordeste de África y ciertas regiones de Europa oriental y occidental. En España cuenta con varios registros homologados, considerándose como una especie accidental o rara.[7]
La época de cría tiene lugar entre mayo y junio.[5] La hembra suele poner un único huevo, ocasionalmente dos, a los que incuba durante 42 a 45 días.[6] El aguilucho abandona el nido tras un máximo de 60 días, aunque sigue siendo alimentado en sus cercanías.[6]
Su alimentación se compone de aves y mamíferos de pequeño tamaño.[5] Captura a sus presas al acecho, desde el aire o en tierra en carrera a pie.[6]
El águila moteada (Clanga clanga) es una especie de ave accipitriforme de la familia Accipitridae. No se reconocen subespecies.
Suur-konnakotkas (Clanga clanga, varem Aquila clanga) on tumepruun haugaslaste sugukonda kuuluv linnuliik.
Suur-konnakotkas pesitseb väga suurel territooriumil Läänemerest Vaikse ookeanini, mille pindala on vähemalt 8 miljonit ruutkilomeetrit. Liigi arvukus on olnud viimastel aastakümnetel pidevalt langustrendis. Suur-konnakotkas sarnaneb oluliselt arvukama väike-konnakotkaga sedavõrd, et neid konnakotkaliike on keeruline eristada. Linnu suuruse ja lennusilueti järgi suudavad liike eristada vaid kogenud vaatlejad.
Sarnaselt väike-konnakotkaga kuulub liik Eestis I kaitsekategooriasse. Hinnanguliselt pesitses meil 2012. aasta seisuga 5–10 paari suur-konnakotkaid. Neist üle pooled olid segapaarid väike-konnakotkaga.
Suur-konnakotkas eelistab elupaikadena on metsastunud märgalasid, hõredama metsaga avatud mäeharjasid, metsanurki koos paduritega, rabasid või üleujutatud luhtasid ja lamme. Kesk-Aasias sobivad pesitsemiseks kuivemad metsaga kaetud mäenõlvad.
Suur-konnakotkaste suled on ühtlaselt mustjas-pruunide toonidega, vaid sabal ja tiibadel on üksikud valged laigud. Kaugemalt vaadates näib lind üleni tumedana. Isastel lindudel on heledamad ainult laba-hoosulgede rood ning saba kattesulgede ääred. Emastel lindudel on tiibadel heledad laigud ning saba tipus kitsas valge triip. Vanalindudel võivad kere ja tiiva kattesuled olla kergelt heledama tooniga.[2] Kotka jalad on kaetud sulgedega kuni varvasteni.[3]
Suur-konnakotkaste keha pikkus on 59–71 cm, saba pikkus 23–27 cm, tiibade siruulatus 1,57–1,79 m. Emased linnud on reeglina veidi suuremad ja kuni 50% raskemad kui isased. Täiskasvanud isaslindude mass on 1,7–1,9, emaslindude oma aga 1,8–2,5[4], teistel andmetel ka kuni 3,2 kg[5].
Suur-konnakotkas on enamasti ühtlaselt tumepruun, suleroodudest moodustuvad tiivapealsed laigud paistavad hajusatena. Väike-konnakotkal on seevastu hästi nähtav heledam tiiva eesserv ning sulelabadest moodustunud ühtlaselt valged tiivalaigud paistavad paremini välja. Vahetegemist raskendab veel tavalistest värvitoonidest kõrvalekaldumine – väike-konnakotkad võivad olla ka tumedamad ja vanade suur-konnakotkaste suled võivad olla heledamaks kulunud. Samuti moodustavad väike- ja suur-konnakotkas segapaare ning annavad hübriide.[6]
Suur-konnakotkas pesitseb väga suurel territooriumil Läänemerest Vaikse ookeanini, mille pindala on vähemalt 8 miljonit ruutkilomeetrit. Väikesed isoleeritud populatsioonid pesitsevad Pakistani lõunaosas ja India põhjaosas.[4]
Suures, kuid hõredalt asustatud levilas pesitsevate lindude arvukust on väga raske täpselt kindlaks määrata. Arvestuslikult on maailmas kokku 3000 pesitsevat paari.[7] Kõige rohkem on pesitsevaid paare Venemaal.[8]
Suur-konnakotkaste arvukus on olnud viimastel aastakümnetel pidevalt langustrendis; selle aja jooksul on nad kadunud Slovakkiast, Ungarist, Rumeeniast, Bulgaariast, endise Jugoslaavia territooriumilt ning Põhja-Iisraelist.[4] Kiiresti on hääbumas ka Ukraina populatsioon, kus pesitseb praegusel ajal hinnanguliselt 10–20 paari, kuigi veel 1997. aastal oli sealse asurkonna suuruseks 40–60 paari.[9]
Valgevenes pesitseb tänapäeval eeldatavalt 150–200 paari, veel 1990. aastate alguses peeti pesitsevate paaride arvuks vaid 20–25. Neist 100–150 paari elutseb Valgevene Polesje madaliku soostunud aladel.[5]
Kasahstanis pesitsevad suur-konnakotkad üldjuhul maa põhjaosas, metsastepi bioomis. Väike isoleeritud pesitsusala asub riigi kaguosa mägedes Almatõ oblastis, 1000–2000 m kõrgusel üle merepinna. Selle pesitsusala arvukuseks on hinnatud 5–10 paari. Kogu riigi asurkonna suuruseks hinnatakse tänapäeval 74–97 paari, neist kõige enam (27–30 paari) pesitseb Išimi jõe basseinis, Petropavli ümbruskonnas.[10]
Eestis on varasemate aastate suur-konnakotkaste arvukuse kohta andmed puudulikud – pesitsemine tõestati alles 1995. aastal.[3] Hinnanguliselt pesitses meil 2012. aasta seisuga 5–10 paari suur-konnakotkaid. Neist üle pooled on segapaarid väike-konnakotkaga.[7] Uuematel andmetel on arvukus tõusnud 20–30 paarini.[3]
Poolas pesitseb teadaolevalt 15 suur-konnakotka paari.[11]
Leedus on hinnatud pesitsevate paaride arvu 15-le, nendest on arvatavalt ligi pooled segapaarid väike-konnakotkaga.[12]
Lätis pesitseb oletatavalt 1–5 paari.[13]
Mongoolias on suur-konnakotkas ilmselt harv suvine külaline ja läbirändaja. Oletatavalt võib ta samuti pesitseda maa põhjaosas.[14]
Hiinas pesitsevad suur-konnakotkad maa kirdeosas, kuid arvukuse hindamiseks pole piisaval hulgal uuringuid läbi viidud.[14]
Suur-konnakotkas on rändlind, rändeaeg lõunasse kestab tavaliselt septembrist novembrini ning tagasi pöördutakse veebruarist märtsini (levila põhjapiiril ka aprillini). Lennatakse tavaliselt ühe- kuni kolmekaupa, harva ka suuremates gruppides (Bhutanis on nähtud kümmet lindu ühes grupis). Rändeteede nn pudelikaelad on Bosporuse väina ja Punase mere põhjaosa kohal.[4] Rände teekonna ja ajastuse täpsemaks uurimiseks on mõnedele Eestis pesitsevatele konnakotkastele kinnitatud GPS-saatjad. Meie konnakotkaste talvitumisalade hulka kuuluvad Göksu jõe delta Türgi kaguosas ning El Hondo märgala Hispaania kaguosas.[15]
Pärast pesitsusperioodi lendab suur-konnakotkas järgmistele talvitusaladele:[4]
Suur-konnakotka meeliselupaikadeks on metsastunud märgalad, hõredama metsaga avatud mäeharjad, metsanurgad koos paduritega, rabad või üleujutatud luhad ja lammid. Kesk-Aasias sobivad pesitsemiseks kuivemad mäenõlvade metsad, ent ta võib leppida ka väiksemate tihnikutega. Talvitumisperioodil elutsevad nad enamasti hõreda puistuga märgaladel, jõedeltades, mangroovides, märgadel jõeluhtadel, järvekallastel jm. Aafrikas võib neid samuti kohata poolkõrbelistes savannides. Elupaik on enamasti alla 300 m kõrgusel üle merepinna, saaki jahtides võib kotkas tõusta mägedes kuni 1700 m kõrgusele, rände ajal kuni 3800–4000 m kõrgusele (Nepalis ja Iraanis).[4]
Eestis ja Lätis läbi viidud uuringute põhjal toimub suur-konnakotkaste pesitsusaegne tegevus peamiselt 10–15 km2 suurusel alal, mida nimetatakse pesitsusterritooriumiks või kodupiirkonnaks. Saaki jahitakse eelistatult lagedatel luhtadel ja teistel rohumaadel.[16]
Pesitsemine leiab enamasti aset aprilli lõpust kuni augustini, Pakistanis novembrist märtsini.[4]
Suur-konnakotkas ehitab tavaliselt oma pesa ise, kuid võib samuti kasutada vanu pesi, mille on valmistanud hiireviu, kanakull või must-toonekurg.[5]
Pesa on tavaliselt küllalt suur, selle läbimõõt on 0,7–1,1 m ja sügavus kuni 1 m. Ühel kotkapaaril võib olla mitu pesa (tavaliselt kuni 2–4 lisapesa[17]), mis asuvad üksteisest 390–1110 m kaugusel.[16]
Pesa ääristatakse roheliste lehtede ja värske rohuga, mida lisatakse juurde kogu pesitsusperioodi jooksul. Pesa paikneb üldjuhul 5–25 m kõrgusel puu ladvas või võra keskel. Venemaal on sageli täheldatud pesa paiknemist võra alumisel kolmandikul[17]. Pesapuu asub tavaliselt üsna tihedas puistus, mitte väga kaugel metsaservast. Liikidest on esindatud kask, mänd, haab, sanglepp, lehis jt. Suuremates puudeta regioonides võib pesa olla madalamates põõsastes. Kurnas on tavaliselt kaks (harva üks või kolm) muna.[4]
Munad on valged, violetsete või pruunikate triipudega, nende mõõtmed on keskmiselt 69×54 mm.[18]
Haudeperiood kestab 42–44 ööpäeva.[4] Kahest koorunud pojast hukkub noorem vanema poja agressiivsuse tõttu tavaliselt esimese elunädala jooksul.[5] Siiski on Lääne-Siberis pesade jälgimisel täheldatud, et vanem poeg muutub noorema suhtes agressiivsemaks vaid juhul, kui toitu pole piisavalt või kui emaslind jääb liiga kauaks pesast eemale.[10]
Pojad saavad lennuvõimeliseks 60–67 ööpäevaga, jäädes pärast seda ligi 30 ööpäeva jooksul veel vanematest sõltuvaks.[4]
Suur-konnakotkas on röövlind ning tema toidulaud on väike-konnakotka omaga üsna sarnane. Saakloomad on vaid mõnevõrra suuremad (mass peamiselt kuni 250 g) ning nende hulgas on rohkem linde. Peamised saakloomad on: väikeimetajad, linnud, kahepaiksed, roomajad, harvem väiksemad kalad, samuti suuremad putukad ja raiped. Sõltuvalt elupaikadest on peamiseks toiduks veega seotud selgroogsed. Mitmed Venemaal tehtud uuringud on näidanud, et põhilisteks saakloomadeks on mügrid, veelinnud ja konnad, samuti küllalt sageli uruhiired; Indias aga konnad ja veelinnud. Jahitavate roomajate hulka kuuluvad nii maod kui ka sisalikud. Talvitumisperioodil on samuti tähtsal kohal suuremad putukad (ritsiklased, rohutirtsud, termiidid) ja imetajate korjused.
