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Laminarial ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Les laminarials (Laminariales), en anglès kelp (varec), són un ordre de grans algues del tipus algues brunes dins la classe Phaeophyceae. Hi ha uns 300 gèneres diferents.

Les laminarials creixen formant boscos dins del mar. Necessiten aigües riques en nutrients i temperatures d'uns 20 °C. Els gèneres Macrocystis i Nereocystis tenen un creixement molt ràpid (mig metre al dia) i finalment arriben a fer de 30 a 80 m.[1]

Usos comercials

La cendra de Bongo kelp és rica en iode i àlcali. Es poden fer servir per a produir sabó i vidre. L'alginat, és un glúcid derivat d'aquestes algues es fa servir en gelats, geleies i pasta de dents com també menjar per a gossos. A les Illes anglonormandes es fa servir com a fertilitzant.

El Kombu (Saccharina japonica) i altres espècies del Pacífic són un ingredient important en la cuina japonesa.[2]

Galeria fotogràfica

Espècies destacades

Espècies de Laminaria a les Illes Britàniques;

Espècies de Laminaria a tot el món:[3]

Altres espècies dins Laminariales

Referències

  1. Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0 565 09175 1
  2. Kazuko, Emi: Japanese Cooking, p. 78, Hermes House, 2002, p. 78. ISBN 0-681-32327-2
  3. Laminariales

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Laminarial: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

provided by wikipedia CA

Les laminarials (Laminariales), en anglès kelp (varec), són un ordre de grans algues del tipus algues brunes dins la classe Phaeophyceae. Hi ha uns 300 gèneres diferents.

Les laminarials creixen formant boscos dins del mar. Necessiten aigües riques en nutrients i temperatures d'uns 20 °C. Els gèneres Macrocystis i Nereocystis tenen un creixement molt ràpid (mig metre al dia) i finalment arriben a fer de 30 a 80 m.

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Kelp ( Czech )

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Kelpy jsou řasy patřící mezi chaluhy (Phaeophyceae) řádu Laminariales (čepelatky), které zahrnují asi třicet rodů. Kelpy vytvářejí v mělkých oceánech rozsáhlé podvodní porosty, tzv. kelpové lesy. Zřejmě se objevily v miocénu, před 5 až 23 miliony let. Tyto řasy potřebují ke svému vývoji vodu bohatou na živiny a teplotu mezi 6 °C a 14 °C. Rostou velice rychle – rostliny rodů Macrocystis a Nereocystis mohou povyrůst až o půl metru denně a dorůstat 30 až 80 metrů.

Stavba

Stélka většiny kelpů sestává z plochých, listům podobných struktur. Kelpy mají příchytný orgán, který je ukotvuje v substrátu na dně oceánu. Stélky některých druhů jsou nadnášeny dutými měchýřky naplněnými plynem.

Životní cyklus

Pro kelpy je typická rodozměna, tedy střídání haploidního gametofytu a diploidního sporofytu. Haploidní fáze začíná ve chvíli, kdy dospělý organismus uvolní velké množství spor, ze kterých se vyvíjí samčí a samičí gametofyty. Pohlavní rozmnožování dává vzniknout sporofytu, ze kterého se vyvine dospělá řasa.

Ekologie

Kelpy mohou tvořit husté lesy, které jsou druhově velice bohaté a plní významnou ekologickou funkci. Podél norského pobřeží se tyto lesy rozkládají na 5800 km² příbřežních vod a poskytují útočiště mnoha živočichům. Na stélkách jsou uchyceny četné sesilní organizmy (např. mořské houby, pláštěnci nebo mechovci). V plně vyvinutých kelpových lesích se na stélkách a příchytných orgánech kelpů vyskytuje více než 100 000 bezobratlých organismů na metr čtvereční. Větší bezobratlí, zejména mořští ježci druhu Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, rádi kelpové porosty spásají, přestože uvnitř hustých kelpových lesů se příliš nevyskytují.

Komerční využití

Kelpy se díky jejich výskytu v mělkých vodách a růstu stélek až k vodní hladině poměrně snadno těží. Kelpový popel je bohatý na jód a zásadité látky a může být využit při výrobě mýdla nebo skla. Až do začátku 19. století, kdy se uhličitan sodný začal zpracovávat průmyslově, bylo ve Skotsku pálení kelpu jedním z jeho hlavních zdrojů. Kyselina alginová, polysacharid získávaný z kelpu, se používá ke zpevnění zmrzlin, želé, dresingů nebo zubních past. Alginátový prášek často je používán zubaři a ortodonty při snímání otisků.

Konbu (Saccharina japonica a další), tedy několik druhů tichomořských řas, je velice důležitou složkou čínské, japonské a korejské kuchyně. Konbu se používá k dochucení vývarů, dušených pokrmů i rýže a také jako zelenina. Průsvitné kelpové plátky se používají jako poživatelný dekorativní obal rýže a dalších jídel.

Pro svůj vysoký obsah jódu se některé druhy kelpu už od středověku používají k léčbě zvětšené štítné žlázy.

Skupina výzkumníků z univerzity v Newcastlu v roce 2010 uskutečnila laboratorní pokusy, při kterých se kyselina alginová, obsažená v kelpu, ukázala být účinným prostředkem na hubnutí.

Zdroj obnovitelné energie

Kelp má velké přírůstky a při tlení uvolňuje poměrně velké množství methanu a také sacharidů, které mohou být přeměněny na ethanol. Existují návrhy na zřízení velkých kelpových farem na otevřeném moři, které by mohly sloužit jako zdroj obnovitelné energie. Na rozdíl od jiných biopaliv, například kukuřičného lihu, kelpové porosty logicky nevyžadují zavlažování.

Externí odkazy

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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Kelpy jsou řasy patřící mezi chaluhy (Phaeophyceae) řádu Laminariales (čepelatky), které zahrnují asi třicet rodů. Kelpy vytvářejí v mělkých oceánech rozsáhlé podvodní porosty, tzv. kelpové lesy. Zřejmě se objevily v miocénu, před 5 až 23 miliony let. Tyto řasy potřebují ke svému vývoji vodu bohatou na živiny a teplotu mezi 6 °C a 14 °C. Rostou velice rychle – rostliny rodů Macrocystis a Nereocystis mohou povyrůst až o půl metru denně a dorůstat 30 až 80 metrů.

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Laminariales ( German )

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Die Laminariales sind ein Taxon der Braunalgen, deren Mitglieder unter Wasser im klaren, flachen Meer Tangwälder bilden. Im Deutschen werden sie, wie auch vielzellige Rot- und Grünalgen, allgemein als Tang bezeichnet, mehrere Gattungen auch mit dem aus dem Englischen übernommenen Wort Kelp. Zu diesen gehört der Riesentang (Macrocystis pyrifera), welcher mit dem Sporophyten eine Länge von bis zu 60 Metern erreicht.

Die Sektion Phykologie der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft hat im Jahre 2007 den Seetang der Gattung Laminaria zur ersten Alge des Jahres gekürt.[1]

Merkmale

Die Laminariales zeigen einen heteromorphen Generationswechsel: Die Sporophyten sind ansehnliche bis sehr große, thallöse Algen (Tange). Die Gametophyten dagegen bestehen aus mikroskopisch kleinen, verzweigten Zellfäden. Bei den weiblichen Gametophyten sind auch die vegetativen Zellen deutlich größer als bei den männlichen, dafür ist ihre Anzahl geringer (bis hin zu einzelligen weiblichen Algen), sodass man von sekundären Geschlechtsmerkmalen sprechen kann.[2]

Der große Sporophyt der Laminariales (Makrothallus) hat eine thallöse Struktur und besteht aus dem Rhizoid, Cauloid und Phylloid. Das Rhizoid ist vergleichbar mit der Wurzel einer Pflanze. Bei den Laminariales besteht es aus sogenannten Hapteren (Krallen) mit deren Hilfe der Sporophyt sich an Steinen anheftet. Das Cauloid (bei Pflanzen die Sprossachse) bildet einen Stiel, von dem ein oder mehrere blattähnliche Wedel (Phylloide) ausgehen. Die Bezeichnung Phylloid deutet auf das Wort Phyllom hin, die wissenschaftliche Bezeichnung des Blattes der höheren Pflanzen. Am Ende des Cauloids einiger Arten findet man Gasblasen, sogenannte Pneumatocysten (auch als Aerocysten bezeichnet), die für den Auftrieb sorgen. Bei Arten der Gattung Nereocystis der Familie Laminariaceae bildet sich am Cauloid jeweils eine einzelne Gasblase, während man bei der zur gleichen Familie zählenden Gattung Macrocystis mehrere findet. Der Sporophyt der Laminariales besitzt ein Leitgewebe.

Wachstum

 src=
Illustration

Das Wachstum geht bei dem Gametophyten von der apikalen Meristemzelle aus. Der Sporophyt hingegen besitzt ein sehr komplex organisiertes Gewebe, das interkalare Wachstum des Cauloids geht von einem teilungsfähigen Abschlussgewebe (Meristem) aus, welches man bei den Laminariales als Meristoderm bezeichnet. An der Basis des Phylloids findet sich ein weiteres Meristem, ebenfalls auch auf der Oberfläche der Rhizoiden.

Unterschiede zu anderen Braunalgen

Im Gegensatz zum heteromorphen Generationswechsel der Laminariales tritt bei anderen Braunalgen auch ein isomorpher Generationswechsel auf, z. B. bei den Ectocarpales (Gattung Ectocarpus) und bei den Dictyotales (Gattung Dictyota). Bei der Gattung Cutleria der Cutleriales ist im Gegensatz zu den Laminariales der Gametophyt weitaus ausgeprägter als der hierbei mikroskopisch kleine Sporophyt. Vertreter der Fucales hingegen kann man als diplont bezeichnen. Bereits der Sporophyt bildet die Gameten, ein Gametophyt ist somit nicht vorhanden.

Systematik

 src=
Palmentang (Laminaria hyperborea)
 src=
Riesentang (Macrocystis pyrifera)
 src=
See-Palme (Polstelsia palmaeformis)
 src=
Zuckertang (Saccharina latissima)

Die Laminariales wurden 1909 von Walter Migula aufgestellt (In: Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. pp. i-iv, 1-382, 122 (41 col.) pls. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz). Sie wird in 34 Gattungen und etwa 129 Arten gegliedert (nach Guiry 2014).

Nutzung

Kombu, wie Laminarien auf Japanisch heißen, wird in der japanischen Küche sehr häufig verwendet. Auch die russische Küche kennt diese als salatartige Beilage mit Öl-Dressing.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

  1. Sektion Phykologie der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft: Seetang Laminaria ist Alge des Jahres 2007. Pressemitteilung 2007.
  2. Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen, 31. Auflage 1978, S. 584ff.

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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( German )

provided by wikipedia DE

Die Laminariales sind ein Taxon der Braunalgen, deren Mitglieder unter Wasser im klaren, flachen Meer Tangwälder bilden. Im Deutschen werden sie, wie auch vielzellige Rot- und Grünalgen, allgemein als Tang bezeichnet, mehrere Gattungen auch mit dem aus dem Englischen übernommenen Wort Kelp. Zu diesen gehört der Riesentang (Macrocystis pyrifera), welcher mit dem Sporophyten eine Länge von bis zu 60 Metern erreicht.

Die Sektion Phykologie der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft hat im Jahre 2007 den Seetang der Gattung Laminaria zur ersten Alge des Jahres gekürt.

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Kelp (Seealgen) ( Low Saxon )

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Kelp (ut de engelsche Spraak) sünd lange Seealgen, de to de Brunen Algen (Phaeophyceae) tohören doot. De wetenschoppliche Naam for düsse Ordnung mank de Bruunalgen is Laminariales. Dat gifft um un bi 30 verschedene Geslechter mank de Kelpen. Kelp wasst in Unnerwater-Wolden (Kelpwolden) in flacke Ozeane. Dat warrt annahmen, datt de Kelpen in dat Miozän upkamen sünd, vör um un bi 23 bit hen to 5 Mio. Johre[1] Düsse Organismen bruukt Water mit veel Nährstoff dor in un wasst bloß bi Temperaturen vun twuschen 6 un 14 ° Celsius. Se sünd dor bekannt for, datt se bannig fix wassen doot. De Geslechter Macrocystis un Nereocystis wasst meist en halven Meter an een Dag un könnt tolest 30 bit 80 m lang weern.[2]

In dat 19. Johrhunnert weer dat Woort „Kelp“ sunnerlich tohopenknütt mit Seealgen, de verbrennt wurrn sünd, um dor „Soda-Asch“ (besteiht to'n groten Deel ut Natriumcarbonat) ut to maken. To de Seealgen, de dor for bruukt wurrn sünd, hörden Aarden vun de Laminariales un ok vun de Fucales mit to. Dat Woort „Kelp“ is dortieds ok direktmang for de Asch bruukt wurrn, de bi dat Verbrennen denn rutkeem.[3]

Belege

  1. Macrocystis Evolution
  2. Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0-565-09175-1
  3. "Kelp," in Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition). Oxford University Press, 1989. Retrieved 1 December 2006
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Kelp (Seealgen): Brief Summary ( Low Saxon )

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Kelp (ut de engelsche Spraak) sünd lange Seealgen, de to de Brunen Algen (Phaeophyceae) tohören doot. De wetenschoppliche Naam for düsse Ordnung mank de Bruunalgen is Laminariales. Dat gifft um un bi 30 verschedene Geslechter mank de Kelpen. Kelp wasst in Unnerwater-Wolden (Kelpwolden) in flacke Ozeane. Dat warrt annahmen, datt de Kelpen in dat Miozän upkamen sünd, vör um un bi 23 bit hen to 5 Mio. Johre Düsse Organismen bruukt Water mit veel Nährstoff dor in un wasst bloß bi Temperaturen vun twuschen 6 un 14 ° Celsius. Se sünd dor bekannt for, datt se bannig fix wassen doot. De Geslechter Macrocystis un Nereocystis wasst meist en halven Meter an een Dag un könnt tolest 30 bit 80 m lang weern.