Suur-konnakotkad peavad mõnikord jahti koos teiste röövlindudega (nt stepikotkastega) tirtsuparvedele, samuti tõmbavad neid ligi maastikupõlengud, sest sel ajal on lihtsam saakloomi püüda. Saakloomi otsib kotkas peamiselt maapinnalt, õhus patrullides. Harvad juhused pole ka saagi varitsemine kõrgematelt puudelt ning jalgsi maapinnalt jahtimine. Samuti esineb juhtumeid, kui suur-konnakotkad võtavad jõuga saagi ära väiksematelt röövlindudelt.[4]
Eestis toituvad suur-konnakotkad peamiselt väikeimetajatest (osakaal saakloomade arvust 73% ja biomassist 42%), lindudest (21% ja 54%), konnadest (4% ja 1%), kaladest (1% ja 2%) ja roomajatest (1% ja 1%). Väikeimetajate hulgast moodustavad uruhiired 55%, lindudest on sageli esindatud suuremakasvulised liigid (nt sinikael-part).[16]
Suur-konnakotkaste arvukus on olnud viimastel aastakümnetel pidevalt langustrendis tänu sobivate elupaikade kadumisele. Peamisteks põhjusteks on märgalade kuivendamine, jõeorgude kinnikasvamine ja metsade langetamine.[4] Peale pesapaikade ja saagipüüdmise alade vähenemise on oluline tegur veel lindude pesitsusaegne häirimine.[16] Rände ajal on kotkastele ohtlik nende küttimine. Itaalias, Türgis ja Lähis-Idas (eriti Liibanonis) on rändlindude laskmine küllaltki tavaline nähtus.[13]
Eestis kuulub suur-konnakotkas I kaitsekategooriasse.[19] Ta on meil pesitsevatest lindudest ainsana kuulutatud ülemaailmselt ohustatud liigiks. Eesti suur-konnakotkaste asurkonna oluliseks ohuteguriks on sage ristumine väike-konnakotkaga, meie 20–30 pesitsuspaari hulgas on vähemalt pooled liikide segapaarid. Meie suur-konnakotkaste kaitsemeetmete hulka kuuluvad:[16]
Venemaal, Valgevenes, Ukrainas, Lätis ja Leedus on suur-konnakotkas kantud punasesse raamatusse.[5]
Suur-konnakotkas (Clanga clanga, varem Aquila clanga) on tumepruun haugaslaste sugukonda kuuluv linnuliik.
Suur-konnakotkas pesitseb väga suurel territooriumil Läänemerest Vaikse ookeanini, mille pindala on vähemalt 8 miljonit ruutkilomeetrit. Liigi arvukus on olnud viimastel aastakümnetel pidevalt langustrendis. Suur-konnakotkas sarnaneb oluliselt arvukama väike-konnakotkaga sedavõrd, et neid konnakotkaliike on keeruline eristada. Linnu suuruse ja lennusilueti järgi suudavad liike eristada vaid kogenud vaatlejad.
Sarnaselt väike-konnakotkaga kuulub liik Eestis I kaitsekategooriasse. Hinnanguliselt pesitses meil 2012. aasta seisuga 5–10 paari suur-konnakotkaid. Neist üle pooled olid segapaarid väike-konnakotkaga.
Suur-konnakotkas eelistab elupaikadena on metsastunud märgalasid, hõredama metsaga avatud mäeharjasid, metsanurki koos paduritega, rabasid või üleujutatud luhtasid ja lamme. Kesk-Aasias sobivad pesitsemiseks kuivemad metsaga kaetud mäenõlvad.
Arrano pikarta (Aquila clanga) accipitridae azpifamiliako hegazti harraparia da.
Ugaztun txikiak ehiza egiten dituen arrano hau iparraldeko Europa eta Asia artean bizi da, neguetan hego-ekialdeko Europara, Ekialde Ertainera eta hegoaldeko Asiara migratuz[1].
Artikulu hau biologiari buruzko zirriborroa da. Wikipedia lagun dezakezu edukia osatuz. Arrano pikarta (Aquila clanga) accipitridae azpifamiliako hegazti harraparia da.
Ugaztun txikiak ehiza egiten dituen arrano hau iparraldeko Europa eta Asia artean bizi da, neguetan hego-ekialdeko Europara, Ekialde Ertainera eta hegoaldeko Asiara migratuz.
Kiljukotka (Clanga clanga, syn. Aquila clanga) on suuri petolintu. Se on noin 65 cm pitkä ja sen siipienväli on 160 cm. Vanha lintu on kokonaan lähes musta tai hyvin tummanruskea. Nuoret linnut ovat useimmiten myös hyvin tummia ja siiven peitinhöyhenissä on suuret valkoiset pisaratäplät. Kiljukotka muistuttaa hyvin paljon muita kotkia, erityisesti pikkukiljukotkaa.
Vanhin suomalainen rengastettu kiljukotka on ollut yhden vuoden ja 11 kuukautta vanha.
Kiljukotka on levittäytynyt pohjoisesta Euroopasta aina Aasiaan saakka, talvehtii Kaakkois-Euroopassa, Keski-idässä ja Etelä-Aasiassa. Koko Siperian taigan halki yltävän levinneisyysalueensa ja vähäisen parimääränsä (maailmanlaajuiseksi kannaksi arvioidaan noin 3 000 paria) takia kiljukotka on maailmanlaajuisesti uhanalainen. Kiljukotka on kadonnut Suomen vakituisesta pesimälajistosta, ja se luokitellaan maasta hävinneeksi lajiksi.[2] Muutamia harhailijoita tavataan Suomessa kuitenkin vuosittain, ja satunnaispesintöjä on todettu 2000-luvulla[3]. Ympäristöministeriön päätöksellä (n:o 1209/95) lähes kaikille Suomen pesimälintulintulajeille on määritelty ohjeellinen arvo; kiljukotkan ohjeellinen arvo on 6 728 euroa.
Lintu elää kosteikko-, metsä- ja suoalueilla, joilta se metsästää pieniä nisäkkäitä, lintuja, matelijoita, sammakoita sekä kaloja.
Kiljukotkalla on suuri pesä puussa, johon se munii 1–2 munaa. Poikasista jää käytännöllisesti katsoen aina eloon ainoastaan vahvempi poikasten keskinäisen kilpailun takia.
Kiljukotka (Clanga clanga, syn. Aquila clanga) on suuri petolintu. Se on noin 65 cm pitkä ja sen siipienväli on 160 cm. Vanha lintu on kokonaan lähes musta tai hyvin tummanruskea. Nuoret linnut ovat useimmiten myös hyvin tummia ja siiven peitinhöyhenissä on suuret valkoiset pisaratäplät. Kiljukotka muistuttaa hyvin paljon muita kotkia, erityisesti pikkukiljukotkaa.
Vanhin suomalainen rengastettu kiljukotka on ollut yhden vuoden ja 11 kuukautta vanha.
Clanga clanga
L'Aigle criard (Clanga clanga, anciennement Aquila clanga) est une espèce de rapaces diurnes appartenant à la famille des Accipitridae.
Cet oiseau mesure 65 à 72 cm pour une envergure de 152 à 182 cm et une masse de 1 600 à 1 820 g[réf. nécessaire].
Ce rapace au bec crochu et aux griffes puissantes et acérées peut être confondu avec son cousin l'Aigle pomarin. Les points de ressemblances entre ces deux espèces sont si nombreux qu'ils rendent bien souvent leur identification difficile. En effet, tout comme l'Aigle pomarin, il est entièrement brun noir avec des reflets cuivrés. Autre élément de ressemblance, les sous-caudales des deux aigles peuvent être mêlées de blanc et leurs rémiges primaires sont noires à racine blanchâtre. Le bec est noir, la cire et les pattes jaunes, l'iris brun. Les facteurs de discrimination et de divergence sont finalement une question de spécialistes et d'acuité visuelle : élément principal, l'Aigle pomarin est légèrement plus clair et plus petit. Si l'on rentre dans les détails, le critère le plus typique est visible en vol, avec un contraste différent visible dans le dessous des ailes : chez l'Aigle criard, les couvertures sous-alaires sont plus sombres que les primaires. Chez l'Aigle pomarin, les couvertures sous-alaires sont plus claires que les primaires. Il existe une forme de couleur beige clair dite fulvescens. Elle se reproduit depuis la Pologne à l'Est vers l'Asie centrale.
Son régime alimentaire se compose principalement de petits mammifères comme les campagnols, les rats, les sousliks, les hamsters et les taupes. Il mange plus d'oiseaux que l'Aigle pomarin. Il se nourrit aussi de poissons, de batraciens, de reptiles et de gros insectes. En hiver, il ne dédaigne pas les cadavres d'animaux.
L'Aigle criard utilise plusieurs techniques de chasse. Le plus souvent, il fond sur ses proies à partir d'un poste d'affût situé en bordure d'une rivière, d'un lac ou dans une zone ouverte. Cependant, il peut également capturer ses proies à la suite de vols planés exploratoires. Enfin, il peut chasser à pied des jeunes oiseaux d'eau encore inaptes au vol.
Il niche dans les forêts à proximité d'un point d'eau. Il utilise un ancien nid de rapace ou bien il le construit lui-même à une hauteur comprise entre 8 et 12 mètres. En mai ou en juin, la femelle pond deux œufs de couleur blanc-gris dont l'incubation dure jusqu'à 41 jours. La femelle commence à couver à partir du premier œuf alors que le mâle prend en charge le ravitaillement. Les aiglons gardent le nid entre 60 et 65 jours.
Les aigles criards sont migrateurs : ils quittent les zones de reproduction de septembre à la fin d'octobre en direction du nord de l’Égypte, de la Turquie, de l'Irak, de l'Inde et du sud de la Chine. Une fraction des oiseaux est sédentaire dans le sud de l'Europe et autour du bassin méditerranéen. Les aigles criards regagnent leur quartier d'été à la mi-avril.
L'Aigle criard fréquente les boisements clairsemés, les forêts riveraines, les lacs, les marais et les salines. Ce choix est directement lié aux impératifs de nidification et aussi pour une large part aux nécessités de son alimentation.
Son aire de peuplement couvre l'Asie, la Chine, la Sibérie, la Perse, la Russie, la Finlande, la Pologne, la Hongrie. Il se rencontre aussi en Grèce et dans les Balkans, en Italie et parfois en Camargue.
Il passe de plus en plus l'hiver dans le nord d'Israël dans la Vallée du Houlé autour du lac Agamon.
L'Aigle criard bénéficie d'une protection totale sur le territoire français depuis l'arrêté ministériel du 17 avril 1981 relatif aux oiseaux protégés sur l'ensemble du territoire[1]. Il est donc interdit de le détruire, le mutiler, le capturer ou l'enlever, de le perturber intentionnellement ou de le naturaliser, ainsi que de détruire ou enlever les œufs et les nids, et de détruire, altérer ou dégrader son milieu. Qu'il soit vivant ou mort, il est aussi interdit de le transporter, colporter, de l'utiliser, de le détenir, de le vendre ou de l'acheter.
Cette espèce est menacée:
Clanga clanga
L'Aigle criard (Clanga clanga, anciennement Aquila clanga) est une espèce de rapaces diurnes appartenant à la famille des Accipitridae.
A aguia manchada ou aguia pintada (Aquila clanga) é unha ave rapaz.
É unha aguia cunha lonxitude de entre 55–69 cm, unha envergadura entre 153–177 cm e cun peso entre 1600 e 2300 gramos. De cor pardo escuro uniforme, os xoves son máis negros e con manchas pálidas. As femias son idénticas ós machos. Existe a variante Fulvescens, que é de ton máis clara.
Aliméntase de roedores, anfibios, aves de gran tamaño (galiñolas, parrulos, corvos) e insectos. O seu hábitat máis habitual en Europa son as fragas extensas con presenza de lagos ou pantanos. Caza con frecuencia na auga ou nas súas proximidades. Esporadicamente consome calaza.
A cría realizase en Europa entre os meses de maio e xullo. A posta consiste en dous ou tres ovos cun tempo de incubación de 42-44 días. Os polos permanecen no niño entre 60-65 días.
Dende maio a outubro permanece en Europa, concretamente Rusia, Países Bálticos, Belarús e o sueste de Finlandia. Esporadicamente, observable durante a migración, no Cáucaso, Turquía e Oriente Medio (Israel, Siria, Líbano). Iverna en Iraq, Irán, Delta do Nilo e outras parte de Exipto e zonas húmidas moi localizadas do Sur de Europa: Sur de Grecia, Desembocadura do río Po, a Camarga, Rexión de Bordeos ou en Doñana.
A aguia manchada ou aguia pintada (Aquila clanga) é unha ave rapaz.
Orao klokotaš[1] (Aquila clanga) je srednje veliki orao iz roda pravih orlova i porodice jastrebova (Accipitridae).
Orao kliktaš je najsličniji orlu kliktašu, od kojega je nešto veći. Dostiže dužinu od 59 do 71 cm, raspon krila je od 157 do 179 cm, a tjelesna masa mu je od 1,6 do 2,5 kilograma[2]. Srednje je veličine sa širokim krilima koja završavaju dugim perima i ima mali kljun.
Orao klokotaš je ptica selica i glavno stanište su mu istočna Europa i Rusija, dok zimuje u sjeveroistočnoj Africi i južnoj i jugoistočnoj Aziji. U Europi je orao klokotaš jedna od najugroženijih ptica grabljivica. Na području Europe, bez Rusije, gnijezdi se tek 70 parova, i to uglavnom u Poljskoj[3]. Od 1994. godine se nalazi na IUCN-ovom crvenom popisu ugroženih vrsta[4].
U Wikimedijinu spremniku nalazi se još gradiva na temu: orao klokotaš
Wikivrste imaju podatke o: orao klokotaš Orao klokotaš (Aquila clanga) je srednje veliki orao iz roda pravih orlova i porodice jastrebova (Accipitridae).
Rajawali totol (Aquila clanga) adalah jenis rajawali yang berhabitat di hutan dataran rendah dengan lingkup penyebaran dari Eropa sampai Asia. Wilayah berkembang biak dari Finlandia sampai Tiongkok. Pada musim dingin rajawali ini bermigrasi ke Jepang, Korea Selatan, Cina daratan, Hongkong, Taiwan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, Kamboja, Vietnam, Semenanjung Malaysia, Singapura dan Indonesia khususnya Sumatra.
Tubuh rajawali totol berukuran sekitar 62-74 cm. Rajawali ini berbulu gelap pucat dengan bulu-bulu terbang pucat yang ramping. Sayap bagian bawah umumnya lebih gelap daripada bulu-bulu terbang. Anak rajawali ini memiliki garis melintang dengan bintik-bintik putih pada sayap bagian atas.
Rajawali totol dewasa, spesimen museum
Rajawali totol (Aquila clanga) adalah jenis rajawali yang berhabitat di hutan dataran rendah dengan lingkup penyebaran dari Eropa sampai Asia. Wilayah berkembang biak dari Finlandia sampai Tiongkok. Pada musim dingin rajawali ini bermigrasi ke Jepang, Korea Selatan, Cina daratan, Hongkong, Taiwan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, Kamboja, Vietnam, Semenanjung Malaysia, Singapura dan Indonesia khususnya Sumatra.
L'aquila anatraia maggiore (Clanga clanga Pallas, 1811) è un uccello rapace appartenente alla famiglia degli Accipitridi.[2]
Ha un areale piuttosto frammentato, con siti di nidificazione in Estonia, Polonia, Bielorussia, Moldavia, Russia, Ucraina, Kazakistan, Pakistan, India, Cina e Mongolia. I siti di svernamento includono una vasta area che comprende l'Europa centrale e orientale, il Nord Africa e l'Africa orientale, il Medio Oriente, la penisola arabica, il subcontinente indiano e il sud-est asiatico.[1]
Frequenta boschi in prossimità di corsi o specchi d'acqua.