In dat 19. Johrhunnert weer dat Woort „Kelp“ sunnerlich tohopenknütt mit Seealgen, de verbrennt wurrn sünd, um dor „Soda-Asch“ (besteiht to'n groten Deel ut Natriumcarbonat) ut to maken. To de Seealgen, de dor for bruukt wurrn sünd, hörden Aarden vun de Laminariales un ok vun de Fucales mit to. Dat Woort „Kelp“ is dortieds ok direktmang for de Asch bruukt wurrn, de bi dat Verbrennen denn rutkeem.

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Κέλπιες ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

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 src=
Δάσος κελπιών στο Monterey Bay Aquarium

Κέλπιες ονομάζονται τα μεγάλα φαιοφύκη (μακροφύκη) που ανήκουν στις τάξεις Λαμιναριώδη (Laminariales) και Φυκώδη (Fucales), αν και ο όρος αναφέρεται πρακτικά στα είδη της τάξης Λαμιναριώδη μόνο. Βρίσκονται στα ρηχά υποπαλιρροιακά σκληρά υποστρώματα στις περισσότερες εύκρατες θερμοκρασίες. Οι κέλπιες αποτελούν σημαντικές κοινωνίες, καθώς εμφανίζουν μεγάλη παραγωγικότητα και περίπλοκη βιολογική δομή(Dayton, 1985). Λειμώνες κελπιών ονομάζονται οι μεγάλες πυκνές εκτάσεις με κέλπιες. Όταν οι θαλλοί τους βρίσκονται στην επιφάνεια του νερού ονομάζονται δάση κελπιών και αποτελούν οικοσυστήματα που φιλοξενούν πολυάριθμα είδη οργανισμών (Castro et al., 1999).

Συστηματική

Τα Λαμιναριώδη περιλαμβάνουν 7 οικογένειες: τις Akkesiphycaceae, Alariaceae, Chordaceae, Costariaceae, Λαμιναριοειδή (Laminariaceae), Lessoniaceae, Pseudochordaceae. Από τα Φυκώδη περιλαμβάνονται στις κέλπιες μόνο είδη της οικογένειας Durvillaeaceae.

Κατανομή

 src=
Παγκόσμια κατανομή δασών κελπιών.

Τα είδη του γένους Λαμινάρια (Laminaria) κυριαρχούν σε πολλά μέρη του κόσμου και κυρίως στον Ατλαντικό ωκεανό, στην Κίνα και στην Ιαπωνία. Τα είδη του γένους Ecklonia κυριαρχούν σε κάποια δάση κελπιών στην Αυστραλία, στη Νέα Ζηλανδία και στη Ν. Αφρική. Η γιγάντια κέλπια Macrocystis pyrifera σχηματίζει πυκνά δάση στη Ν. Αμερική, στα Ν. ωκεάνια νησιά, στην Αυστραλία, στη Νέα Ζηλανδία, στη Ν. Αφρική και στο ΒΑ Ειρηνικό εκτός από την περιοχή βόρεια του Σαν Φρανσίσκο στην Καλιφόρνια. Όμως εκεί υπάρχει η μεγαλύτερη ποικιλότητα ειδών κελπιών στον κόσμο, με κυρίαρχα γένη: Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Alaria, Pterygophora και Laminaria. (Dayton, 1985)

Μορφολογία

Οι κέλπιες αποτελούν τα πιο πολύπλοκα και μεγάλα φαιοφύκη. Περιέχουν κίτρινες χρωστικές ιδιαίτερα την φυκοξανθίνη που τους δίνει χρώματα από ελαιοπράσινο μέχρι σκούρο καφέ. Ο θαλλός μερικών κελπιών αποτελείται από ένα μόνο μεγάλο έλασμα, ενώ σε άλλα είδη το έλασμα χωρίζεται ή ακόμα και διακλαδίζεται και από ένα ριζοειδές μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί ένας αριθμός ελασμάτων. (Castro et al., 1999)

Κύκλος ζωής

Ο κύκλος ζωής όλων των κελπιών αποτελείται από εναλλαγή δύο γενεών. Τη φάση των απλοειδών γαμετόφυτων που παράγουν μικροσκοπικά ζωοσπόρια και τη φάση των διπλοειδών σπορόφυτων που παράγουν ανθηρίδια (αρσενικοί γαμέτες) και ωογόνια (θηλυκοί γαμέτες). Η γονιμοποίηση τους οδηγεί στην δημιουργία ζυγωτού και την ανάπτυξη σπορόφυτων (Dayton, 1985).

Οικοσυστήματα

Οι κοινότητες των κελπιών αναπτύσσονται σε σκληρά υποστρώματα κατά μήκος των ακτών. Εκεί επικρατούν ψυχρά ρεύματα που είναι πλούσια σε θρεπτικά άλατα. Οι κέλπιες καταστρέφονται από βόσκηση, που γίνεται κυρίως από αχινούς, καθώς και από θερμά ρεύματα, έντονη κυματική δράση και ρύπανση (Castro et al., 1999). Οι λειμώνες των κελπιών σχηματίζουν ένα πολυόροφο, πολύπλοκο περιβάλλον. Πάνω στις λεπίδες και τους στύπους των κελπιών κατοικούν πολύχαιτοι, κρουστοφόρα, οφίουροι και άλλα μικρά ασπόνδυλα, ενώ γύρω τους κατοικούν μεταξύ άλλων αχινοί, σπόγγοι, καβούρια, αυτιά της θάλασσας και ψάρια. Τα θρύμματα των κελπιών και των μακροφυκών του υποορόφου είναι η κύρια πηγή τροφής (Castro et al., 1999).

Χρήσεις

Οι κέλπιες χρησιμοποιούνται σε πολλούς τομείς:

Κάποια είδη μελετώνται ως πιθανές διατροφικές πηγές εμπορικών ψαριών, που συμβάλουν στην καλή υγεία των συγκεκριμένων ψαριών (Mansilla et al., 2011). Η γιγάντια κέλπια Macrocystis pyrifera καλλιεργείται στην Νότια Χιλή για εμπορικούς σκοπούς για την παραγωγή διάφορων τροφικών παραγόντων, ενώ έχει και εναλλακτικές χρήσεις ως τροφή για γαστερόποδα και αχινούς ή ως οργανικό λίπασμα (Gutierrez et al., 2006).

Μελετήθηκε η φυσιολογία ειδών κελπιών, αλλά η επίδραση των περιβαλλοντικών παραγόντων (όπως η διαθεσιμότητα φωτός, έκθεση στο κυματισμό και χαρακτηριστικά του βυθού) στη κατανομή και την κάλυψη ειδών κελπιών, αλλά και η αλληλεπίδρασή τους με άλλα είδη της κοινότητας (Gorman et al., 2013), αλλά και με ξενικά είδη (Scheil et al., 2012). Ακόμα, μελετήθηκε η ικανότητα κάποιων τάξεών τους να συσσωρεύουν και να χρησιμοποιούν το ιώδιο σε διάφορες φυσιολογικές προσαρμογές ως απόκριση στο βιοτικό ή αβιοτικό στρες (π.χ. άμυνα κατά των θηρευτών, αναδόμηση ιστών, κλπ.). Μέσω της μελέτης επιλεγμένων διεργασιών του μεταβολισμού τους, ανακαλύπτονται νέες λειτουργίες για τη συσσώρευση του ιωδίου στις κέλπιες και τη σημασία της συσσώρευσης βρωμίου σε τροποποιήσεις του κυτταρικού τοιχώματος και σε απορρόφησης του πολλαπλασιασμού των φαιοφυκών. Η σημασία του καθορισμού της θέσης των γονιδίων του βιοχημικού κύκλου εμπεριέχεται σε τομείς όπως η μικροβιολογία, η βιοχημεία, η ενζυμολογία, η κυτταρική βιολογία και η οικοτοξικολογία. (La Barre et al., 2010).

Πολλά είδη κελπιών μελετώνται, καθώς τα χημικά παράγωγα τους είναι χρήσιμα στη φαρμακολογία. Χαρακτηριστικό παράδειγμα αποτελούν τα είδη του γένους Laminaria, χημικές ουσίες των οποίων χρησιμοποιούνται ευρέως για τη θεραπεία δηλητηρίασης από βαρέα μέταλλα, καρκίνου, καρδιοαγγειακά νοσήματα (Kim et al., 2011). Ένας πολυσακχαρίτης των φαιοφυκών αποδείχτηκε ότι έχει ισχυρή αντιοξειδωτική ικανότητα in vitro και να προωθεί τη σύνθεση του κολλαγόνου, για τον λόγο αυτό αποτελεί αποτελεσματικό συστατικό των μελλοντικών καλλυντικών (Yu et al., 2013).

Στο πλαίσιο αντιμετώπισης της αυξημένης ποσότητας CO2 στην ατμόσφαιρα από τα ορυκτά καύσιμα, γίνεται μια προσπάθεια εξεύρεσης εναλλακτικών πηγών ενέργειας. Έχει βρεθεί ότι το είδος Laminaria digitata μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως πρώτη ύλη μεγάλης διάρκειας για αναερόβια καύση και ζύμωση με τελικό παράγωγο αιθανόλη και πετρέλαιο (Adams et al., 2011). Ακόμα μελετάται η δημιουργία ενός συστήματος συλλογής υδροκινητικής ενέργειας στο οποίο να αξιοποιηθεί η κίνηση των κελπιών, εξαιτίας του κυματισμού, για την παραγωγή φτηνής και βιώσιμης ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας (Pankonien et al., 2010).

Βιβλιογραφία

  • Adams, J.M.M., Toop, T.A., Donnison I.S, Gallagher J.A., 2011. Seasonal variation in Laminaria digitata and its impact on biochemical conversion routes to biofuels. Bioresource Technology 102, 9976-9984pp.
  • Dayton, K.P., 1985. Ecology of Kelp communities. Annual review of ecology and systematic, Vol. 16, 215-245pp.
  • Gorman, D., Bajjouk, T., Populus, J., Vasquez, M., Ehrhold, A., 2013. Modeling kelp forest distribution and biomass along temperate rocky coastlines. Mar Biol, 160:309-325.
  • Gutierrez, A., Correa, T., Muñoz, V., Santibanez, A., Marcos, R., Cáreces, C., Buschmann, A.H., 2006. Farming of the giant kelp Macrocyxtis Pyrifera in the southern Chile for the development of novel food products. Journal of applied phycology, 18:259
  • Kim, S., Bhatnagar I., 2011. Physical, chemical, and biological properties of wonder kelp-Laminaria. Advances in food and nutrition research, Vol. 64, 85-96pp.
  • La Barre, S., Potin, P., Leblanc, C., Delage, L., 2010. The halogenated metabolism of brown algae (Phaetophyta), its biological importance and its environmental significance. Marine Drugs, Vol. 8, 988-1010pp.
  • Mansilla, A., Ávila, M., 2011. Using Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C. Agardh from southern Chile as a source of applies biological compounds. Revista Brasiliera de farmacognosia, Brazilian joyrnal of pharmacognosy, Vol. 21 (2), 262-267pp.
  • Pankonien, A.M., Ounaies, Z., 2010. Piezoelectric artificial kelp for energy harvesting. Asme, Conference on smart materials, adaptive structures and intelligent systems, Vol. 2, 223-232pp.
  • Schiel, D.R., Thompson, G.A., 2012. Demography and population biology of the invasive kelp Undaria pinnatifida on shallow reefs in southern New Zealand. Journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 434-435, 25-33pp.
  • Yu, P., Chao, X., 2013. Statistics-based optimization of the extraction process of kelp polysaccharide and its activities. Carbohydrate polymers, Vol 91, 356-362pp.
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Κέλπιες: Brief Summary ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

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 src= Δάσος κελπιών στο Monterey Bay Aquarium

Κέλπιες ονομάζονται τα μεγάλα φαιοφύκη (μακροφύκη) που ανήκουν στις τάξεις Λαμιναριώδη (Laminariales) και Φυκώδη (Fucales), αν και ο όρος αναφέρεται πρακτικά στα είδη της τάξης Λαμιναριώδη μόνο. Βρίσκονται στα ρηχά υποπαλιρροιακά σκληρά υποστρώματα στις περισσότερες εύκρατες θερμοκρασίες. Οι κέλπιες αποτελούν σημαντικές κοινωνίες, καθώς εμφανίζουν μεγάλη παραγωγικότητα και περίπλοκη βιολογική δομή(Dayton, 1985). Λειμώνες κελπιών ονομάζονται οι μεγάλες πυκνές εκτάσεις με κέλπιες. Όταν οι θαλλοί τους βρίσκονται στην επιφάνεια του νερού ονομάζονται δάση κελπιών και αποτελούν οικοσυστήματα που φιλοξενούν πολυάριθμα είδη οργανισμών (Castro et al., 1999).

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Kelp

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Kelps are large brown algae or seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera.[3] Despite its appearance, kelp is not a plant but a stramenopile, a group containing many protists.[4]

Kelp grows in "underwater forests" (kelp forests) in shallow oceans, and is thought to have appeared in the Miocene, 5 to 23 million years ago.[5] The organisms require nutrient-rich water with temperatures between 6 and 14 °C (43 and 57 °F). They are known for their high growth rate—the genera Macrocystis and Nereocystis can grow as fast as half a metre a day, ultimately reaching 30 to 80 metres (100 to 260 ft).[6]

Through the 19th century, the word "kelp" was closely associated with seaweeds that could be burned to obtain soda ash (primarily sodium carbonate). The seaweeds used included species from both the orders Laminariales and Fucales. The word "kelp" was also used directly to refer to these processed ashes.[7]

Description

In most kelp, the thallus (or body) consists of flat or leaf-like structures known as blades. Blades originate from elongated stem-like structures, the stipes. The holdfast, a root-like structure, anchors the kelp to the substrate of the ocean. Gas-filled bladders (pneumatocysts) form at the base of blades of American species, such as Nereocystis lueteana, (Mert. & Post & Rupr.)[6] to hold the kelp blades close to the surface.