La IUCN Red List classifica questa specie come vulnerabile.[1]
Può essere allevata dall'uomo a cui dimostra un legame piuttosto stretto.
L'aquila anatraia maggiore (Clanga clanga Pallas, 1811) è un uccello rapace appartenente alla famiglia degli Accipitridi.
Didysis erelis rėksnys (lot. Clanga clanga, angl. Greater Spotted Eagle, vok. Schelladler) – vanaginių (Accipitridae) šeimos, erelių rėksnių (lot. Clanga) genties plėšrusis paukštis.
Anksčiau didieji ereliai rėksniai pagal taksoną rūšių klasifikacijoje buvo priskiriami tikrųjų erelių (Aquila) genčiai ir lotyniškai buvo užrašomi Aquila clanga pavadinimu. Bet patikslinus jų statusą rūšių klasifikacijoje, dabar jie priskirti tris rūšis turinčiai erelių rėksnių (Clanga) genčiai ir lotyniškai rašomi Clanga clanga.
Didiesiems ereliams rėksniams genetiškai ir išvaizda artimiausi yra mažieji ereliai rėksniai, su kuriais tarpusavyje neretai poruojasi[2] ir sulaukia sveikų palikuonių. Dažniausiai poruojasi mažojo erelio rėksnio (Clanga pomarina) patinėlis su didžiojo erelio rėksnio (Clanga clanga) patele. Šių dviejų rūšių poravimosi pasekmė - didžiųjų erelių rėksnių populiacijos savaiminis mažėjimas ir ateityje galimas išnykimas[3].
Visas kūnas vienspalviai tamsiai rudos spalvos, tik pakaušis kiek šviesesnis. Antuodegyje kartais būna balsva dėmė. Snapas melsvas. Kojos geltonos, nagai juodi.
Gana didelis paukštis - erelių rėksnių (Clanga) gentyje stambiausia rūšis. Jų patinėliai kiek smulkesni už pateles ir sudaro apie 85% jų dydžio.
Bendras kūno ilgis: 59-71 cm.
Bendras atstumas tarp išskėstų sparnų galų: 1,57-1,79 m.
Patinėlių svoris: 1,5-1,9 kg.
Patinėlių sparnų ilgis: 477-517 mm.
Patelių svoris: 1,8 kg-2,5 kg., didžiausias svoris: 3,2 kg.
Patelių sparnų ilgis: 507-542 mm.
Didieji ereliai rėksniai natūraliai paplitę Europos žemyno rytinėje dalyje nuo Baltijos jūros rytų pakraščių ir iš čia jo paplitimo arealas siaura juosta tęsiasi per miškų zoną Sibire tęsiasi iki Rusijos Tolimųjų Rytų dalies, esančios prie Ochotsko ir Japonijos jūrų vakarinių pakrančių.
Arčiausiai nuo Lietuvos peri kaimyninėje Gudijoje, kurioje pagal 2000–2003 metų duomenis priskaičiuojama apie 150–200 perinčių porų. Pagal 1999–2002 metų duomenis, Gudijos pelkėtose Polesės vietovėse priskaičiuojama apie 100-150 porų, iš kurių apie pusę gyveno Bresto srityje. Šiaurės Gudijoje tarp Dauguvos vidurupio ir Nemuno baseino vidurio esančiame Gudijos ežeryne (Беларускае Паазере) gyvena apie 30-40, kitais, galbūt tikslesniais šaltiniais, apie 15-20 porų[4].
Didieji ereliai rėksniai reguliariai stebimi Lietuvoje per paukščių migracijas, o Nemuno deltoje ir Rytų Lietuvoje ir veisimosi laikotarpiu. Manoma kad yra perinčių porų, nors jų lizdavietės dar neaptiktos. Įrašyti į Lietuvos raudonosios knygos 1(E) kategoriją.
Gyvena drėgnuose, pelkėtuose miškuose arčiau vandens telkinių.
Didysis erelis rėksnys (lot. Clanga clanga, angl. Greater Spotted Eagle, vok. Schelladler) – vanaginių (Accipitridae) šeimos, erelių rėksnių (lot. Clanga) genties plėšrusis paukštis.
Vidējais ērglis (Clanga clanga) ir vidēja auguma vanagu dzimtas (Accipitridae) plēsīgais putns, kas pieder vidējo ērgļu ģintij (Clanga).[1][2][3] Ģeogrāfisko variāciju nav.[1] Tas mājo mežainos reģionos un ir izteikts gājputns. Ligzdo Eiropas ziemeļdaļas un Āzijas mērenajā joslā, ziemo Eiropas dienvidaustrumos, Āfrikas ziemeļaustrumos un Dienvidāzijā.[4] Latvijā vidējais ērglis ir samērā rets, bet regulārs ieceļotājs un ļoti rets ligzdotājs.[5] Vidējais ērglis ir apdraudēta suga un tās populācija nepārtraukti samazinās. Uzskata, ka pasaules populācija sastāda 5000—13 200 indivīdu, bet visticamāk, ka vidējo ērgļu kopējais skaits ir zem 10 000.[6]
Vidējais ērglis sastopams Centrāleiropā, Austrumeiropā un tālāk uz austrumiem cauri Krievijas Eiropas daļai, sasniedzot Sibīrijas dienvidu reģionus (Usūriju) un Ķīnas ziemeļaustrumus. Ziemo dažviet Dienvideiropā, Āfrikas ziemeļos un austrumos (galvenokārt Etiopijā) un Tuvajos Austrumos. Iespējams, ziemošanas areāls sasniedz Kazahstānu, Vidējais ērglis ziemo arī Pakistānā un Indijas ziemeļdaļā, kā arī Ķīnas dienvidos un austrumos, Indoķīnā, Singapūrā, reizēm arī Taivānā vai Krievijas galējos dienvidaustrumos un Japānā.[5]
Vidējais ērglis ir uzskatāms par apdraudētāko no Eiropas ērgļu sugām.[7] Eiropas Savienības lielākās ligzdošanas populācijas ir Polijā, Igaunijā un Somijā, iespējami ligzdotāji varbūt arī Latvijā un Lietuvā. Eiropā tas lielākā skaitā sastopams arī Baltkrievijā, Ukrainā un Krievijā. Par lielāko draudu vidējam ērglim var uzskatīt tā rietumu daļas populācijas hibridizēšanos ar tuvu radniecīgo mazo ērgli. Tā kā hibrīdi ir vairoties spējīgi, reti sastopamie vidējie ērgļi izzūd starp lielāko mazo ērgļu populāciju.[7] Teritorijās, kur mazā ērgļa izplatība pārklājas ar vidējo ērgli, abas sugas ir ļoti grūti nosakāmas, tā kā ārēji izskatās ļoti līdzīgas. Vidējais ērglis apdzīvo galvenokārt palieņu mežus un bieži barojas virs ūdeņiem. Vairāk pārtiek no ūdensputniem un ūdens dzīvniekiem.[8]
Vidējais ērglis ir vidēja auguma plēsīgais putns. Mātītes lielākas nekā tēviņi. Vidējā ērgļa ķermeņa garums ir 59—71 cm, spārnu izplētums 155—180 cm, tēviņa svars 1,5—1,9 kg, mātītes 1,8—2,5 kg.[5][9] Reizēm ļoti liela mātīte var sasniegt 3,2 kg.[10][11]
Vidējā ērgļa jaunajiem putniem vienīgajiem no visas vidējo ērgļu ģints uz spārniem ir balti raibumi, kas veido škērsjoslu pāri sāprniem. Putnam pieaugot, raibumi kļūst bālāki, līdz izzūd. Apspalvojums pieaugušajiem putniem uz galvas, ķermeņa un spārniem ir tumši brūns, lidspalvas spārnu virspusē nedaudz gaišākas.[12] Galva ir proporcionāli maza, salīdzinot ar citām ērgļu sugām. Acis tumši brūnas. Uz muguras pie astes pamatnes balta V veida zīme.