Growth and reproduction

Scuba diving in a kelp forest in California

Growth occurs at the base of the meristem, where the blades and stipe meet. Growth may be limited by grazing. Sea urchins, for example, can reduce entire areas to urchin barrens.[8] The kelp life cycle involves a diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stage. The haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction then results in the beginning of the diploid sporophyte stage, which will develop into a mature individual.

The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a mucilage layer, rather than cuticle.[9]

Evolution of Kelp Structure

Since the earliest days of considering evolution by natural selection, seaweed were generally considered analogues of terrestrial plants.[10] Kelp are a brown algae, a phyla that is as distantly related to plants as it is to mammals but they have evolved plant-like structures through convergent evolution.[11] Where plants have leaves, stems, and reproductive organs, kelp have independently evolved blades, stipes, and sporangia. With radiometric dating and the measure Ma “unequivocal minimum constraint for total group Pinaceaevascular plants have been measured as having evolved around 419–454 Ma[12] while the ancestors of laminariales are much younger at 189 Ma.[13] Although these groups are distantly related as well as different in evolutionary age, there are still comparisons that can be made between the structures of terrestrial plants and kelp but in terms of evolutionary history, most of these similarities come from convergent evolution.

Some kelp species including giant kelp, have evolved transport mechanisms for organic as well as inorganic compounds,[14] similar to mechanisms of transport in trees and other vascular plants. In kelp this transportation network uses trumpet-shaped sieve elements (SEs). A 2015 study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) transport anatomy looked at 6 different laminariales species to see if they had typical vascular plant allometric relationships (if SEs had a correlation with the size of an organism). Researchers expected to find the kelp’s phloem to work similarly to a plant's xylem and therefore display similar allometric trends to minimize pressure gradient. The study found no universal allometric scaling between all tested structures of the laminariales species which implies that the transport network of brown algae is only just beginning to evolve to efficiently fit their current niches.[11]

Apart from undergoing convergent evolution with plants, species of kelp have undergone convergent evolution within their own phylogeny that has led to niche conservatism.[15] This niche conservatism means that some species of kelp have convergently evolved to share similar niches, as opposed to all species diverging into distinct niches through adaptive radiation. A 2020 study looked at functional traits (blade mass per area, stiffness, strength, etc.) of 14 species of kelp and found that many of these traits evolved convergently across kelp phylogeny. With different species of kelp filling slightly different environmental niches, specifically along a wave disturbance gradient, many of these convergently evolved traits for structural reinforcement also correlate with distribution along that gradient. The wave disturbance gradient that this study refers to is the environments that this kelp inhabit have a varied level of perturbation from the tide and waves that pull at the kelp. It can be assumed from these results that niche partitioning along wave disturbance gradients is a key driver of divergence between closely related kelp.[15]

Due to the often varied and turbulent habitat that kelp inhabit, plasticity of certain structural traits has been a key for the evolutionary history of the phyla. Plasticity helps with a very important aspect of kelp adaptations to ocean environments, and that is the unusually high levels of morphological homoplasy between lineages. This in fact has made classifying brown algae difficult.[16] Kelp often have similar morphological features to other species within its own area since the roughness of the wave disturbance regime, but can look fairly different from other members of its own species that are found in different wave disturbance regimes. Plasticity in kelps most often involves blade morphology such as the width, ruffle, and thickness of blades.[17] Just one example is the giant bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana, which have evolved to change blade shape in order to increase drag in water and interception of light when exposed to certain environments. Bull kelp are not unique in this adaptation, many kelp species have evolved a genetic plasticity for blade shapes for different water flow habitats. So individuals of the same species will have differences to other individuals of the same species due to what habitat they grow in.[18] Many species have different morphologies for different wave disturbance regimes[17] but giant kelp Macrocystis integrifolia has been found to have plasticity allowing for 4 distinct types of blade morphology depending on habitat.[19] Where many species only have two or three different blade shapes for maximizing efficiency in only two or three habitats. These different blade shapes were found to decrease breakage and increase ability to photosynthesize. Blade adaptations like these are how kelp have evolved for efficiency in structure in a turbulent ocean environment, to the point where their stability can shape entire habitats. Apart from these structural adaptations, the evolution of dispersal methods relating to structure have been important for the success of kelp as well.

Kelp have had to adapt dispersal methods that can make successful use of ocean currents. Buoyancy of certain kelp structures allows for species to disperse with the flow of water.[20] Certain kelp form kelp rafts, which can travel great distances away from the source population and colonize other areas. The bull kelp genus Durvillaea includes six species, some that have adapted buoyancy and others that have not. Those that have adapted buoyancy have done so thanks to the evolution of a gas filled structure called the pneumatocysts which is an adaptation that allows the kelp to float higher towards the surface to photosynthesize and also aids in dispersal by floating kelp rafts.[21] For Macrocystis pyrifera, adaptation of pneumatocysts and raft forming have made the species dispersal method so successful that the immense spread of coast in which the species can be found has been found to actually be very recently colonized. This can be observed by the low genetic diversity in the subantarctic region.[22] Dispersal by rafts from buoyant species also explains some evolutionary history for non-buoyant species of kelp. Since these rafts commonly have hitchhikers of other diverse species, they provide a mechanism for dispersal for species that lack buoyancy. This mechanism has been recently confirmed to be the cause of some dispersal and evolutionary history for kelp species in a study done with genomic analysis.[23] Studies of kelp structure evolution have helped in the understanding of the adaptations that have allowed for kelp to not only be extremely successful as a group of organisms but also successful as an ecosystem engineer of kelp forests, some of the most diverse and dynamic ecosystems on earth.

Kelp forests

Kelp may develop dense forests with high production,[24][25] biodiversity and ecological function. Along the Norwegian coast these forests cover 5800 km2,[26] and they support large numbers of animals.[27][28] Numerous sessile animals (sponges, bryozoans and ascidians) are found on kelp stipes and mobile invertebrate fauna are found in high densities on epiphytic algae on the kelp stipes and on kelp holdfasts.[29] More than 100,000 mobile invertebrates per square meter are found on kelp stipes and holdfasts in well-developed kelp forests (Christie et al., 2003). While larger invertebrates and in particular sea urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (O.F. Müller) are important secondary consumers controlling large barren ground areas on the Norwegian coast, they are scarce inside dense kelp forests.[30]

Commercial uses

Alaskan beach kelp

Giant kelp can be harvested fairly easily because of its surface canopy and growth habit of staying in deeper water.

Kelp ash is rich in iodine and alkali. In great amount, kelp ash can be used in soap and glass production. Until the Leblanc process was commercialized in the early 19th century, burning of kelp in Scotland was one of the principal industrial sources of soda ash (predominantly sodium carbonate).[31] Around 23 tons of seaweed was required to produce 1 ton of kelp ash. The kelp ash would consist of around 5% sodium carbonate.[32]

Once the Leblanc Process became commercially viable in Britain during the 1820s, common salt replaced kelp ash as raw material for sodium carbonate. Though the price of kelp ash went into steep decline, seaweed remained the only commercial source of iodine. To supply the new industry in iodine synthesis, kelp ash production continued in some parts of West and North Scotland, North West Ireland and Guernsey. The species Saccharina latissima yielded the greatest amount of iodine (between 10 and 15 lbs per ton) and was most abundant in Guernsey. Iodine was extracted from kelp ash using a lixiviation process.[33] As with sodium carbonate however, mineral sources eventually supplanted seaweed in iodine production.[34]

Alginate, a kelp-derived carbohydrate, is used to thicken products such as ice cream, jelly, salad dressing, and toothpaste, as well as an ingredient in exotic dog food and in manufactured goods.[35][36][37] Alginate powder is also used frequently in general dentistry and orthodontics for making impressions of the upper and lower arches.[38] Kelp polysaccharides are used in skin care as gelling ingredients and because of the benefits provided by fucoidan.

Kombu (昆布 in Japanese, and 海带 in Chinese, Saccharina japonica and others), several Pacific species of kelp, is a very important ingredient in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean cuisines. Kombu is used to flavor broths and stews (especially dashi), as a savory garnish (tororo konbu) for rice and other dishes, as a vegetable, and a primary ingredient in popular snacks (such as tsukudani). Transparent sheets of kelp (oboro konbu) are used as an edible decorative wrapping for rice and other foods.[39]

Kombu can be used to soften beans during cooking, and to help convert indigestible sugars and thus reduce flatulence.[40]

Saccharina latissima in canned salad form

In Russia, especially in the Russian Far East, and former Soviet Union countries several types of kelp are of commercial importance: Saccharina latissima, Laminaria digitata, Saccharina japonica. Known locally as "Sea Cabbage" (Морская капуста in Russian), it comes in retail trade in dried or frozen, as well as in canned form and used as filler in different types of salads, soups and pastries.[41]

Because of its high concentration of iodine, brown kelp (Laminaria) has been used to treat goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by a lack of iodine, since medieval times.[42] An intake of roughly 150 micrograms of iodine per day is beneficial for preventing hypothyroidism. Overconsumption can lead to kelp-induced thyrotoxicosis.[43]

In 2010, researchers found that alginate, the soluble fibre substance in sea kelp, was better at preventing fat absorption than most over-the-counter slimming treatments in laboratory trials. As a food additive, it may be used to reduce fat absorption and thus obesity.[44] Kelp in its natural form has not yet been demonstrated to have such effects.

Kelp's rich iron content can help prevent iron deficiency.[45]

Commercial production

Commercial production of kelp harvested from its natural habitat has taken place in Japan for over a century. Many countries today produce and consume laminaria products; the largest producer is China. Laminaria japonica, the important commercial seaweed, was first introduced into China in the late 1920s from Hokkaido, Japan. Yet mariculture of this alga on a very large commercial scale was realized in China only in the 1950s. Between the 1950s and the 1980s, kelp production in China increased from about 60 to over 250,000 dry weight metric tons annually.

In history and culture

Some of the earliest evidence for human use of marine resources, coming from Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa, includes the harvesting of foods such as abalone, limpets, and mussels associated with kelp forest habitats.

In 2007, Erlandson et al. suggested that kelp forests around the Pacific Rim may have facilitated the dispersal of anatomically modern humans following a coastal route from Northeast Asia to the Americas. This "kelp highway hypothesis" suggested that highly productive kelp forests supported rich and diverse marine food webs in nearshore waters, including many types of fish, shellfish, birds, marine mammals, and seaweeds that were similar from Japan to California, Erlandson and his colleagues also argued that coastal kelp forests reduced wave energy and provided a linear dispersal corridor entirely at sea level, with few obstacles to maritime peoples. Archaeological evidence from California's Channel Islands confirms that islanders were harvesting kelp forest shellfish and fish, beginning as much as 12,000 years ago.

During the Highland Clearances, many Scottish Highlanders were moved on to areas of estates known as crofts, and went to industries such as fishing and kelping (producing soda ash from the ashes of kelp). At least until the 1840s, when there were steep falls in the price of kelp, landlords wanted to create pools of cheap or virtually free labour, supplied by families subsisting in new crofting townships. Kelp collection and processing was a very profitable way of using this labour, and landlords petitioned successfully for legislation designed to stop emigration. The profitability of kelp harvesting meant that landlords began to subdivide their land for small tenant kelpers, who could now afford higher rent than their gentleman farmer counterparts.[46] But the economic collapse of the kelp industry in northern Scotland during the 1820s led to further emigration, especially to North America.

Natives of the Falkland Islands are sometimes nicknamed "Kelpers".[47][48] This designation is primarily applied by outsiders rather than the natives themselves.

In Chinese slang, "kelp" (simplified Chinese: 海带; traditional Chinese: 海帶; pinyin: hǎi dài), is used to describe an unemployed returnee. It has negative overtones, implying the person is drifting aimlessly, and is also a homophonic expression (Chinese: 海待; pinyin: hǎidài, literally "sea waiting"). This expression is contrasted with the employed returnee, having a dynamic ability to travel across the ocean: the "sea turtle" (simplified Chinese: 海龟; traditional Chinese: 海龜; pinyin: hǎi gūi) and is also homophonic with another word (simplified Chinese: 海归; traditional Chinese: 海歸; pinyin: hǎi gūi, literally "sea return").