Vidējo ērgli ir ļoti grūti atšķirt gan no mazā ērgļa, gan no Indijas mazā ērgļa. Ar abām sugām vidējam ērglim pārklājas izplatības areāls. No visām trim sugām caurmērā vislielākais ir vidējais ērglis. Tā galvas un spārnu apspalvojums ir ļoti tumšs, kas parasti, bet ne vienmēr, kontrastē ar ķermeņa nedaudz gaišāko apspalvojumu. Abām mazo ērgļu sugām galva un spārni ir gaišāki par ķermeņa apspalvojumu. Acis vidējam ērglim ir nedaudz gaišākas nekā galvas apspalvojums, salīdzinoši Indijas mazajam ērglim tās ir tumšākas. Planējumā vidējā ērgļa spārnu lidspalvas ir noliektas uz leju.[12]
Ārpus vairošanās sezonas, savās ziemošanas vietās vidējie ērgļi ir sabiedriskāki nekā vasarā ligzdošanas areālā. Ziemā var novērot nelielus barus, kuros ir līdz 10 dažāda vecuma īpatņi.[13] Šīs sugas migrācijas raksturs līdz šim nav detalizēti izpētīts. Rudens migrācija Āzijas ziemeļaustrumos sākas septembrī un oktobrī. Ligzdošanas vietās atgriežas aprīlī.[12]
Vidējais ērglis ligzdošanas teritorijās uzturas mitros, applūstošos mežos un mitrās pļavās, bet Eiropā šādas teritorijas tiek intensīvi meliorētas, tāpēc to skaits strauji samazinās, bet nosusinātajās platībās ienāk mazais ērglis.[12][14] Āfrikā ziemošanas teritorijās tas uzturas savannā akāciju mežos. Tos Irānā var novērot līdz 4000 metriem virs jūras līmeņa, bet parasti vidējais ērglis uzturas no jūras līmeņa līdz 1000 metriem.[6]
Vidējais ērglis barojas ar vardēm, kas atsevišķos reģionos ir tā galvenā barība.[12] Tomēr vidējais ērglis medī arī nelielus zīdītājus, kas nav lielāki par trusi, ūdensputnus, ķirzakas, čūskas, zivis, kukaiņus, neatsakās no maitas un reizēm mēdz atņemt medījumu melnajai klijai vai citiem vidējiem ērgļiem.[6][12] Tie medī no lidojuma, no paaugstinātas vietas, piemēram, koku zara vai uz zemes.[6]
Vidējie ērgļi veido monogāmus pārus, gadā viens perējums. Vairošanās sezona ir no aprīļa līdz augustam, bet Pakistānā no novembra līdz martam.[6] Ligzda plaša, samērā augsta platforma, kas sakrauta no koku zariem. Reizēm vidējais ērglis izmanto melnā stārķa ligzdu.[6] Tā atrodas kāda augsta koka zaru žāklē, uz klints radzes vai pat uz zemes. No iekšpuses tās izklātas ar sausu zāli un dažādiem lakstaugiem. Ligzdas diametrs ir 70—110 cm, augstums līdz 1 metram. Dējumā ir 1—3 olas (parasti divas). Inkubācijas periods ilgst 42—44 dienas. Visbiežāk izdzīvo tikai viens putnēns, jo vecākais mēdz uzbrukt jaunākajam. Par putnēniem rūpējas abi vecāki. Jaunajiem putniem apspalvojums izaug 60—67 dienu vecumā, bet tie ir atkarīgi no saviem vecākiem vēl papildus 30 dienas.[6][12]
Vidējais ērglis (Clanga clanga) ir vidēja auguma vanagu dzimtas (Accipitridae) plēsīgais putns, kas pieder vidējo ērgļu ģintij (Clanga). Ģeogrāfisko variāciju nav. Tas mājo mežainos reģionos un ir izteikts gājputns. Ligzdo Eiropas ziemeļdaļas un Āzijas mērenajā joslā, ziemo Eiropas dienvidaustrumos, Āfrikas ziemeļaustrumos un Dienvidāzijā. Latvijā vidējais ērglis ir samērā rets, bet regulārs ieceļotājs un ļoti rets ligzdotājs. Vidējais ērglis ir apdraudēta suga un tās populācija nepārtraukti samazinās. Uzskata, ka pasaules populācija sastāda 5000—13 200 indivīdu, bet visticamāk, ka vidējo ērgļu kopējais skaits ir zem 10 000.
Burung Lang Bintik ialah salah satu daripada haiwan yang boleh di dapati di Malaysia. Nama sainsnya Aquila clanga.[2]
Burung Lang Bintik adalah haiwan yang tergolong dalam golongan benda hidup, alam : haiwan, filum : kordata, sub-filum : bertulang belakang (vertebrata), kelas : burung. Burung Lang Bintik adalah haiwan berdarah panas, mempunyai sayap dan tubuh yang diselubungi bulu pelepah. Paruh Burung Lang Bintik tidak bergigi.
Burung Lang Bintik membiak dengan bertelur. Telur Burung Lang Bintik bercengkerang keras.
A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z Burung Lang Bintik ialah salah satu daripada haiwan yang boleh di dapati di Malaysia. Nama sainsnya Aquila clanga.
De bastaardarend (Clanga clanga synoniem: Aquila clanga) is een middelgrote arend die broedt in Oost-Europa en Midden- en Noord-Azië.
De bastaardarend heeft als volwassen vogel een donkerbruin verenkleed. Het kleed van mannetjes en wijfjes is gelijk. Op de stuit zit een wittige vlek in de vorm van een halve maan. Juveniele dieren hebben duidelijke witte vlekken op de vleugels. Er komen ook licht geelbruine dieren voor. Deze kleurvariëteit is echter vrij zeldzaam. Juveniele dieren van deze kleurvariëteit zijn zeer licht bruinig geel. In de vlucht toont hij zeer brede, stompe vleugels met duidelijk uitstekende armpennen. Het patroon van de ondervleugel toont dekveren die donkerder zijn dan de armpennen, die meer grijzig van kleur zijn.
Deze vogel wordt ongeveer 66 tot 74 centimeter groot, groter dan de schreeuwarend (Clanga pomarina), waar hij voor de rest lastig van te onderscheiden is. De staart is vrij kort. De lichaamslengte is slechts een derde van de spanwijdte, die tussen de 155 tot 180 centimeter lang is. Één vleugel is ongeveer 477 tot 542 millimeter lang. De snavellengte bedraagt ongeveer 31 tot 40 millimeter. Deze vogel weegt ongeveer 1540 tot 3200 gram.
Hoge blaffende geluiden: 'kli-kli-kli-kli-kli'.
De bastaardarend eet kleine zoogdieren (ratten, muizen, mollen, hazen en konijnen), aas van kadavers, hazelwormen, slangen, kikkers en vogels, waaronder veel watervogels, maar ook korhoenders en kraaien. De bastaardarend jaagt veelvuldig nabij en boven het water. Kleine zoogdieren en reptielen worden gegrepen door met een glijvlucht vanaf honderd meter op het dier te duiken. Jonge reigers worden uit het nest gegrepen. Op eenden en meerkoeten jaagt hij door één dier af te zonderen van de rest van de groep en er regelmatig op te stoten, waardoor de watervogel steeds moet onderduiken. Op een gegeven moment raakt het dier zo vermoeid, dat hij zonder verzet van het wateroppervlak kan worden geplukt.
De bastaardarend broedt tussen mei en juli. Twee of drie grijsachtige eieren worden in een groot nest van twijgen gelegd. Dit nest bevindt zich meestal op lage takken van een hoge boom (soms zelfs op de grond) nabij een groot wateroppervlak. Ze worden door het vrouwtje in 42 tot 47 dagen uitgebroed en de donzige, hulpeloze jongen vliegen na 60 tot 65 dagen.
De bastaardarend leeft in uitgestrekte laaglandwouden en meer open, bosachtige streken, vaak in de buurt van moerassen, meren en andere wateren of vochtige graslanden en veengebieden, in Noordoost-Europa en Azië. Hij komt voor tot op een hoogte van 1000 meter.
Het is een trekvogel. Als zomergast verblijft hij van Polen en Finland via Rusland, Noord-Kazachstan, Zuid-Siberië, Mongolië en Noord-China tot de Japanse Zee. In Europa broeden waarschijnlijk niet meer dan 900 tot 1000 exemplaren, wereldwijd zijn er waarschijnlijk minder dan tienduizend volwassen exemplaren. Hij overwintert in Zuid- en Oost-China, Noord-India, Zuidoost-Azië, Turkije, het Midden-Oosten en Noordoost-Afrika (onder andere in Egypte). Enkele dieren overwinteren in Italië, Europees-Turkije en aangrenzend Griekenland. Sommige vogels steken de Bosporus over, maar meestal na het hoogtepunt van de observatieperiode. De dieren trekken weg tussen september en november, en ze keren in maart en april weer terug. Ze leggen hierbij afstanden van 1000 tot 7000 kilometer af.
De grootte van de populatie is wordt geschat op 3.300 tot 8.800 volwassen arenden. Dit aantal gaat achteruit. Een van de bedreigingen is hybridisatie met de veel meer voorkomende schreeuwarend. De bastaardarend is veel gevoeliger voor verstoring, daardoor krimpt het geschikte leefgebied door ontbossingen, drooglegging van moerassen, intensieve landbouw, wegenaanleg, verstedelijking en in sommige delen van het verspreidingsgebied ook stroperij. Om deze redenen staat de bastaardarend als kwetsbaar op de Rode Lijst van de IUCN.[1]
Bronnen, noten en/of referentiesDe bastaardarend (Clanga clanga synoniem: Aquila clanga) is een middelgrote arend die broedt in Oost-Europa en Midden- en Noord-Azië.
Storskrikørn (vitenskapelig navn Aquila clanga) er en fugl.
Denne ornitologirelaterte artikkelen er foreløpig kort eller mangelfull, og du kan hjelpe Wikipedia ved å utvide den. Storskrikørn (vitenskapelig navn Aquila clanga) er en fugl.
Àutri nòm an piemontèis: a l'é n'aghia, n'òja, n'àquila.
Costo artìcol a l'é mach në sboss. Da finì.
Da finì.
Da finì.
Aquila clanga
Àutri nòm an piemontèis: a l'é n'aghia, n'òja, n'àquila.
Costo artìcol a l'é mach në sboss. Da finì.
Da finì.
Da finì.
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Orlik grubodzioby (Clanga clanga) – gatunek dużego, wędrownego ptaka drapieżnego z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae).
Zamieszkuje pas od północno-wschodniej Europy do wschodniej Azji. Dość często zalatuje też do Europy Zachodniej, aż po Wielką Brytanię. To gatunek wędrujący sezonowo. Zimuje w południowej Azji, południowo-wschodniej Europie i na Bliskim Wschodzie. Jego niska liczebność sprawia, że jest najmniej poznanym europejskim ptakiem drapieżnym.
Ptak o krępej sylwetce. Samica jest trochę większa od samca. Obie płci ubarwione jednakowo. Upierzenie jednolicie brązowe z matowym, szarym odcieniem (może wydawać się wręcz czarne), z wierzchu jednolite, od spodu pokrywy skrzydłowe są ciemniejsze niż lotki. Skrzydła długie i szerokie, tępo zakończone, w locie lotki palczasto rozłożone. Większość ptaków ma na spodzie skrzydeł jasną sierpowatą plamę, gdzie łączą się lotki pierwszorzędowe z pokrywami. Kuper pozostaje biały. Ogon jest krótki. Dziób ciemny, nogi żółte. U dorosłych orlików tęczówka jest ciemnobrązowa. O tym, że są to orły właściwe świadczy całkowicie upierzony skok, z nogawicą dużo węższą niż u orła przedniego. U bardzo ciemnych młodych ptaków zaznaczają się 2-3 jasne paski na czerniawych pokrywach skrzydeł, tworzące rząd kropkowanych plamek (tzw. perły). Z daleka ptaki mogą wyglądać na czarno opierzone.
Spokrewniony jest blisko z orlikiem krzykliwym, do którego jest też bardzo podobny, choć nieco ciemniejszy, większy i masywniejszy. Sugerowanie się białymi plamami na kuprze nie jest pewne, bo nie zawsze występuje. U obu występują dwie formy: jasna i ciemna, ale nie zaznaczają się zbyt wyraźnie. Oba też podobnie szybują w powietrzu - mają lekko opuszczone "oklapnięte" skrzydła. Pewnie odróżnienie obu gatunków wymaga zatem doświadczenia i znajomości szczegółów upierzenia. W locie przypomina orła przedniego.
Bagna w pobliżu podmokłych lasów liściastych i jeziora otoczone lasami. Zasiedla też duże łąki, łęgi, olsy i mokradła. Preferuje tereny równinne ze starymi drzewostanami, najlepiej ponad 60-letnimi. Wybiera głębsze partie kompleksów w których wzdłuż rozrzedzonych drzew może wznieść się na pagórki.
Orliki prowadzą skryty tryb życia, zarówno grubodziobe, jak i krzykliwe. Tego pierwszego można jednak częściej spotkać na terenach podmokłych i nad zbiornikami wodnymi.
Toki mają miejsce wiosną. Orlik w czasie lotu godowego wznosi się bardzo wysoko, po czym zaczyna lotem nurkowym opadać w dół. Kolejny wzlot na dużą wysokość wykonuje szybowaniem na rozpostartych skrzydłach.
Na lęgowisku przebywa od marca do października.
W koronie drzewa liściastego, znacznie rzadziej iglastego, tuż przy pniu. Orlik buduje gniazdo z gałęzi, suchych korzeni i patyków, wyścieła je trawą, mchem, puchem i świeżymi zielonymi gałązkami brzozy, jemioły lub świerku. Ma kolisty kształt i średnicę 100 cm, a wysokość 0,9 m. Może znajdować się na 11-14 metrach wysokości, ale też zdarzają się lęgi na 4,5 metrach. Jedno miejsce lęgowe zajmowane jest przez parę sezonów. W przeciwieństwie do orlika krzykliwego orlik grubodzioby w czasie wyprowadzania lęgów może odganiać bieliki.
Wyprowadza jeden lęg w roku, w maju. W zniesieniu, pod koniec kwietnia lub w maju, zazwyczaj 2 białe jaja, brunatno nakrapiane o wymiarach 68,2 x 54,2 mm.
Jaja wysiadywane są przez okres około 42-44 dni przez obydwoje rodziców, już od pierwszego jaja. 2 młode wykluwają się asynchronicznie pod koniec maja lub na początku czerwca w odstępach paru dni. Matka karmi głównie starsze pisklę, które agresywnie atakuje młodsze nie pozwalając mu na pobranie pokarmu, aż w końcu je pożera. Ostatecznie przeżywa tylko jedno młode. Okazuje się zatem, że drugi potomek pełni jedyne rolę rezerwową – przeżywa wtedy, gdy ze starszego jaja nie wylęgnie się pisklę. U orlika grubodziobego zachodzi zatem obligatoryjny kainizm. Pisklęta opuszczają gniazdo po około 55 dniach. Młode orlika grubodziobego w porównaniu z orlikiem krzykliwym są gęsto cętkowane i mają biały kuper. Pełną samodzielność uzyskują po 60-65 dniach.
Je padlinę, poluje też na średniej wielkości kręgowce – ssaki do wielkości zająca, ptaki do rozmiarów cietrzewia, gady i płazy. Uzupełnienie stanowią duże owady. Preferuje norniki, a z większych ssaków łasice i gronostaje. Wśród ptaków chwyta skowronki, potrzosy, krzyżówki, a na zimowisku może polować nawet na żurawie. Poluje często na większe ofiary niż pokrewny gatunek orlika. Niekiedy zjada ryby lub padlinę. Zdarza mu się plądrować gniazda niektórych gatunków ptaków.
Poluje na ziemi lub chwyta zdobycz w powietrzu w locie poszukiwawczym. Może też czatować. Żerowanie może zajmować od 0,5 do 7,5 godziny dziennie. Samce najchętniej wyruszają na łowy w godzinach południowych, od 10-14. Skuteczność łapania zwierzyny ocenia się na ok. 35%. Najczęściej łowiskami są łąki, które znajdują się w pobliżu lęgowisk.
W Polsce objęty ochroną gatunkową ścisłą, wymaga ochrony czynnej. Wokół gniazd orlików grubodziobych obowiązuje strefa ochronna: przez cały rok w promieniu do 200 m, a okresowo (od 1.03 do 31.08) – w promieniu do 500 m od gniazda[5]. Inne działania polegają na ograniczaniu zarastania jego żerowisk poprzez wypas lub wykaszanie łąk. Poza tym niekiedy ratuje się drugie pisklę w lęgu i sztucznie wychowuje. Status ten wynika ze skrajnie niewielkiej populacji i zmian środowiska, gdzie dochodzi do osuszania terenów podmokłych.
Orlik grubodzioby (Clanga clanga) – gatunek dużego, wędrownego ptaka drapieżnego z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae).
A águia-gritadeira (Aquila clanga) é uma águia muito semelhante à águia-pomarina, com a qual pode ser facilmente confundida, tanto mais que os seus habitats se sobrepõem e as duas espécies dão origem a híbridos. É toda escura, apresentando malhas apenas na plumagem juvenil. Possui uma "ferradura" branca na base da cauda, tal como a pomarina. Tem um comprimento de 65-72 cm e uma envergadura de asas de 155-180 cm. Reproduz-se no nordeste da Europa em florestas densas, próximo de rios ou lagos.
Em Portugal esta espécie é rara, mas nos últimos anos tem sido observada a presença de um ou dois indivíduos invernantes, principalmente no estuário do Tejo.
A espécie é monotípica (não são reconhecidas subespécies)
A águia-gritadeira (Aquila clanga) é uma águia muito semelhante à águia-pomarina, com a qual pode ser facilmente confundida, tanto mais que os seus habitats se sobrepõem e as duas espécies dão origem a híbridos. É toda escura, apresentando malhas apenas na plumagem juvenil. Possui uma "ferradura" branca na base da cauda, tal como a pomarina. Tem um comprimento de 65-72 cm e uma envergadura de asas de 155-180 cm. Reproduz-se no nordeste da Europa em florestas densas, próximo de rios ou lagos.
Em Portugal esta espécie é rara, mas nos últimos anos tem sido observada a presença de um ou dois indivíduos invernantes, principalmente no estuário do Tejo.
Acvila țipătoare mare Aquila clanga este o pasăre răpitoare de zi, cu o anvergură a aripilor de peste un metru, declarată monument al naturii.
Acvila țipătoare mare are o lungime de 65 de cm. Asemenea tuturor vulturilor, aparține familiei Accipitridae. Poate fi întâlnită în zona din nordul Europei până în Asia și iarna în sud-estul Europei, Estul Mijlociu și sudul Asiei. Depune 1-3 ouă într-un cuib construit în copaci. Habitatul obișnuit al acvilei țipătoare mari este zona împădurită, unde vânează mamifere mici și alte mamifere terestre.
Este o acvilă de mărime medie spre mare, foarte asemănătoare cu acvila țipătoare mică, cu care seamănă la aspectul general. Penele capului și aripilor sunt de un maro foarte închis și contrastează cu penajul în general maro (față de acvila țipătoare mică, care are aceleași pene deschise la culoare). Capul este mic pentru o acvilă.
Adeseori este prezentă o zonă mai puțin evidentă pe partea exterioară a aripilor, dar o zonă de început albă în formă de lună este un bun indiciu. Puii au pete albe pe aripi.
Sunetele scoase sunt asemănătoare unor lătrături de câine.