Conservation

Overfishing nearshore ecosystems leads to the degradation of kelp forests. Herbivores are released from their usual population regulation, leading to over-grazing of kelp and other algae. This can quickly result in barren landscapes where only a small number of species can thrive.[49][50] Other major factors which threaten kelp include marine pollution and the quality of water, climate changes and certain invasive species.[51]

Gallery

Prominent species

Species of Laminaria in the British Isles;

Species of Laminaria worldwide, listing of species at AlgaeBase:[52]

Costaria costata, five-ribbed kelp

Other species in the Laminariales that may be considered as kelp:

Non-Laminariales species that may be considered as kelp:

Interactions

Some animals are named after the kelp, either because they inhabit the same habitat as kelp or because they feed on kelp. These include:

See also

References

  1. ^ William Miller, III (13 October 2011). Trace Fossils: Concepts, Problems, Prospects: Chapter 13 "Zoophycos and the Role of Type Specimens in Ichnotaxonomy by Davide Olivero. Elsevier. pp. 224–226. ISBN 978-0-08-047535-6. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  2. ^ Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. pp. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls.
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  16. ^ Draisma, Stefano G. A.; Prud'Homme van Reine, Willem F.; Stam, Wytze T.; Olsen, Jeanine L. (August 2001). "A Reassessment of Phylogenetic Relationships Within the Phaeophyceae Based on Rubisco Large Subunit and Ribosomal DNA Sequences". Journal of Phycology. 37 (4): 586–603. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037004586.x. ISSN 0022-3646. S2CID 83876632.
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  19. ^ Hurd, C. L.; Harrison, P. J.; Druehl, L. D. (August 1996). "Effect of seawater velocity on inorganic nitrogen uptake by morphologically distinct forms of Macrocystis integrifolia from wave-sheltered and exposed sites". Marine Biology. 126 (2): 205–214. doi:10.1007/BF00347445. ISSN 1432-1793. S2CID 84195060.
  20. ^ Garden, Christopher J.; Currie, Kim; Fraser, Ceridwen I.; Waters, Jonathan M. (2014-03-31). "Rafting dispersal constrained by an oceanographic boundary". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 501: 297–302. Bibcode:2014MEPS..501..297G. doi:10.3354/meps10675. ISSN 0171-8630.
  21. ^ Fraser, Ceridwen I.; Velásquez, Marcel; Nelson, Wendy A.; Macaya, Erasmo C.; Hay, Cameron H. (February 2020). Buschmann, A. (ed.). "The Biogeographic Importance of Buoyancy in Macroalgae: A Case Study of the Southern Bull‐Kelp Genus Durvillaea (Phaeophyceae), Including Descriptions of Two New Species 1". Journal of Phycology. 56 (1): 23–36. doi:10.1111/jpy.12939. ISSN 0022-3646. PMID 31642057. S2CID 204850695.
  22. ^ Macaya, E. C.; Zuccarello, G. C. (2010-12-16). "Genetic structure of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera along the southeastern Pacific". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 420: 103–112. Bibcode:2010MEPS..420..103M. doi:10.3354/meps08893. ISSN 0171-8630.
  23. ^ Fraser, Ceridwen I.; McGaughran, Angela; Chuah, Aaron; Waters, Jonathan M. (August 2016). "The importance of replicating genomic analyses to verify phylogenetic signal for recently evolved lineages". Molecular Ecology. 25 (15): 3683–3695. doi:10.1111/mec.13708. ISSN 0962-1083. PMID 27238591. S2CID 206183570.
  24. ^ Pessarrodona, A.; Assis, J.; Filbee-Dexter, K.; Burrows, M. T.; Gattuso, J-P.; Duarte, C. M.; Krause-Jensen, D.; Moore, P. J.; Smale, D. A.; Wernberg, T. (23 July 2020). "Global Seaweed Productivity". Science Advances. 8 (37): eabn2465. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abn2465. hdl:10754/681467. PMC 9473579. PMID 36103524.
  25. ^ Abdullah, M.I., Fredriksen, S., 2004. Production, respiration and exudation of dissolved organic matter by the kelp Laminaria hyperborea along the west coast of Norway. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 84: 887.
  26. ^ Rinde, E., 2009. Dokumentasjon av modellerte marine Naturtyper i DNs Naturbase. Førstegenerasjonsmodeller til kommunenes startpakker for kartlegging av marine naturtyper 2007. NIVA report, 32 pp.
  27. ^ Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83, 687-699.
  28. ^ Jørgensen, N.M., Christie, H., 2003. l Diurnal, horizontal and vertical dispersal of kelp associated fauna. Hydrobiologia 50, 69-76.
  29. ^ Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., Rinde, E., 2002. Colonisation of kelp imitations by epiphyte and holdfast fauna; a study of mobility patterns. Marine Biology 141, 965-973.
  30. ^ Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528.
  31. ^ Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (1952). Chemical Revolution. Ayer Co Pub. pp. 65–90. ISBN 978-0-8369-1909-7. OCLC 243798097.
  32. ^ Jonathan Pereira, Fred B. Kilmer, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Volume 1, 1854, p. 558
  33. ^ Edward C. C. Stanford, Wentworth L. Scott, ‘The Economic Applications of Seaweed’, February 14, 1862, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol 10, No. 482, 185-199
  34. ^ John J. McKetta Jr. Taylor & Francis, Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Volume 27 - Hydrogen Cyanide to Ketones Dimethyl (Acetone), 1988, p. 283
  35. ^ Brownlee, Iain A.; Seal, Chris J.; Wilcox, Matthew; Dettmar, Peter W.; Pearson, Jeff P. (2009). "Applications of Alginates in Food". In Rehm, Bernd H. A. (ed.). Alginates: Biology and Applications. Microbiology Monographs. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 211–228. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92679-5_9. ISBN 9783540926795. Retrieved 2019-01-25.
  36. ^ Uzunović, Alija; Mehmedagić, Aida; Lačević, Amela; Vranić, Edina (2004-11-20). "Formulation ingredients for toothpastes and mouthwashes". Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 4 (4): 51–58. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2004.3362. ISSN 1840-4812. PMC 7245492. PMID 15628997.
  37. ^ Rychen, Guido; Aquilina, Gabriele; Azimonti, Giovanna; Bampidis, Vasileios; Bastos, Maria de Lourdes; Bories, Georges; Chesson, Andrew; Cocconcelli, Pier Sandro; Flachowsky, Gerhard (2017). "Safety and efficacy of sodium and potassium alginate for pets, other non food-producing animals and fish". EFSA Journal. 15 (7): e04945. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4945. ISSN 1831-4732. PMC 7009951. PMID 32625597.
  38. ^ Powers, John M. Powers. Craig's Restorative Dental Materials, 12th Edition. C.V. Mosby, 022006. p. 270
  39. ^ Kazuko, Emi: Japanese Cooking, p. 78, Hermes House, 2002, p. 78. ISBN 0-681-32327-2
  40. ^ Graimes, Nicola: The Best-Ever Vegetarian Cookbook, Barnes & Noble Books, 1999, p. 59. ISBN 0-7607-1740-0
  41. ^ "Features of the Far Eastern cuisine". www.eastrussia.ru. Archived from the original on 2021-01-16. Retrieved 2021-01-14.
  42. ^ Iodine Helps Kelp Fight Free Radicals and May Aid Humans, Too Newswise, Retrieved on July 8, 2008.
  43. ^ Leung, Angela M.; Braverman, Lewis E. (March 2014). "Consequences of excess iodine". Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 10 (3): 136–142. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2013.251. PMC 3976240. PMID 24342882.
  44. ^ "Is Seaweed The Answer To A Dieter's Prayer?". Sky News. March 22, 2010. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010. Retrieved March 23, 2010.
  45. ^ Miller, Eric P.; Auerbach, Hendrik; Schünemann, Volker; Tymon, Teresa; Carrano, Carl J. (20 April 2016). "Surface binding, localization and storage of iron in the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera". Metallomics. 8 (4): 403–411. doi:10.1039/C6MT00027D. ISSN 1756-591X. PMID 27009567.
  46. ^ J. M. Bumsted, The People's Clearance: Highland Emigration to British North America, 1770-1815, 1981
  47. ^ [1] allwords.com definition for "Kelper",
  48. ^ [2] dictionary.com definition for "Kelper"
  49. ^ Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.
  50. ^ Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
  51. ^ Planet, Team (2012-01-12). "Green Glossary: Kelp Forests: Other Marine Life: Animal Planet". Animals.howstuffworks.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-24. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
  52. ^ AlgaeBase Laminariales
  53. ^ "Dabberlocks (Alaria esculenta)". The Marine Life Information Network. Retrieved 1 August 2019.
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Kelp: Brief Summary

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Kelps are large brown algae or seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera. Despite its appearance, kelp is not a plant but a stramenopile, a group containing many protists.

Kelp grows in "underwater forests" (kelp forests) in shallow oceans, and is thought to have appeared in the Miocene, 5 to 23 million years ago. The organisms require nutrient-rich water with temperatures between 6 and 14 °C (43 and 57 °F). They are known for their high growth rate—the genera Macrocystis and Nereocystis can grow as fast as half a metre a day, ultimately reaching 30 to 80 metres (100 to 260 ft).

Through the 19th century, the word "kelp" was closely associated with seaweeds that could be burned to obtain soda ash (primarily sodium carbonate). The seaweeds used included species from both the orders Laminariales and Fucales. The word "kelp" was also used directly to refer to these processed ashes.

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Laminariales ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Laminariales es un orden de grandes algas perteneciente a la clase Phaeophyceae (algas pardas). También se las denomina quelpos. A pesar de su apariencia de grandes plantas marinas, no pertenecen al reino de las plantas y algas verdes (Plantae), sino que se clasifican en el reino Protista. Se conocen alrededor de 30 géneros.

Estas algas crecen en bosques submarinos (bosques de algas) de aguas someras y claras, ricas en nutrientes y temperaturas por debajo de los 20 °C. Estos bosques ofrecen protección a algunas criaturas marinas, y alimentos para otros. Destacan por su alta tasa de crecimiento; el género Macrocystis y la especie Nereocystis luetkeana llegan a crecer medio metro al día, hasta alcanzar de 30 a 80 m.[1]

Morfología

En la mayoría de las especies el talo consiste en estructuras planas en forma de hoja denominadas láminas, que se originan de estructuras alargadas con forma de tallo denominadas estipes, mientras que los rizoides fijan el alga al sustrato del océano. En la base de las láminas de las especies americanas se forman unas vesículas de gas (neumatocistos) que mantienen a éstas cerca de la superficie, por ejemplo, en Nereocystis lueteana.[1]

Crecimiento y reproducción

 src=
Buceo en un bosque de algas en California.

El crecimiento se produce en la base del meristema, donde las láminas se unen al estipe. El crecimiento puede estar limitado por la presión de los alguívoros, por ejemplo, los erizos de mar pueden consumir grandes áreas. El ciclo de vida de las laminariales comprende las etapas de esporófito diploide y gametófito haploide. La etapa haploide comienza cuanto el organismo maduro libera numerosas esporas, que germinan para convertirse en gametófitos masculinos o femeninos.

La reproducción sexual da lugar a la etapa del esporófito diploide que se desarrollará en un organismo maduro. Un esporófito diploide maduro puede llegar a medir 30 metros de altura.

Hábitat

Los bosques de quelpos crecen en temperaturas menores a 20 °C y en aguas ricas en nutrientes. Estos están considerados entre los hábitats marinos más productivos biológicamente y se extienden en zonas costeras poco profundas, extendiéndose a lo largo del círculo polar ártico hasta el círculo polar antártico. Son de rápido crecimiento[2]​ y en las condiciones apropiadas los individuos diploides pueden llegar a crecer 30 cm por día.[3]

Usos comerciales

Las algas gigantes pueden ser cosechadas con facilidad debida a su gran superficie y a su hábito de crecimiento en aguas profundas. La ceniza de las algas marinas es rica en yodo y álcalis. En grandes cantidades, las cenizas pueden utilizarse en la producción de jabón y vidrio. Hasta la comercialización del proceso Leblanc a comienzos del siglo XIX, la quema de algas en Escocia fue una de las principales fuentes de cenizas de soda (principalmente carbonato sódico).[4]​ También se usa frecuentemente como fertilizante.

El alginato, un carbohidrato obtenido de algas marinas, se usa para espesar productos tales como helados, mermeladas, salsas, cremas y pasta de dientes, además de ser un ingrediente exótico de los productos manufacturados y de la comida para perros.

Varias especies del Pacífico (kombu, Saccharina japonica y otras) constituyen un ingrediente muy importante en la cocina japonesa. El kombu se usa para dar sabor a caldos y guisos (especialmente dashi), adornos comestibles (tororo kombu) en el arroz y otros platos, como ensalada y como ingrediente principal en aperitivos (tales como tsukudani). Las hojas de algas transparentes (oboro kombu).[5]​ El kombu puede utilizarse para ablandar los fríjoles durante la cocción y para ayudar a convertir los azúcares no digeribles y por tanto reducir la flatulencia.[6]

Posible fuente de energía renovable

Véase también: Biocombustible

El quelpo tiene una alta tasa de crecimiento y su descomposición es bastante eficiente en generar metano. Se ha propuesto que grandes granjas marinas de quelpo podrían servir como una fuente de energía renovable.[7]​ Distinto a otros biocombustibles como el etanol de maíz, la energía extraída del quelpo evita problemas del tipo "comida vs combustible" y no requiere de irrigación.

Especies prominentes

  • Quelpo cabeza de toro, Nereocystis luetkeana, una especie[8]​ del noroeste de América. Utilizado por los pueblos indígenas de la costa para hacer redes de pesca.
  • Alga gigante, huiro, sargazo o cochayuyo, (Macrocystis pyrifera), la mayor alga. Se encuentra en la costa del Pacífico de América del Norte y del Sur.
  • Kombu, Saccharina japonica y otras, varias especies de algas comestibles que se encuentran en Japón.

Galería

Referencias

  1. a b Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0 565 09175 1
  2. NASA. Bosques flotantes (Floating forests) [1]
  3. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/kelp.html
  4. Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). Chemical Revolution. Ayer Co Pub, June 1952, pp. 65–90. ISBN 0-8369-1909-2
  5. Kazuko, Emi: Japanese Cooking, p. 78, Hermes House, 2002, p. 78. ISBN 0-681-32327-2
  6. Graimes, Nicola: The Best-Ever Vegetarian Cookbook, Barnes & Noble Books, 1999, p. 59. ISBN 0-7607-1740-0
  7. http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=2166
  8. Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2006. AlgaeBase Archivado el 6 de junio de 2019 en Wayback Machine. version 4.2. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 07 December 2006

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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Laminariales es un orden de grandes algas perteneciente a la clase Phaeophyceae (algas pardas). También se las denomina quelpos. A pesar de su apariencia de grandes plantas marinas, no pertenecen al reino de las plantas y algas verdes (Plantae), sino que se clasifican en el reino Protista. Se conocen alrededor de 30 géneros.

Estas algas crecen en bosques submarinos (bosques de algas) de aguas someras y claras, ricas en nutrientes y temperaturas por debajo de los 20 °C. Estos bosques ofrecen protección a algunas criaturas marinas, y alimentos para otros. Destacan por su alta tasa de crecimiento; el género Macrocystis y la especie Nereocystis luetkeana llegan a crecer medio metro al día, hasta alcanzar de 30 a 80 m.​

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Kelp ( Basque )

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Kelp itsas belar mota bat da, batez Nereocystis, Laminaria, Macrocystis, Pelagophycus eta gisako alga generoei ematen zaren izena orokorra. Alga arreen Laminariales ordena osatzen dute.

Multzo handitan hazten dira, itsasoaren azaletik hurbil batez ere. Itsas hondoko haitzei lotuta egon ohi dira, eta askok aire-puxikak dituzte ur gainean egoteko. Kelp asko industrian erabiltzen dira, iodoa ateratzeko edo ongarriak egiteko.

Erreferentziak

  1. Migula, W. (1909) Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz i-iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls or..
(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Kelp itsas belar mota bat da, batez Nereocystis, Laminaria, Macrocystis, Pelagophycus eta gisako alga generoei ematen zaren izena orokorra. Alga arreen Laminariales ordena osatzen dute.

Multzo handitan hazten dira, itsasoaren azaletik hurbil batez ere. Itsas hondoko haitzei lotuta egon ohi dira, eta askok aire-puxikak dituzte ur gainean egoteko. Kelp asko industrian erabiltzen dira, iodoa ateratzeko edo ongarriak egiteko.

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Laminariales ( Finnish )

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Laminariales on ruskolevien lahko, johon kuuluu seitsemän heimoa ja lähes 130 lajia.[1] Siitä käytetään joskus suomenkielistä nimitystä taarimaiset tai englannista lainattua nimitystä kelpit. Lahkoon kuuluvilla levillä on yksilönkehityksessä selvä sukupolvenvuorottelu – leväyksilöt jakaantuvat mikroskooppisen pieniin ja suvullisesti lisääntyviin gametofyytteihin sekä huomattavasti suurempiin ja itiöitä muodostaviin sporofyytteihin.[2]

Sporofyyteillä on tavallisesti vähintään metrin mittainen sekovarsi, josta voidaan erottaa kolme osaa: juurimainen ritsoidi, varsimainen kauloidi sekä lehtimäiset fylloidit. Kauloidi on yleensä liereä ja siinä voi olla yksi tai useampia haaroja sekä kaasurakkuloita. Sporofyytit kasvavat pituutta kauloidien ja fylloidien yhtymäkohdissa sijaitsevien välikasvusolukoiden avulla. Niiden liereät itiöpesäkkeet muodostavat nystermiä, jotka sijaitsevat joko fylloideissa tai lisääntymiseen erikoistuneissa sporofylleissä.[2]

Gametofyytit ovat rihmaiset ja muodostuvat erillisistä haaroista. Sekä siittiö- että munapesäkkeet sijaitsevat eri sekovarsissa ja tuottavat vain yhden oogamisen sukusolun. Munasolu voi hedelmöittyä vasta työnnyttyään osittain munapesäkkeen seinämän läpi.[2]

Heimot

Taarimaisiin leviin luetaan seuraavat heimot:[1]

Lähteet

  • Numminen, Maija (toimituspäällikkö): ”Levät”, Spectrum Tietokeskus. 6. osa. Porvoo: WSOY, 1978. ISBN 951-0-07245-1. (Suomenkieliset nimet ja termit)

Viitteet

  1. a b c Guiry, Michael & Guiry, Caoilte: Order: Laminariales AlgaeBase. 2010. Galway: National University of Ireland. Viitattu 6.11.2010. (englanniksi)
  2. a b c Present, Sarah: Order Laminariales The Kelps 1999. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. Viitattu 6.11.2010. (englanniksi)
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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Laminariales on ruskolevien lahko, johon kuuluu seitsemän heimoa ja lähes 130 lajia. Siitä käytetään joskus suomenkielistä nimitystä taarimaiset tai englannista lainattua nimitystä kelpit. Lahkoon kuuluvilla levillä on yksilönkehityksessä selvä sukupolvenvuorottelu – leväyksilöt jakaantuvat mikroskooppisen pieniin ja suvullisesti lisääntyviin gametofyytteihin sekä huomattavasti suurempiin ja itiöitä muodostaviin sporofyytteihin.

Sporofyyteillä on tavallisesti vähintään metrin mittainen sekovarsi, josta voidaan erottaa kolme osaa: juurimainen ritsoidi, varsimainen kauloidi sekä lehtimäiset fylloidit. Kauloidi on yleensä liereä ja siinä voi olla yksi tai useampia haaroja sekä kaasurakkuloita. Sporofyytit kasvavat pituutta kauloidien ja fylloidien yhtymäkohdissa sijaitsevien välikasvusolukoiden avulla. Niiden liereät itiöpesäkkeet muodostavat nystermiä, jotka sijaitsevat joko fylloideissa tai lisääntymiseen erikoistuneissa sporofylleissä.

Gametofyytit ovat rihmaiset ja muodostuvat erillisistä haaroista. Sekä siittiö- että munapesäkkeet sijaitsevat eri sekovarsissa ja tuottavat vain yhden oogamisen sukusolun. Munasolu voi hedelmöittyä vasta työnnyttyään osittain munapesäkkeen seinämän läpi.

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Laminariales ( French )

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Les Laminariales sont un ordre d'algues brunes de la classe des Phaeophyceae.

Liste des familles

Selon AlgaeBase (19 août 2017)[1] :

Selon World Register of Marine Species (19 août 2017)[2] :

Notes et références

Références taxinomiques

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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( French )

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Les Laminariales sont un ordre d'algues brunes de la classe des Phaeophyceae.

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Ceilp ( Irish )

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Feamainn mhór dhonn atá coiteann i gcreasanna ísle idirthaoide is fo-thaoide i bhfarraigí fuara. I dtimthriall a beatha, athraíonn sí ó fhoirm shnáithíneach go foirm mhór fholláin ina bhfuil gas caol greamaitheach is lann leata.

 src=
Tá an t-alt seo bunaithe ar ábhar as Fréamh an Eolais, ciclipéid eolaíochta agus teicneolaíochta leis an Ollamh Matthew Hussey, foilsithe ag Coiscéim sa bhliain 2011. Tá comhluadar na Vicipéide go mór faoi chomaoin acu beirt as ucht cead a thabhairt an t-ábhar ón leabhar a roinnt linn go léir.
 src=
Is síol é an t-alt seo. Cuir leis, chun cuidiú leis an Vicipéid.
Má tá alt níos forbartha le fáil i dteanga eile, is féidir leat aistriúchán Gaeilge a dhéanamh.


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Kelp ( Croatian )

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Kelpi (lat. Laminariales) su red velikih smeđih algi, koje žive u podvodnim "šumama" u plitkim dijelovima oceana.

Organizmi zahtjevaju vodu bogatu hranjivim tvarima, na temperaturi između 6 i 14 °C. Poznati su po velikoj brzini rasta; rodovi Macrocystis i Nereocystis mogu narasti i do 50 centimetara dnevno, pa dosegnu konačnu veličinu od 30 do 80 metara.[2]

Porodice

  1. Akkesiphycaceae H. Kawai & H. Sasaki
  2. Alariaceae Setchell & Gardner, 1925
  3. Chordaceae Dumortier, 1822
  4. Costariaceae
  5. Laminariaceae Bory, 1827
  6. Lessoniaceae Setchell & Gardner, 1925
  7. Pseudochordaceae

Morfologija

Kod većine kelpa talus se sastoji od listolikih struktura, koje se šire sa "stabljike". Sustav malih korijenčića omogućuje kelpu da se pričvrsti za oceansku podlogu. Američke vrste, kao što je Nereocystis lueteana, sadrže mjehuriće ispunjene zrakom (pneumatociste), koji se nalaze na početku listova blizu stabljike. Oni uspravljaju stabljiku kelpa prema površini.

Rast i razmnožavanje

Kelp počinje rasti u podnožju meristema, gdje se listovi i stabljika sastaju. Rast može biti ograničen djelovanjem ježinaca. Životni ciklus kelpa uključuje stadije diploidnog sporofita i haploidnog gametofita. Haploidna faza počinje kada zreli organizam otpusti velik broj spora, koje klijaju, pa postanu muški ili ženski gametofit. Iz spolnog razmnožavanja proizlazi stadij diploidnog sporofita, koji se razvija u zrelu jedinku.

Zaštita

Čovjek može dosta utjecati na degradaciju šuma kelpa. Prekomjerni ribolov u ekosustavima u blizini obale dovodi do prevelikog porasta populacija biljojednih životinja. To lako može dovesti do toga da šuma kelpa postane gola zemlja s vrlo malim brojem živih vrsta.[3] Osim prekomjernog lova, velike prijetnje staništima ovih algi su zagađenje vode, skupljanje kelpa, klimatske promjene i invazivne vrste.[4]

Galerija

Izvori

  1. Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae, str. i-iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls, Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz
  2. Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0-565-09175-1
  3. Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
  4. Steneck, R.S., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.M. Erlandson, J.A. Estes and M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.

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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Croatian )

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Kelpi (lat. Laminariales) su red velikih smeđih algi, koje žive u podvodnim "šumama" u plitkim dijelovima oceana.

Organizmi zahtjevaju vodu bogatu hranjivim tvarima, na temperaturi između 6 i 14 °C. Poznati su po velikoj brzini rasta; rodovi Macrocystis i Nereocystis mogu narasti i do 50 centimetara dnevno, pa dosegnu konačnu veličinu od 30 do 80 metara.

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Laminariales ( Indonesian )

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Laminariales (atau Kelp) adalah nama ordo rumput laut besar (ganggang) yang diklasifikasikan dalam kelas Phaeophyceae. Terdapat sekitar 30 genus yang berbeda. Beberapa kelp tumbuh sangat panjang dan membentuk hutan kelp.

Pranala luar

Blue morpho butterfly.jpg Artikel bertopik biologi ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.
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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Indonesian )

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Laminariales (atau Kelp) adalah nama ordo rumput laut besar (ganggang) yang diklasifikasikan dalam kelas Phaeophyceae. Terdapat sekitar 30 genus yang berbeda. Beberapa kelp tumbuh sangat panjang dan membentuk hutan kelp.

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Þari ( Icelandic )

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Þari er íslenskt heiti á nokkrum tegundum brúnþörunga sem tilheyra ættbálknum Laminariales (e. kelp). Þekktustu ættkvíslir þara eru Macrocystis, Laminaria og Ecklonia.[1] Þarategundir einkennast af því að allar hafa vel aðgreindan stilk, neðst á honum vaxa út margir, sívalir festusprotar sem festa þarann við botninn og á efri enda stilksins situr stórt blað. Stilkurinn er oft nefndur þöngull og festan á neðri enda hans þöngulhaus.[2]

Þarar eru fjölbreyttastir og stærstir brúnþörunga og hafa fundist einstaklingar sem eru allt að 100 m langir. Þeir finnast í miklu magni á grunnsævi neðan fjörunnar í tempruðum svæðum bæði á norður- og suðurhveli jarðar. Sumar tegundir geta orðið mjög stórar og myndað þétta þaraskóga þar sem framleiðnin er oft mjög mikil.[1]

Á einni þaraplöntu, þöngulhaus, þöngli og blöðku, getur dafnað ótrúlegur fjöldi einstaklinga. Yfir 100 þúsund plöntur og dýr geta vaxið á þaranum sem ásætur, auk dýralífs í og á þöngulhausnum. Þaraskógur býður auk þess fjölda lífvera upp á skjól, felustaði og æti.[3]

Útbreiðsla

Þari er algengur á tempruðum svæðum á bæði norður- og suðurhveli. Flestar tegundir þara vaxa í Kyrrahafi, en einnig hefur fundist töluverður fjöldi í Atlantshafi. Ættkvíslin Laminaria er ríkjandi í N-Atlantshafi og NV-Kyrrahafi, ættkvísl Macrocystis (risaþara) í A-Kyrrahafi og SA-Atlantshafi, en ættkvísl Ecklonia við S-Afríku og Ástralasíu.[4]

Þari vex á grunnsævi neðan fjöruborðs. Eftir því sem sjórinn er tærari og sólarljósið nær lengra niður í sjóinn, getur þarinn lifað því mun dýpra. Sumar tegundir vaxa á allt að 40 metra dýpi.[1]

Tegundir við Ísland

Við Ísland vaxa sex tegundir þara sem tilheyra þremur mismunandi ættkvíslum[2]:

Nytjar

Þari hefur verið notaður sem áburður, húsdýrafóður og matur. Marinkjarni er eina þarategundin sem vitað er til að höfð hafi verið til matar á Íslandi, en í Austur-Asíu er þari notaður í miklum mæli til matar. Japansþari (Laminaria japonica) er sú þarategund sem mest er neytt af, og er megnið af honum ræktaður.

Aðalnotkun þara hins vegar er til framleiðslu á gúmmíefninu algín. Það er notað í margs konar iðnaði, t.d. matvæla- og lyfjaiðnaði, og í vefnaði. Algín er einnig notað til að auðvelda blöndun ólíkra vökva, svo sem vatns og olíuefna. Sem dæmi er algín notað við ísgerð, til að koma í veg fyrir að vatnið skilji sig frá mjólkurfitunni og myndi ískristalla.[5]

Tilvísanir

  1. 1,0 1,1 1,2 Castro, P. og Huber, M.E. (2005). Marine Biology (5. útgáfa). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  2. 2,0 2,1 Karl Gunnarsson, Gunnar Jónsson og Ólafur Karvel Pálsson (1998). Sjávarnytjar við Ísland. Reykjavík: Mál og menning.
  3. Guðmundur Páll Ólafsson (1995). Ströndin - í náttúru Íslands. Reykjavík: Mál og menning.
  4. Jennings, S., Kaiser, M. og Reynolds, J. (2008). Marine Fisheries Ecology (7. útgáfa). United Kingdom: Blackwell Science Ltd.
  5. Karl Gunnarssson (1997). ÞARI. Reykjavík: Námsgagnastofnun og Hafrannsóknarstofnunin. Hægt að nálgast hér.
 src= Þessi líffræðigrein er stubbur. Þú getur hjálpað til með því að bæta við greinina.
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Þari: Brief Summary ( Icelandic )

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Þari er íslenskt heiti á nokkrum tegundum brúnþörunga sem tilheyra ættbálknum Laminariales (e. kelp). Þekktustu ættkvíslir þara eru Macrocystis, Laminaria og Ecklonia. Þarategundir einkennast af því að allar hafa vel aðgreindan stilk, neðst á honum vaxa út margir, sívalir festusprotar sem festa þarann við botninn og á efri enda stilksins situr stórt blað. Stilkurinn er oft nefndur þöngull og festan á neðri enda hans þöngulhaus.