România are aproximativ 2.300 de perechi de acvile țipătoare mici, aproape o treime din numărul acestor păsări la nivel mondial.[1]
Acvila țipătoare mare Aquila clanga este o pasăre răpitoare de zi, cu o anvergură a aripilor de peste un metru, declarată monument al naturii.
Acvila țipătoare mare are o lungime de 65 de cm. Asemenea tuturor vulturilor, aparține familiei Accipitridae. Poate fi întâlnită în zona din nordul Europei până în Asia și iarna în sud-estul Europei, Estul Mijlociu și sudul Asiei. Depune 1-3 ouă într-un cuib construit în copaci. Habitatul obișnuit al acvilei țipătoare mari este zona împădurită, unde vânează mamifere mici și alte mamifere terestre.
Este o acvilă de mărime medie spre mare, foarte asemănătoare cu acvila țipătoare mică, cu care seamănă la aspectul general. Penele capului și aripilor sunt de un maro foarte închis și contrastează cu penajul în general maro (față de acvila țipătoare mică, care are aceleași pene deschise la culoare). Capul este mic pentru o acvilă.
Adeseori este prezentă o zonă mai puțin evidentă pe partea exterioară a aripilor, dar o zonă de început albă în formă de lună este un bun indiciu. Puii au pete albe pe aripi.
Sunetele scoase sunt asemănătoare unor lătrături de câine.
Orol hrubozobý alebo orol tmavý[2] (Clanga clanga[3] synonymum Aquila clanga) je dravec z čeľade jastrabovitých. Je rozšírený v centrálnej a východnej palearktickej oblasti. Jeho typickým prostredím sú zamokrené oblasti, ako močiare, zaplavované lesy a lúky, jazerá a rybníky.
Podľa Medzinárodnej únie na ochranu prírody a prírodných zdrojov orol hrubozobý patrí medzi zraniteľné druhy, trend celkovej populácie je klesajúci, za odbobie posledných troch generácií populácia pomerne silno poklesla kvôli strate a ničenia biotopov na jeho hniezdiskách i zimoviskách. Odhaduje sa, že Európska populácia poklesla za odbobie 49,8 roka (tri generácie) o 50 – 79%, minimálne však o 20% za odbobie dvoch generácií (33,2 roka).[1]
Zo Slovenska z obbdobia 1980 – 1999 je známych iba 9 pozorovaní, pričom v Poľsku, Rumunsku a na Ukrajine hniezdi.[4] Z novšieho obdobia po roku 2000 v zozname vzácnych ornitologických pozorovaní podliehajúcich hláseniu Faunistickej komisii sú 4 záznamy[5] a jedno pozorovanie schválené Faunistickou komisiou na lokalite Perínske rybníky z apríla 2017.[6]
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Vajcia
Commons ponúka multimediálne súbory na tému Orol hrubozobý (Clanga clanga)
Wikidruhy ponúkajú informácie na tému Orol hrubozobý (Clanga clanga)
Orol hrubozobý alebo orol tmavý (Clanga clanga synonymum Aquila clanga) je dravec z čeľade jastrabovitých. Je rozšírený v centrálnej a východnej palearktickej oblasti. Jeho typickým prostredím sú zamokrené oblasti, ako močiare, zaplavované lesy a lúky, jazerá a rybníky.
Podľa Medzinárodnej únie na ochranu prírody a prírodných zdrojov orol hrubozobý patrí medzi zraniteľné druhy, trend celkovej populácie je klesajúci, za odbobie posledných troch generácií populácia pomerne silno poklesla kvôli strate a ničenia biotopov na jeho hniezdiskách i zimoviskách. Odhaduje sa, že Európska populácia poklesla za odbobie 49,8 roka (tri generácie) o 50 – 79%, minimálne však o 20% za odbobie dvoch generácií (33,2 roka).
Aquila clanga Pallas, 1811
Veliki klinkač (znanstveno ime Clanga clanga) je ujeda iz družine kraguljev, ki gnezdi v pasu od Vzhodne Evrope do Daljnega vzhoda.
Ta temnorjava ptica zraste v dolžino med 66 in 73 cm in ima razpon peruti do 160 cm. Mlade ptice imajo po telesu svetle pege, ki kasneje izginejo. Za bližnjega sorodnika orlov ima razmeroma majhno glavo, v letu je od spodaj videti črn, lepo pa je vidna svetla lisa ob korenu peruti. Nekateri primerki imajo po zgornji strani telesa svetle konice peres.
Oglaša se z značilnim lajajočim »kli-kli-kli«, po katerem je dobil slovensko ime.
Veliki klinkač je razširjen od Poljske proti vzhodu do Mandžurije, živi pa v močvirnatih predelih, ter v velikih, redkih gozdovih, ki se izmenjujejo z obsežnimi travniki. Prezimi nekoliko južneje v Afriki in Južni Aziji.
Njegova glavna hrana so večje ptice (vrani, ponirki, race,...) in manjši glodavci.
Gnezdi enkrat letno maja in junija, samica pa znese od 1 do 3 jajca v gnezdo na drevesu.
Veliki klinkač (znanstveno ime Clanga clanga) je ujeda iz družine kraguljev, ki gnezdi v pasu od Vzhodne Evrope do Daljnega vzhoda.
Större skrikörn (Clanga clanga) är en rovfågel. Liksom alla örnar hör den till familjen hökartade rovfåglar.
Större skrikörn är ungefär 65 centimeter lång och har en vingbredd på 160 centimeter. Den är en medelstor örn, mycket lik mindre skrikörnen, som överlappar den i storlek och allmänt utseende. Huvudet och vingtäckarna är mycket mörkbruna och kontrasterar med det i allmänhet mellanbruna fjäderdräkten (mindre skrikörn har däremot ljust huvud och vingtäckare). Huvudet är litet för en örn. Det finns ofta en mindre tydlig vit fläck på ovansidan av vingarna. Ungfågeln har vita fläckar på vingarna.
Större skrikörn är, som namnet antyder, stundtals mycket högljudd. Lätet är ett hundliknande jip.
Större skrikörnen häckar från norra Europa österut över Asien. Den är flyttfågel och övervintrar i sydvästra Europa, nordöstra Afrika, Mellanöstern och södra Asien. I Sverige är större skrikörnen sällsynt, men brukar observeras varje år, mest i Skåne.
Större skrikörn placerades tidigare i släktet Aquila men placeras idag i släktet Clanga tillsammans med mindre skrikörn och indisk skrikörn.[2][3] Genetiska studier visar att dessa tre arter är närmare släkt med svartörn och afrikansk tofsörn än örnarna i Aquila, t.ex. kungsörn.[4]
Arten håller till i ganska skogiga landskap, där den jagar små däggdjur och liknande, mestadels landlevande byten. Den lägger 1-3 ägg i ett bo i ett träd.
IUCN kategoriserar arten som sårbar på grund av en relativt liten världspopulation som minskar till följd av habitatförlust och förföljelse.[1] I Europa tros 810-1.100 par häcka.[1]
Wiktionary har ett uppslag om större skrikörn.Större skrikörn (Clanga clanga) är en rovfågel. Liksom alla örnar hör den till familjen hökartade rovfåglar.
Büyük orman kartalı (Aquila clanga), atmacagiller (Accipitridae) familyasından bir kartal türü.
Orta büyüklükte bir kartaldır. 65 cm kadardırlar. Kanat açıklıkları ise yaklaşık 160 cmdir. Küçük orman kartalı’na görünüş olarak çok benzerler. Baş ve kanat örtü tüyleri çok koyu kahverengidir ve tezat olarak genellikle orta kahverengi kuş tüyleri vardır (Küçük orman kartalının ise soluk bir başı ve kanat örtü tüyleri vardır). Baş, bir kartal için küçüktür. Çoğunlukla kanat üstlerinde daha az açık beyaz bir yama vardır. Ama ilk kanat tüylerinde beyaz bir hilal, iyi bir alan izidir. Kuyruğun üst bölgesinde beyaz renkli tüyler “V” şeklinde görülür.görüş acıları 4 km dir
Ötüşü, köpek gibi bir havlamadır. Ağaçlarda yaptıkları yuvalarına 1-3 yumurta bırakırlar.
Gündüz yırtıcı kuşları ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz. Büyük orman kartalı (Aquila clanga), atmacagiller (Accipitridae) familyasından bir kartal türü.
Великий підорлик має довжину тіла 65-73 см і масу тіла 1,6 — 3,2 кг. Статевий диморфізм виражений слабо, самки дещо більші за самців. Великий підорлик дещо більше і темніше за свого найближчого родича — малого підорлика, але в польових умовах ці види практично невідрізнимі. Оперення дорослих птахів (від трьох років і старше) однотонне, темно-буре, потилиця і підхвостя забарвлені декілька світліше. Махове пір'я крил чорнувате з світлими основаннями внутрішніх опахал; махове хвоста — темно-буре, іноді з чорнуватим поперечним малюнком. Дзьоб і кігті чорні. Восковиця і ноги жовті. Ноги оперені до самих пальців.
Зрідка зустрічаються світла морфа, у цих особин основний бурий колір замінений вохристий жовтуватим. У молодих особин оперення з світлими краплеподібними плямами на верхній стороні тіла, зустрічається також світла варіація з переважанням вохристо-золотистого тону. У проміжних нарядах поступово зменшується домішка вохристих плям.