Þarar eru fjölbreyttastir og stærstir brúnþörunga og hafa fundist einstaklingar sem eru allt að 100 m langir. Þeir finnast í miklu magni á grunnsævi neðan fjörunnar í tempruðum svæðum bæði á norður- og suðurhveli jarðar. Sumar tegundir geta orðið mjög stórar og myndað þétta þaraskóga þar sem framleiðnin er oft mjög mikil.

Á einni þaraplöntu, þöngulhaus, þöngli og blöðku, getur dafnað ótrúlegur fjöldi einstaklinga. Yfir 100 þúsund plöntur og dýr geta vaxið á þaranum sem ásætur, auk dýralífs í og á þöngulhausnum. Þaraskógur býður auk þess fjölda lífvera upp á skjól, felustaði og æti.

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Laminariales ( Italian )

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Le laminariali (Laminariales Mig., 1908) sono un ordine di alghe brune della classe Feoficee.

L'ordine comprende un centinaio di specie, molte delle quali sono conosciute con il nome comune di laminarie (in senso estensivo - propriamente "laminarie" indica il genere Laminaria, che ha dato nome all'ordine)[1] oppure anche con il termine inglese kelp.[2]

Caratteristiche

Generalmente il corpo (tallo evoluto, detto cormoide) è costituito di strutture laminari simili a foglie, supportate da fusti allungati (stipiti). Una struttura simile a una radice (rizoide) ancora l'alga al fondo.

Sono frequenti vesciche piene di gas (aerocisti o pneumatocisti) che sostengono la pianta e avvicinano le fronde alla luce solare. Queste vesciche sono comuni anche in altri ordini di alghe brune, p.es. nelle Fucali.

La riproduzione, come in tutte le alghe, avviene per mezzo di spore. Il ciclo vitale è aplodiplonte con sporofito dominante.

Le laminarie possono formare delle associazioni vegetali denominate "praterie" (o anche "foreste", per le specie di maggiori dimensioni).

Le laminarie più grandi (p.es. Macrocystis pyrifera, Nereocystis luetkeana) possono raggiungere altezze di 20-30m (in casi eccezionali di oltre 50m).[3][4][5]

Distribuzione

Le laminariali sono alghe marine, diffuse in tutti i mari del mondo, generalmente in prossimità delle coste.

L'habitat ideale per le laminarie è costituito da acque poco profonde, ricche di nutrienti e non troppo calde (sotto i 20 °C). Queste condizioni si trovano per esempio lungo le coste della California, dove il clima è soleggiato ma l'acqua è resa più fresca dalla Corrente della California.

Importanza economica

Cucina

Molte laminarie sono commestibili.

Tra queste, è particolarmente importante l'alga kombu largamente usata nella cucina giapponese - propriamente Saccharina japonica (sin. Laminaria japonica), sostituita a volte da altre specie affini, p.es. Laminaria digitata. Un'altra alga bruna usata nella cucina giapponese è Undaria pinnatifida (wakame), che appartiene sempre all'ordine delle Laminariali ma a una diversa famiglia (Alariacee). Ancora a un'altra famiglia (Lessoniacee) del medesimo ordine appartiene l'arame (Ecklonia bicyclis).

Si noti che la cucina giapponese fa uso anche di alghe appartenenti ad altri gruppi tassonomici, p.es. l'alga hijiki, che è un'alga bruna dell'ordine delle Fucali, e l'alga nori, che è un'alga rossa.

Anche nella cucina coreana si fa uso di Saccharina japonica, p.es. negli spaghetti di alghe (cheonsa-chae). Questa specie si è diffusa in tempi relativamente recenti (prima metà del Novecento) anche nella cucina cinese.

In Groenlandia, in Islanda e nelle Isole Britanniche è tradizionale il consumo alimentare di Alaria esculenta, alga affine al wakame giapponese.

Erboristeria e cosmetica

Le laminarie sono utilizzate come integratori alimentari in erboristeria e in dietologia.[6]

Sono utilizzate anche come creme in cosmetica.[7]

Alimentazione del bestiame

Lungo le coste atlantiche della Francia, dove si registrano maree imponenti, le alghe lasciate dalla marea (un misto di varie specie tra cui in prevalenza laminarie) vengono raccolte (goémon) e utilizzate per l'alimentazione del bestiame.

Materia prima industriale

Le laminarie sono largamente utilizzate per la produzione industriale di alginati.

Inoltre, insieme ad altri gruppi di alghe, sono materia prima per l'estrazione dello iodio.

Coltivazione

A partire dagli anni '50, Saccharina japonica in tutto l'oriente non viene solo raccolta allo stato selvatico, ma anche coltivata, con produzioni che superano oramai le 700.000 t all'anno.[8][9]

La coltivazione, destinata sia all'alimentazione che agli usi industriali, avviene facendo crescere le piantine su corde.

Tassonomia

L'ordine comprende oltre un centinaio di specie suddivise in 8 o 9 famiglie:[10][11]

Note

  1. ^ laminaria, su Vocabolario - Treccani. URL consultato il 3 dicembre 2018.
  2. ^ Alga kelp, su Humanitas. URL consultato il 3 dicembre 2018.
  3. ^ (EN) Nereocystis luetkeana - Bull Kelp, su Seaweeds of Alaska. URL consultato il 5 dicembre 2018.
  4. ^ (EN) Giant Bladder Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), su StarThrower. URL consultato il 5 dicembre 2018.
  5. ^ (EN) Giant kelp, su Monterey Bay Aquarium. URL consultato il 5 dicembre 2018.
  6. ^ Alga laminaria, su My Personal Trainer. URL consultato l'8 dicembre 2018.
  7. ^ Alga laminaria Proprietà cosmetiche, su Aquarius.com. URL consultato l'8 dicembre 2018.
  8. ^ (EN) Culture of Kelp (Laminaria japonica) in China (Preface and Table of Contents), su FAO, 1989. URL consultato l'8 dicembre 2018.
  9. ^ (EN) Kelps: Laminaria and Saccharina, su The Seaweed Site: information on marine algae. URL consultato l'8 dicembre 2018.
  10. ^ Order: Laminariales, in AlgaeBase. URL consultato il 4 dicembre 2018. (Nota: Nel 2018 l'elenco su questo sito risulta modificato con la soppressione delle Costariaceae e l'aggiunta di Arthrothamnaceae e Aureophycaceae.)
  11. ^ Laminariales, su WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species. URL consultato il 4 dicembre 2018.

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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Italian )

provided by wikipedia IT

Le laminariali (Laminariales Mig., 1908) sono un ordine di alghe brune della classe Feoficee.

L'ordine comprende un centinaio di specie, molte delle quali sono conosciute con il nome comune di laminarie (in senso estensivo - propriamente "laminarie" indica il genere Laminaria, che ha dato nome all'ordine) oppure anche con il termine inglese kelp.

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Laminariales ( Latin )

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Laminariales sunt ordo algarum classis Phaeophycearum, cui sunt septem familiae. In "silvis" summersis aquarum litoralium crescunt.

Pinacotheca

Notae

  1. Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. pp. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls
  2. William Miller, III (13 October 2011). Trace Fossils: Concepts, Problems, Prospects: Chapter 13 "Zoophycos and the Role of Type Specimens in Ichnotaxonomy by Davide Olivero. Elsevier. pp. 224–226. ISBN 978-0-08-047535-6

Nexus externi

Wikidata-logo.svg Situs scientifici:ITISNCBIBiodiversityEncyclopedia of LifeWoRMS: Marine SpeciesFossilworks Wikispecies-logo.svg Vide "Laminariales" apud Vicispecies.
Commons-logo.svg Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Laminariales spectant.
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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Latin )

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Laminariales sunt ordo algarum classis Phaeophycearum, cui sunt septem familiae. In "silvis" summersis aquarum litoralium crescunt.

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Kelp ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Kelp (Laminariales) is een orde van bruinwieren. De orde bevat enkele tientallen soorten, verspreid over zeven families. Kelp komt voor in ondiep, voedselrijk zeewater in gematigde streken. Veel soorten vormen kelpwouden; habitats met een hoge biodiversiteit. Diverse kelpsoorten worden gekweekt voor consumptie, zoals kombu (Saccharina japonica) en suikerwier (S. latissima).

Beschrijving

Bij de meeste kelpsoorten is de thallus een plat of bladvormig lichaam van parenchym weefsel. Meestal is het bedekt met een slijmlaag. De thalli groeien aan een centrale stengel die met zijn wortels in de zeebodem zit verankerd. Veel Amerikaanse soorten hebben met gas gevulde thalli (pneumatocysten), waardoor deze zo dicht mogelijk bij het wateroppervlak blijven.

De levenscyclus van kelp kent twee fases: een haploide gametofytfase en een diploide sporofytfase. De eerste fase vangt aan wanneer een individu een groot aantal sporen loslaat, welke zich ontwikkelen tot mannelijke of vrouwelijke gametofyten. De tweede fase vangt aan na geslachtelijke voortplanting. Een nieuw exemplaar ontwikkelt zich tot het volwassen is en de cyclus weer opnieuw begint.

Kelp staat bekend om zijn hoge groeisnelheid. Soorten uit de geslachten Macrocystis en Nereocystis kunnen een halve meter per dag groeien en een lengte van dertig tot tachtig meter bereiken. De groei kan echter worden beperkt door dieren die zich met het kelp voeden, zoals zee-egels.

Families

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Kelp (Laminariales) is een orde van bruinwieren. De orde bevat enkele tientallen soorten, verspreid over zeven families. Kelp komt voor in ondiep, voedselrijk zeewater in gematigde streken. Veel soorten vormen kelpwouden; habitats met een hoge biodiversiteit. Diverse kelpsoorten worden gekweekt voor consumptie, zoals kombu (Saccharina japonica) en suikerwier (S. latissima).

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Tare ( Norwegian )

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Tare (frå norrønt þari) er ei samnemning for makroskopiske brunalgar som typisk høyrer til ordenen Laminariales. Det finst mange ulike artar, og dei varierer mykje både i struktur og funksjon. Dei er kjende for å vekse svært raskt (somme artar kan veksa opp til 30-60 cm om dagen) og kan hjå somme artar veksa til ei høgd på opptil 60 m. Fleire tareartar er fleirårige og kan bli over 20 år gamle.

Vanlege tareartar i norske farvatn er stortare, sukkertare, fingertare og butare. Tare blir i dag brukt til å framstilla alginat. Visse typar blir også brukt i matlaging, særleg i austasiatisk mat.

Sjå òg

Kjelder

  • Moen, Frank Emil & Svensen, Erling (2003): Dyreliv i havet - nordeuropeisk marin fauna
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Tare: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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 src= Tareskog utanfor Monterey i California.

Tare (frå norrønt þari) er ei samnemning for makroskopiske brunalgar som typisk høyrer til ordenen Laminariales. Det finst mange ulike artar, og dei varierer mykje både i struktur og funksjon. Dei er kjende for å vekse svært raskt (somme artar kan veksa opp til 30-60 cm om dagen) og kan hjå somme artar veksa til ei høgd på opptil 60 m. Fleire tareartar er fleirårige og kan bli over 20 år gamle.

Vanlege tareartar i norske farvatn er stortare, sukkertare, fingertare og butare. Tare blir i dag brukt til å framstilla alginat. Visse typar blir også brukt i matlaging, særleg i austasiatisk mat.

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Tarer ( Norwegian )

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Tare er betegnelsen på de store tangartene som finnes i ytre del av strandsonen. Systematisk hører tarene til brunalgene.

Det er gjerne arter av slekta Laminaria som omtales som tare. Noen av de største algeartene hører til denne gruppen, blant annet fingertare, stortare, sukkertare, draugtare og butare som alle er vanlige i Norge, og kjempetare som ikke fins i Norge.

 src=
Tareskog utenfor Monterrey i California.

Noen av artene danner såkalte tareskoger i grunt (25-30 m)[1] [2], klart vann dit sollyset når, og trenger næringsrikt vann på under 20°C. I Norge finnes stortareskoger i områder som er middels eksponert og eksponert for bølger[3] og sukkertareskoger i de mer beskyttede områdene[4]. Størrelsen på tareplantene varierer langs kysten, med temperatur- og lysforhold.[5] I varme somre kan større områder med tare dø ut, som da sukkertaren ble borte fra kysten av Skagerrak på tidlig 2000-tallet[6].

Tarene er blant de mest voksevillige planter man kjenner og gjenveksten er ofte rask. Tareskogene i Norge har stor økologisk betydning, både som primærprodusenter (dvs. produsenter av plantemateriale) og som habitat (også kalt leveområder) for et stort antall tilhørende planter og dyr[7]. Disse habitatene er artsrike samfunn og opprettholder biogeokjemiske kretsløp og sykluser som f.eks. oksygen-, karbon-, nitrogen-, og fosforkretsløpet. Disse tre habitatene spiller også en stor rolle i forbindelse med binding av karbondioksid (CO2) fra atmosfæren.

Av og til nedbeites tareskog av kråkeboller, i Norge er det de grønne kråkebollene (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) som har spist stortare i den nordlige delen av landet.[8][9]


Tarene ble før høstet og (ofte som tangmel) brukt som dyrefor eller gjødsel for jordforbedring. Taren har også blitt brent og brukt i produksjon av glass. Taren tar opp jod og har fra 1800-tallet vært brukt for å utvinne joden. Enkelte (som stortaren) inneholder mye alginsyre (stivelse) og høstes for å utvinne alginat. Den brukes også som levende rensere av næringssalter fra fiske- og skalldyroppdrett, og alginatet i levende tare binder tungmetaller (bly, kobber og kadmium).

 src=
Formering av tare. Sporeplanten (til venstre) slipper ut sporer, som blir til kjønnsplanter (til høyre). To slike befruktes (XX) og danner tarebaby.

Taren formerer seg oftest ved at den vinterstid sprer ut sporer fra sporeplanten (sporofytt), som er den man ser i vannet. Sporene fester seg til bunnen, der det utvikles som små uanselige kjønnsplanter (gametofytt), hann eller hunn. De befruktes etter et par uker og babytaren kommer etter noen uker deretter. Den er gjerne festet med flere kroker (heptar) og har en stilk (stipes) der bladet (lamina) er festet. Nytt blad vokser gjerne ut hvert år, og vokser raskt (opptil 3-4 meter) på ettervinter og vår.

Tarens kjønnsplanter kan kultiveres i laboratorium og festes til tauverk i vannet. Tare fra Kina (kombu, wakame og nori) utgjør det meste av verdens årlige produksjon på 14 millioner tonn av makroalger. I Norge høstes den ville stortaren for å lage alginat, men er uegnet til dyrking da den ikke fester seg til tau og rep, slik fingertaren gjør.[10]


Referanser

  1. ^ Bekkby, T., Rinde, E., Erikstad, L., Bakkestuen, V. 2009. Spatial predictive distribution modelling of the kelp species Laminaria hyperborea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66: 2106–2115.
  2. ^ Bekkby, T., Moy, F. 2011. Developing spatial models of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) potential distribution modelling of the kelp species Laminaria hyperborea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66: 2106–2115.
  3. ^ Bekkby, T., Rinde, E., Erikstad, L., Bakkestuen, V. 2009. Spatial predictive distribution modelling of the kelp species Laminaria hyperborea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66: 2106–2115.
  4. ^ Bekkby, T., Moy, F. 2011. Developing spatial models of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) potential distribution modelling of the kelp species Laminaria hyperborea. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66: 2106–2115
  5. ^ Rinde, E., Sjøtun, K. 2005. Demographic variation in the kelp Laminaria hyperborea along a latitudinal gradient. Marine Biology 146: 1051–1062.
  6. ^ Moy, F., Christie, H. 2012. Large-scale shift from sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) to ephemeral algae along the south and west coast of Norway. Marine Biology Research 8: 309-321
  7. ^ Norderhaug, KM., Christie, H. 2011. Secondary production in a Laminaria hyperborea kelp forest and variation according to wave exposure. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 95: 135-144
  8. ^ Norderhaug, KM., Christie, H. 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5: 515-528. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 95: 135-144.
  9. ^ «Nedbeiting av tareskog i Norge». Fiskeridepartementet og Miljøverndepartementet. 2002.
  10. ^ Jan Rueness og Henning Steen. «Dyrking og utnyttelse av marine makroalger». Havforskningsinstituttet.

Eksterne lenker

botanikkstubbDenne botanikkrelaterte artikkelen er foreløpig kort eller mangelfull, og du kan hjelpe Wikipedia ved å utvide den.
Det finnes mer utfyllende artikkel/artikler på .
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Tarer: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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Tare er betegnelsen på de store tangartene som finnes i ytre del av strandsonen. Systematisk hører tarene til brunalgene.

Det er gjerne arter av slekta Laminaria som omtales som tare. Noen av de største algeartene hører til denne gruppen, blant annet fingertare, stortare, sukkertare, draugtare og butare som alle er vanlige i Norge, og kjempetare som ikke fins i Norge.

 src= Tareskog utenfor Monterrey i California.

Noen av artene danner såkalte tareskoger i grunt (25-30 m) , klart vann dit sollyset når, og trenger næringsrikt vann på under 20°C. I Norge finnes stortareskoger i områder som er middels eksponert og eksponert for bølger og sukkertareskoger i de mer beskyttede områdene. Størrelsen på tareplantene varierer langs kysten, med temperatur- og lysforhold. I varme somre kan større områder med tare dø ut, som da sukkertaren ble borte fra kysten av Skagerrak på tidlig 2000-tallet.

Tarene er blant de mest voksevillige planter man kjenner og gjenveksten er ofte rask. Tareskogene i Norge har stor økologisk betydning, både som primærprodusenter (dvs. produsenter av plantemateriale) og som habitat (også kalt leveområder) for et stort antall tilhørende planter og dyr. Disse habitatene er artsrike samfunn og opprettholder biogeokjemiske kretsløp og sykluser som f.eks. oksygen-, karbon-, nitrogen-, og fosforkretsløpet. Disse tre habitatene spiller også en stor rolle i forbindelse med binding av karbondioksid (CO2) fra atmosfæren.

Av og til nedbeites tareskog av kråkeboller, i Norge er det de grønne kråkebollene (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) som har spist stortare i den nordlige delen av landet.


Tarene ble før høstet og (ofte som tangmel) brukt som dyrefor eller gjødsel for jordforbedring. Taren har også blitt brent og brukt i produksjon av glass. Taren tar opp jod og har fra 1800-tallet vært brukt for å utvinne joden. Enkelte (som stortaren) inneholder mye alginsyre (stivelse) og høstes for å utvinne alginat. Den brukes også som levende rensere av næringssalter fra fiske- og skalldyroppdrett, og alginatet i levende tare binder tungmetaller (bly, kobber og kadmium).

 src= Formering av tare. Sporeplanten (til venstre) slipper ut sporer, som blir til kjønnsplanter (til høyre). To slike befruktes (XX) og danner tarebaby.

Taren formerer seg oftest ved at den vinterstid sprer ut sporer fra sporeplanten (sporofytt), som er den man ser i vannet. Sporene fester seg til bunnen, der det utvikles som små uanselige kjønnsplanter (gametofytt), hann eller hunn. De befruktes etter et par uker og babytaren kommer etter noen uker deretter. Den er gjerne festet med flere kroker (heptar) og har en stilk (stipes) der bladet (lamina) er festet. Nytt blad vokser gjerne ut hvert år, og vokser raskt (opptil 3-4 meter) på ettervinter og vår.

Tarens kjønnsplanter kan kultiveres i laboratorium og festes til tauverk i vannet. Tare fra Kina (kombu, wakame og nori) utgjør det meste av verdens årlige produksjon på 14 millioner tonn av makroalger. I Norge høstes den ville stortaren for å lage alginat, men er uegnet til dyrking da den ikke fester seg til tau og rep, slik fingertaren gjør.


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Listownicowce ( Polish )

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Listownicowce (Laminariales) – rząd dużych morskich glonów z klasy brunatnic. Ich plechy osiągają największy stopień złożoności, w zasadzie przypominając narządy i tkanki roślinne nawet u najprościej zbudowanych przedstawicieli (strunka). Składają się z nibyliścia (fylloid), nibyłodygi (kauloid) i nibykorzenia (stopka, ryzoid). Zawierają struktury zbliżone do miękiszu asymilacyjnego, tkanki wzmacniającej, a u niektórych (wielkomorszcz) nawet rurek sitowych. Niektóre posiadają pęcherze powietrzne ułatwiające utrzymanie ciała blisko powierzchni wody. Niektóre gatunki dorastają do kilkudziesięciu metrów długości, w tempie nawet kilkudziesięciu cm na dobę (wielkomorszcz), będąc największymi okazami glonów i protistów. Tworzą przybrzeżne zarośla wodorostów, niekiedy o postaci lasu wodorostów. Występują głównie w morzach chłodnych i umiarkowanych (w wodach międzyzwrotnikowych zwykle w zasięgu prądów chłodnych).

Przemiana pokoleń jest heteromorficzna - sporofit jest okazały, a gametofit niepozorny. Rozmnażanie płciowe polega głównie na oogamii. Gametofity męskie są wielokomórkowe, rozgałęzione, z licznymi plemniami wytwarzającymi po jednym dwuwiciowym plemniku. Gametofity żeńskie wielokomórkowe lub jednokomórkowe.

 src=
budowa wewnętrzna listownicy cukrowej

Zastosowanie gospodarcze

Plechy listownicowców są stosowane jako nawóz. Jako pasza stosowane są różne gatunki listownicy, strunki, skrzydlicy, wielkomorszczu.

Niektóre gatunki bywają stosowane jako pokarm (kapusta morska). W Europie w czasach głodu były to np. skrzydlica jadalna i listownica cukrowa. Ten ostatni gatunek, a także Alaria crassifolia oraz Laminaria religiosa bywają także używane jako rodzaje kombu - potrawy z kuchni japońskiej, której podstawowym gatunkiem jest listownica japońska (Saccharina japonica; ma-kombu). Zastosowanie spożywcze mają także baniopień, Durvillea i undaria (wakame).

Z listownicowców uzyskuje się także dodatki do żywności takie jak kwas alginowy i jego pochodne (alginiany). Ekstrakty z listownicy, Durvillea i wielkomorszczu mają zastosowanie przy wyrobie kosmetyków. Ze względu na zawarty w komórkach jod, bywają stosowane w leczeniu jego niedoboru.

Przedstawiciele

Przypisy

  1. Adl. The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists. „J. Eukaryot. Microbiol.”. 5 (52), s. 399–451, 2005. International Society of Protistologists. DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x (ang.).

Bibliografia

  • Joanna Zofia Kadłubowska: Zarys algologii. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1975.
  • Zbigniew Podbielkowski: Glony. Wyd. czwarte. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1985. ISBN 83-02-02352-3.
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Listownicowce: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Listownicowce (Laminariales) – rząd dużych morskich glonów z klasy brunatnic. Ich plechy osiągają największy stopień złożoności, w zasadzie przypominając narządy i tkanki roślinne nawet u najprościej zbudowanych przedstawicieli (strunka). Składają się z nibyliścia (fylloid), nibyłodygi (kauloid) i nibykorzenia (stopka, ryzoid). Zawierają struktury zbliżone do miękiszu asymilacyjnego, tkanki wzmacniającej, a u niektórych (wielkomorszcz) nawet rurek sitowych. Niektóre posiadają pęcherze powietrzne ułatwiające utrzymanie ciała blisko powierzchni wody. Niektóre gatunki dorastają do kilkudziesięciu metrów długości, w tempie nawet kilkudziesięciu cm na dobę (wielkomorszcz), będąc największymi okazami glonów i protistów. Tworzą przybrzeżne zarośla wodorostów, niekiedy o postaci lasu wodorostów. Występują głównie w morzach chłodnych i umiarkowanych (w wodach międzyzwrotnikowych zwykle w zasięgu prądów chłodnych).

Przemiana pokoleń jest heteromorficzna - sporofit jest okazały, a gametofit niepozorny. Rozmnażanie płciowe polega głównie na oogamii. Gametofity męskie są wielokomórkowe, rozgałęzione, z licznymi plemniami wytwarzającymi po jednym dwuwiciowym plemniku. Gametofity żeńskie wielokomórkowe lub jednokomórkowe.

 src= budowa wewnętrzna listownicy cukrowej
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Laminariales ( Portuguese )

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Laminariales é uma ordem de grandes algas pertencentes à classe Phaeophyceae. Também são denominadas por kelp. Apesar da sua aparência de grandes plantas marinhas, não pertencem ao reino das plantas (Plantae), mas classificam-se no reino Chromalveolata. Conhecem-se perto de 30 géneros.

Estas algas crescem em bosques submarinos (bosques de algas) de águas superficiais e claras, ricas em nutrientes e temperaturas abaixo de 20 °C. Estes bosques oferecem protecção a algumas criaturas marinhas, e alimentos para outras. Destacam-se pela sua alta taxa de crescimento, o género Macrocystis e a espécie Nereocystis luetkeana crescem tão rápido como meio metro por dia, até alcançar 30 a 80 m.[1]

Durante o século XIX, a palavra "kelp" utilizava-se para referir tanto às algas como às cinzas obtidas da sua combustão, ricas em carbonato de sódio.[2]

Morfologia

Na maioria das espécies o talo consiste de estruturas planas em forma de folha denominadas lâminas, as quais se originam de estruturas alargadas com forma de talo denominadas estipes, enquanto que os rizóides fixam a alga ao substrato do oceano. Na base das lâminas das espécies americanas formam-se umas vesículas de gás (pneumatocistos) que mantêm estas perto da superfície, por exemplo, em Nereocystis lueteana.[1]

Crescimento e reprodução

O crescimento se produz na base do meristema, onde as lâminas se unem à estipe. O crescimento pode estar limitado pela pressão dos alguívoros, por exemplo, os ouriços-do-mar podem consumir grandes áreas. O ciclo de vida das Laminariales compreende as etapas de esporófito diplóide e gametófito haplóide. A etapa haplóide começa quando o organismo maduro liberta numerosos esporos, que germinam para se converterem em gametófitos masculinos oe femininos. A reprodução sexual dá lugar à etapa de esporófito diplóide que se desenvolverá num organismo maduro.

Usos comerciais

As algas gigantes podem ser colhidas com facilidade devido à sua grande superfície e ao seu hábito de crescimento em águas profundas. A cinza das algas marinhas é rica em iodo. Em grandes quantidades, as cinzas podem utilizar-se na produção de sabão e vidro. Até à comercialização do processo Leblanc nos começos do século XIX, a queima de algas na Escócia foi uma das principais fontes de cinzas de soda (principalmente carbonato sódico).[3] Também se usa frequentemente como fertilizante.

A algina, um Carbohidrato obtido de algas marinhas, usa-se para espessar produtos tais como gelados, marmeladas, molhos, cremes e pasta de dentes.

Várias espécies do pacífico (kombu, Saccharina japonica e outras) constituem um ingrediente muito importante na cozinha japonesa. O kombu usa-se para dar sabor a caldos e refogados (especialmente dashi), adornos comestíveis (tororo kombu) no arroz e outros pratos, como salada e como ingrediente principal em aperitivos (tais como tsukudani).

Espécies proeminentes

  • Nereocystis luetkeana, uma espécie[4] do noroeste da América. Utilizado pelos povos indígenas da costa para fazer redes de pesca.
  • Macrocystis pyrifera , a maior alga. Encontra-se na costa do Pacífico de América do Norte e do Sul.
  • Kombu, Saccharina japonica e outras, varias espécies de algas comestíveis que se encontram no Japão.