Великий підорлик — мігруючий птах, що гніздиться в помірній смузі Євразії, від Східної Європі до Монголії і Китаю. Зимує в Індії, Ірані та Індокитаї. В Україні сучасний ареал охоплює північно-західні, північні та, можливо, північно-східні області. У зимовий період зрідка трапляється в Азово-Чорноморському регіоні. З середини ХХ ст. ареал зменшився, відступив на північ.
На 1997 р. чисельність гніздового угруповання виду в Україні оцінено в 40—60 пар, на 2004 р. — у 20—30 пар. Такий стан української популяції визначений при проведенні широких обстежень районів, де була ймовірною присутність виду. Сучасна чисельність цього підорлика в Україні, ймовірно, становить 10—20 пар.
В європейській гніздовій популяції у 2004 р. налічували 810—1100 пар.[3]
Основні причини зміни чисельності: знищення ділянок заплавного стиглого лісу біля великих водойм, меліорація, ведення лісорозробок біля гнізд птахів, відстріл мисливцями.
Великий підорлик мешкає в мішаних лісах та біля заплавних лук, боліт, річок і озер. Саме ці місця є для нього відмінними мисливськими угіддями. Цей орел частіше населяє низовинні райони, але інколи зустрічається на висоті до 1000 м. Полюючи, підорлик ширяє на великій висоті або розшукує здобич на землі.
Їжею підорликам служать гризуни, (переважно водяні полівки), плазуни, земноводні і дрібні птахи.
Гніздиться великий підорлик на деревах. Одне гніздо часто використовується цими птахами кілька разів. У травні самка відкладає 1-3, але частіше 2 строкатих яйця. Перше і друге яйце відкладаються неодночасно, але висиджування починається з першого яйця. Пташенята вилуплюються через 40 днів висиджування. Молодше пташеня, що вилупилося з яйця, відкладеного другим, піддається гонінням старшого і, як правило, гине в перші два тижні життя. У віці 8-9 тижнів пташенята великого підорлика встають на крило, і, в залежності від місця гніздування, у вересні або жовтні підорлики відлітають на зимівлю.
Охороняється Конвенцією з міжнародної торгівлі вимираючими видами дикої фауни і флори (CITES) (Додаток ІІ), Боннською (Додаток І) та Бернською (Додаток ІІ) конвенціями. Внесений до Червоної книги України (1994, 2009) (статус − рідкісний).
Можливе розведення цього птаха в неволі — цей птах утримують в багатьох зоопарках.
Clanga clanga là một loài chim trong họ Accipitridae.[2]
Clanga clanga là một loài chim trong họ Accipitridae.
гнездовья
зимовки
Большой подорлик[1] (лат. Aquila clanga) — птица семейства ястребиных.
Большой подорлик имеет длину тела 65—73 см и массу тела 1,6—3,2 кг. Половой диморфизм не выражен, самки крупнее самцов. Редко встречается светлая форма. Экология вида изучена недостаточно. Большой подорлик несколько крупнее и темнее своего ближайшего родственника — малого подорлика, но в полевых условиях эти виды практически неразличимы. Оперение взрослых птиц (от трёх лет и старше) однотонное, тёмно-бурое, затылок и подхвостье окрашены несколько светлее. Маховые перья черноватые со светлыми основаниями внутренних опахал; рулевые — тёмно-бурые, иногда с черноватым поперечным рисунком. Изредка встречаются особи, у которых основной бурый цвет заменён охристо-желтоватым. У молодых особей оперение со светлыми каплевидными пятнами на верхней стороне тела, встречается также светлая вариация с преобладанием охристо-золотистого тона. В промежуточных нарядах постепенно уменьшается примесь охристых пестрин. Клюв и когти чёрные. Восковица и ноги жёлтые. Ноги оперены до самых пальцев.
Гнездится в Евразии от Финляндии, Польши, Венгрии и Румынии до Монголии, Китая и Пакистана. В России встречается от Калининграда до Приморья. Зимует в Индии, Иране и Индокитае. В Европе самая большая популяция этой птицы - в Белоруссии(около 120-150 пар).
Большой подорлик обитает в смешанных лесах, а также возле пойменных лугов, болот, рек и озёр. Именно эти места являются для него отличными охотничьими угодьями. Этот орёл чаще населяет равнины, но изредка встречается на высоте до 1000 м. Охотясь, подорлик парит на большой высоте или разыскивает добычу на земле.
Пищей подорликам служат грызуны (большей частью водяные полёвки), пресмыкающиеся, земноводные и мелкие птицы.
Гнездится Большой подорлик на деревьях. Одно гнездо птицы часто используют несколько раз. В мае самка откладывает 1—3, но чаще 2 пёстрых яйца. Первое и второе яйцо откладываются неодновременно, но насиживание начинается с первого яйца. Птенцы вылупляются спустя 40 дней насиживания. Младший птенец, вылупившийся из яйца, отложенного вторым, подвергается гонениям старшего и, как правило, погибает в первые две недели жизни. В возрасте 8—9 недель птенцы большого подорлика встают на крыло, и, в зависимости от места гнездования, в сентябре или октябре подорлики отлетают на зимовку. Возможно разведение этой птицы в неволе — она успешно содержится во многих зоопарках.
Большой подорлик (лат. Aquila clanga) — птица семейства ястребиных.
乌雕（学名：Clanga clanga）为鹰科花雕屬的鸟类，又名花雕，分布于北欧、欧洲东南部和亚洲大部。分布于台灣本島以及中国大陆的新疆、内蒙古、东北、长江下游、河北、河南、浙江、福建、广东、广西等地，主要栖息于连接水源的森林草原。该物种的模式产地在西伯利亚。[1]
乌雕（学名：Clanga clanga）为鹰科花雕屬的鸟类，又名花雕，分布于北欧、欧洲东南部和亚洲大部。分布于台灣本島以及中国大陆的新疆、内蒙古、东北、长江下游、河北、河南、浙江、福建、广东、广西等地，主要栖息于连接水源的森林草原。该物种的模式产地在西伯利亚。
ワシントン条約附属書II類 分類 界 : 動物界 Animalia 門 : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata 綱 : 鳥綱 Aves 目 : タカ目 Accipitriformes 科 : タカ科 Accipitridae 属 : イヌワシ属 Aquila 種 : カラフトワシ A. clanga 学名 Aquila clanga Pallas, 1811 和名 カラフトワシ 英名 Greater spotted eagle 
カラフトワシ（樺太鷲、学名:Aquila clanga）は、タカ目タカ科イヌワシ属に分類される鳥類。
夏季にヨーロッパ東部からロシア南東部にかけての地域で繁殖し、冬季になるとインド北部、中華人民共和国南部、アフリカ大陸北部、東南アジアへ南下し越冬する。日本には越冬のためまれに飛来（迷鳥もしくはまれな冬鳥）する。鹿児島県には定期的な渡来地がある。
全長オス67cm、メス70cm。翼開張158-182cm。尾羽は短い。全身が黒褐色や濃褐色、褐色の羽毛で覆われる。尾羽基部の上面（上尾筒）や尾羽基部の下面（下尾筒）の先端には白い斑紋が入る。
虹彩は暗褐色。後肢の色彩は黄色。
幼鳥は肩羽や雨覆に淡褐色の斑紋が入る。
越冬地では農耕地やマングローブ林などに生息する。飛翔時には腕を上げ翼の先端を下げる。
食性は動物食で、小型哺乳類、鳥類、爬虫類、両生類、魚類などを捕食するほか、動物の死骸なども食べる。帆翔したり樹上で待ち伏せしたりして獲物を探すほか、地面を歩いて獲物に忍びより捕らえることもする。
平地や水辺の森林の樹上に営巣し、1-3個の卵を産む。抱卵日数は42-44日、巣立ちまでの日数は60-65日。巣立ち後、20-30日で独り立ちする。
この項目は、鳥類に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（ポータル鳥類 - PJ鳥類）。
항라머리검독수리(Greater spotted eagle, Clanga clanga)는 대형 맹금류의 하나이다. 일반적인 모든 수리류처럼 수리과에 속한다. 학명 clanga는 비명을 뜻하는 고대 그리스어 κλαγγή에서 비롯되었다.[1]
몸 길이는 59~71센티미터, 날개 길이는 151~179센티미터에 이른다. 일반적인 체질량은 1.6~2.5kg이며 대형 암컷의 몸무게는 3.2kg에 이르기도 한다.[2][3]
이스라엘에서 겨울을 나는 모습
인도에서의 성체의 아랫부분
인도에서의 성체의 윗부분
비행 중인 모습 (이스라엘에서 겨울을 나고 있다)
항라머리검독수리(Greater spotted eagle, Clanga clanga)는 대형 맹금류의 하나이다. 일반적인 모든 수리류처럼 수리과에 속한다. 학명 clanga는 비명을 뜻하는 고대 그리스어 κλαγγή에서 비롯되었다.
몸 길이는 59~71센티미터, 날개 길이는 151~179센티미터에 이른다. 일반적인 체질량은 1.6~2.5kg이며 대형 암컷의 몸무게는 3.2kg에 이르기도 한다.
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