Galeria

Referências

  1. a b Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0 565 09175 1
  2. "Kelp," in Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition). Oxford University Press, 1989. Retrieved 01 December 2006
  3. Clow, Archibald and Clow, Nan L. (1952). Chemical Revolution. Ayer Co Pub, June 1952, pp. 65–90. ISBN 0-8369-1909-2
  4. Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2006. AlgaeBase version 4.2. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 07 December 2006

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Laminariales: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

provided by wikipedia PT

Laminariales é uma ordem de grandes algas pertencentes à classe Phaeophyceae. Também são denominadas por kelp. Apesar da sua aparência de grandes plantas marinhas, não pertencem ao reino das plantas (Plantae), mas classificam-se no reino Chromalveolata. Conhecem-se perto de 30 géneros.

Estas algas crescem em bosques submarinos (bosques de algas) de águas superficiais e claras, ricas em nutrientes e temperaturas abaixo de 20 °C. Estes bosques oferecem protecção a algumas criaturas marinhas, e alimentos para outras. Destacam-se pela sua alta taxa de crescimento, o género Macrocystis e a espécie Nereocystis luetkeana crescem tão rápido como meio metro por dia, até alcançar 30 a 80 m.

Durante o século XIX, a palavra "kelp" utilizava-se para referir tanto às algas como às cinzas obtidas da sua combustão, ricas em carbonato de sódio.

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Kelp ( Swedish )

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Havens ekosystem Litoralzonen Kontinentmarginal Intertidalzonen Pelagial Neristiska zonen Sund Kontinentalsockel Djuphavsberg Kelp Hydrotermisk källa Korallrev Demersala zonen Agulhas bank Bentiska zonen

Kelp är en typ av brunalg som växer i undervattensskogar, i klara grunda vatten i havet. Den kräver näringsrika vatten och en temperatur under 18-20 °C[1].

Olika arter

Flera storväxande och skogbildande brunalger går under benämningen kelp. Där ingår släktena Fucus (blåstång, sågtång med flera), Laminaria (fingertång, skräppe-tare, stortare med flera), Macrocystis och Nereocystis.[2]

Kelp är känd som en snabbväxande sorts alger där släkterna Macrocystis och Nereocystis kan växa upp till en halv meter per dag. Dessa varianter kan slutligen nå en längd på mellan 30 och 80 meter.[3] En art (Macrocystis pyrifera) som växer utanför Kaliforniens kust kan bli 50 meter lång. Kelp skördas relativt lätt tack vare att dess toppar når nära vattenytan.

Under 1800-talet associerades vanligtvis ordet "kelp" med de havsalger som användes för framställning av soda (natriumkarbonat).

Kommersiell användning

Tidigare användes bränd kelpaska inom tvål- och glasproduktion.

Livsmedel

Som livsmedel bär kelp ofta det japanska namnet kombu (昆布) och tillhör då kelpfamiljen Laminaria. Den är rik på bland annat K-vitamin och antioxidanter samt mineraler som magnesium, kalcium och järn och går därför att använda som köttersättning, då tillsammans med en proteinkälla. Kombu i dess olika arter är vanlig i flera kök, både det koreanska och det kinesiska, men speciellt det japanska.

Kelp innehåller tämligen höga halter av naturligt glutamat.[4] Det används ofta som smaksättning till buljong och olika grytor, men även för att mjuka upp bönor vid tillagning. Över 90 procent av den kombu som konsumeras är odlad utanför den japanska ön Hokkaido. I den svenska butikshyllan hittar man ofta kelp som torkad och paketerad alg i en välsorterad butik, och som en ingrediens i örtsalt.

Alginat är en kolhydrat som kan utvinnas ur kelp. Den används som förtjockningsmedel i till exempel glass, sylt, dressing och tandkräm. Den förekommer även som ingrediens i hundmat. Alginat går även under beteckningen E400.

Kelp eller kombu innehåller naturlig glutaminsyra, en aminosyra som ger upphov till det som japanerna kallar den femte grundsmaken umami (旨味). Glutaminsyra används ofta som tillsatsmedel i mat och som smakförstärkare i form av sitt salt natriumglutamat.

Biogas

Ur kelp kan framställas olika biogaser, till exempel metan.

Gödsel

Kelp används också som gödningsmedel, något som ofta är vanligt inom jordbruket på öarna i Engelska kanalen. Det är också ett välkommet tillskott inom ekologisk odling. Färsk kelp bör dock spolas av och avsaltas innan den används inom jordbruket. Kelp förekommer även kommersiellt i mjölform som gödsel.

Referenser

  1. ^ Kelp Encyclopædia Britannica. Läst 9 december 2018.
  2. ^ ”kelp”. ne.se. https://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/kelp. Läst 14 juli 2018.
  3. ^ Thomas, D. 2002. Seaweeds. The Natural History Museum, London, p. 15. ISBN 0-565-09175-1
  4. ^ http://www.konsumentsamverkan.se/11verk/kampanj/tillsatser/msgalternativ.htm
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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Kelp är en typ av brunalg som växer i undervattensskogar, i klara grunda vatten i havet. Den kräver näringsrika vatten och en temperatur under 18-20 °C.

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Kelp ( Turkish )

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 src=
Bu maddenin doğruluğu konusunda şüpheler var.
(Madde içeriğinde doğruluğu kesin olmayan kısımlar tespit edilmiştir.)
Lütfen konuyla ilgili tartışmaya katılın. Gerekirse kaynak gösterin.

Kelp, özellikle Amerika'da okyanus kıyılarında yetişen kahverengi bir yosun türüdür. Triod hormonunun önemli bileşenlerinden olan İyot mineralinin doğal kaynağı olan Kelp, aynı zamanda kalsiyum açısından da zengindir. Yaklaşık 30 farklı türü bulunmaktadır.

Bazı kullanım alanları

Troid hormonu gelişim, büyüme ve metabolizma için çok önemli bir hormondur. Kelp, dünyanın birçok ülkesinde troid rahatsızlıklarında ve iyot eksikliğine bağlı diğer sorunların iyileştirilmesinde kullanılır.

Kaynakça

Stub icon Bitki ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
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Kelp: Brief Summary ( Turkish )

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Kelp, özellikle Amerika'da okyanus kıyılarında yetişen kahverengi bir yosun türüdür. Triod hormonunun önemli bileşenlerinden olan İyot mineralinin doğal kaynağı olan Kelp, aynı zamanda kalsiyum açısından da zengindir. Yaklaşık 30 farklı türü bulunmaktadır.

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Ламінарієві (порядок) ( Ukrainian )

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Ця стаття про порядок бурих водоростей. Про родину бурих водоростей див. Ламінарієві.
  1. Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. с. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls.
  2. AlgaeBase. M.D. Guiry et G.M. Guiry. 2012. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway., consulté le 7 juil. 2012
  3. Catalogue of Life, consulté le 7 juil. 2012
  4. NCBI, consulté le 7 juil. 2012
  5. World Register of Marine Species, consulté le 7 juil. 2012

Джерела

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Ламінарієві (порядок): Brief Summary ( Ukrainian )

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Ця стаття про порядок бурих водоростей. Про родину бурих водоростей див. Ламінарієві. Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. с. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls. AlgaeBase. M.D. Guiry et G.M. Guiry. 2012. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway., consulté le 7 juil. 2012 Catalogue of Life, consulté le 7 juil. 2012 NCBI, consulté le 7 juil. 2012 World Register of Marine Species, consulté le 7 juil. 2012
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Bộ Tảo bẹ ( Vietnamese )

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Tảo bẹtảo biển lớn (tảo) thuộc lớp tảo nâu (Phaeophyceae), tảo bẹ có khoảng 30 chi khác nhau. Tảo bẹ phát triển trong các rừng tảo bẹ thuộc những khu vực đại dương nước nông, và được cho là đã tồn tại trong thế Trung Tân cách đây khoảng từ 23 đến 5 triệu năm trước. Tảo bẹ cần sống trong môi trường nước giàu chất dinh dưỡng với nhiệt độ 6 - 14 °C (43 - 57 °F). Loài này có tốc độ tăng trưởng nhanh, các chi MacrocystisNereocystis có thể mọc dài thêm nửa mét mỗi ngày cho đến khi đạt đến chiều dài tối đa từ 30 - 80 mét (100 - 260 ft).

Rong biển, tảo bẹ, tươiGiá trị dinh dưỡng cho mỗi 100 g (3,5 oz)Năng lượng180 kJ (43 kcal)
9.57 g
Đường0.6Chất xơ1.3 g
0.56 g
1.68 g
VitaminThiamine (B1)
(4%)
0.05 mgRiboflavin (B2)
(13%)
0.15 mgNiacin (B3)
(3%)
0.47 mgPantothenic acid (B5)
(13%)
0.642 mgFolate (B9)
(45%)
180 μgVitamin C
(4%)
3 mgVitamin E
(6%)
0.87 mgVitamin K
(63%)
66 μg Chất khoángCanxi
(17%)
168 mgSắt
(22%)
2.85 mgMagiê
(34%)
121 mgMangan
(10%)
0.2 mgPhốt pho
(6%)
42 mgKali
(2%)
89 mgNatri
(16%)
233 mgKẽm
(13%)
1.23 mg
Tỷ lệ phần trăm xấp xỉ gần đúng sử dụng lượng hấp thụ thực phẩm tham chiếu (Khuyến cáo của Hoa Kỳ) cho người trưởng thành.
Nguồn: CSDL Dinh dưỡng của USDA

Hình ảnh

Tham khảo

  1. ^ Migula, W. (1909). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. tr. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls.

Đọc thêm

  • Druehl, L.D. 1988. Cultivated edible kelp. in Algae and Human Affairs. Lembi, C.A. and Waaland, J.R. (Editors) 1988.ISBN 0 521 32115 8.
  • Erlandson, J.M., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.A. Estes, & R.S. Steneck. 2007. The Kelp Highway hypothesis: marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 2:161-174.

Liên kết ngoài

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海帶目 ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

海帶目褐藻綱之下一個目級海藻分類單元,現時包括有約30個[來源請求]。 這些海帶生長於淺海海洋底下的海藻林:一種類似於陸地上森林的海洋植物群落,估計從中新世(即500到2300萬年前)就已出現[3][與來源不符]

分類

本目包括下列各科[4]

生長和繁殖

生長在分生组织基部發生。

海藻林

主条目:海藻林

海帶目聚集的地方會發展成被稱為「海藻林」的海底森林,為最富有豐富生產力與多樣性的地球生態系統[5][6]。較小片的海藻林又被稱為海藻床。在挪威海岸,有接近5800 km2的海岸就長滿了海藻林[7][6],還為大量動物提及棲息地[8][9]

 src=
全球海藻林分布

海藻林分布於溫帶極地地區的沿岸海域。[5]在2007年,於厄瓜多附近的熱帶海域也發現有海藻林分佈。[10] 和熱帶的珊瑚礁一樣,海藻林為許多生物提供生活環境,包括軟體動物甲殼動物棘皮動物魚類海洋哺乳動物等;同時也為人類提供生產力豐富的漁場

商業用途

 src=
阿拉斯加州海灘的海帶

Giant kelp can be harvested fairly easily because of its surface canopy and growth habit of staying in deeper water.

商業生產

再生能源

歷史

保育

圖庫

知名物種

Species of Laminaria in the British Isles;

Species of 海帶屬 worldwide, listing of species at AlgaeBase英语AlgaeBase:[11]

日本)-->

 src=
Costaria costata, five-ribbed kelp

Other species in the 海帶目 that may be considered as kelp:

Non-Laminariales species that may be considered as kelp:

與其他物種的互動

部分動物的名稱或其英文名稱以海帶(Kelp)來命名,因為牠們以海帶為棲息地或食物。這些物種包括有:

參考文獻

  1. ^ Olivero, Davide. Chapter 13 "Zoophycos and the Role of Type Specimens in Ichnotaxonomy. (编) William Miller, III. Trace Fossils: Concepts, Problems, Prospects. Elsevier. 2011-10-13: 224–226 [2013-04-01]. ISBN 978-0-08-047535-6.
  2. ^ Migula, W. Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. 1909: i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls.
  3. ^ Macrocystis Evolution
  4. ^ 陸保仁. 海帶目. 中國大百科全書 生物學Ⅰ (中文).
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Mann, K.H. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science. 1973, 182: 975–981 (英语).
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Abdullah, M.I.; Fredriksen, S. Production, respiration and exudation of dissolved organic matter by the kelp Laminaria hyperborea along the west coast of Norway. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK. 2004, 84: 887 (英语).
  7. ^ Rinde, E. Dokumentasjon av modellerte marine Naturtyper i DNs Naturbase. Førstegenerasjonsmodeller til kommunenes startpakker for kartlegging av marine naturtyper 2007. NIVA report. 2009: 32 pp. (挪威语).
  8. ^ Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83, 687-699.
  9. ^ Jørgensen, N.M., Christie, H., 2003. Follow me @radd.michyy and lowk3y.nadine l Diurnal, horizontal and vertical dispersal of kelp associated fauna. Hydrobiologia 50, 69-76.
  10. ^ Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 16576-16580.
  11. ^ AlgaeBase Laminariales
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维基百科作者和编辑

海帶目: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

海帶目是褐藻綱之下一個目級海藻分類單元,現時包括有約30個[來源請求]。 這些海帶生長於淺海海洋底下的:一種類似於陸地上森林的海洋植物群落,估計從中新世(即500到2300萬年前)就已出現[與來源不符]。

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다시마목 ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

다시마목(Laminariales)은 갈조류(갈조강)에 속하는 대형 해조류(조류) 목이다. 30여 속에 다시마 등 160여 종을 포함하고 있다.

하위 과

사진

각주

  1. Migula, W. (1909). 《Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Deutsch-Österreich und der Schweiz. Band II. Algen. 2. Teil. Rhodophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Characeae》. Gera: Verlag Friedriech von Zezschwitz. i–iv, 1–382, 122 (41 col.) pls쪽.
  • Druehl, L.D. 1988. Cultivated edible kelp. in Algae and Human Affairs. Lembi, C.A. and Waaland, J.R. (Editors) 1988.ISBN 0 521 32115 8.
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