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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 8.1 years (wild)
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Behavior

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Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Rudi Berkelhamer, University of California, Irvine
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Conservation Status

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Protonotaria citraea is listed as moderately vulnerable and is on the watch list of Partners in Flight. The placement of manmade breeding cavities in the U.S. would help populations expand. Conservation of mangroves along the coast in wintering regions would also rebuild the population, but no effort has yet been put into this cause (Petit 1999). This is a species of special concern in the state of Michigan.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: special concern

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Trophic Strategy

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Protonotaria citrea is primarily insectivorous, feeding on flies, beetles, moths, butterflies, spiders, caterpillers, insect larvae, and an occasional snail or isopod. They have also been found to eat fruit and seeds. They forage for food in trees, branches, fallen logs, and leaves that are either on plants or dead and covering the ground. Using the bill to pick and probe, they hop along trees, logs and the ground in search for food. Protonotaria citrea will also catch food in an aerial or hovering manner, more often when caring for a nestling than not (Petit 1999).

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Rudi Berkelhamer, University of California, Irvine
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Distribution

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During the breeding season the prothonotary warbler inhabits most of the United States, particularly central and southeastern states. Breeding occurs as far west as Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. To the east they can be found all along the Atlantic coast, stretching from northern Florida to southern New York. They also inhabit northern states such as Michigan and Wisconsin. Protonotaria citrea then travels south for the wintering season in Central America and parts of northern South America. They remain along the Atlantic coast from southern Mexico to South America. The prothonotary warbler will also winter along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama (Petit 1999).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Rudi Berkelhamer, University of California, Irvine
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Habitat

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Water is important to P. citrea and they spend their lives near or next to water formations of all kinds, such as lakes, creeks, swamps, and flooded forests. Occasionally they have been found living by swimming pools or house ponds. Protonotaria citrea are unique among warblers because they build breeding homes in pre-established cavities, made either naturally, by woodpeckers, or by man. Manmade cavities can be made out of milk cartons or small wooden boxes. Most cavities that are chosen are those in trees. While wintering most P. citrea live in the mangroves that line the coast of Central and South America. Many of these mangroves are being destroyed for the construction of coastal developement, highways, and agriculture. This destruction of Protonotaria citrea habitat has produced a decline in their population. The destruction of the forests in the United States is also a threat to this bird's habitat and life (Petit 1999).

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Rudi Berkelhamer, University of California, Irvine
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Life Expectancy

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Average lifespan
Status: wild:
97 months.

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Rudi Berkelhamer, University of California, Irvine
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Morphology

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Protonotaria citrea received its name because of its resemblance to the yellow hooded prothonotaries of the Roman Catholic Church. Coloration of P. citrea is a vibrant yellow on the head, neck, and underside. Yellow fades into olive green along its back and then to gray over the lower back and tail. The upperwings are a blueish gray with black at the tips and the underwings white and yellow. The belly fades from yellow to white, coloring the underside of the tail white. Female birds resemble males except they are duller in color, with more olive green tinting the yellow. Males have a black bill, while females have a black upper mandible and a flesh colored or brown lower mandable. Both males and females have dark grey legs and feet, and black eyes (Petit 1999; Terres 1980).

Range mass: 14.4 to 17.8 g.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.1994 W.

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Leigh Atwell, University of California, Irvine
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Reproduction

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Pairing between male and female prothonotary warblers occurs during the breeding season shortly after spring migration from the south. The male usually arrives at the breeding destination before the female in order find one or more breeding cavities and establish territory around these cavities. He layers each cavity with moss and introduces the female to each cavity with a display. The female chooses her mate based on the quality or the number of cavities that he has produced. Once the female has decided, she finishes building the nest and begins laying her eggs. An average clutch is 4-5 eggs, which the female incubates for 12-14 days. The eggs hatch usually within 12 hours of each other and the newborn nestlings remain in the nest for the next 10-11 days. Both the female and the male bring the nestlings food during this time. The final day, the parents repeatedly show up at the cavity, irritable and without food, chirping for the nestlings to exit the cavity. Fledglings are watched and cared for during the next 35 days until they can feed and care for themselves (Petit 1999; Terres 1980).

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average time to hatching: 13 days.

Average eggs per season: 5.

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Atwell, L. 2001. "Protonotaria citrea" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Protonotaria_citrea.html
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Protonotaria citrea

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A medium-sized (5 ½ inches) wood warbler, the male Prothonotary Warbler is most easily identified by its olive back, gray wings and tail, and bright yellow breast and head. The female Prothonotary Warbler is similar to the male, but is somewhat duller, particularly on the head and breast. The male is unmistakable; the female resembles other female wood warblers, but its combination of yellow breast and gray wings and tail separates it from most, if not all, of its relatives. The Prothonotary Warbler breeds in the eastern United States and southern Canada from Michigan and Ontario south to central Florida and west to Texas. Despite this large range, this species only breeds locally within its range where habitat is appropriate. In winter, Prothonotary Warblers migrate south to southern Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and northern South America. Prothonotary Warblers breed in wooded freshwater swamps, nesting in abandoned woodpecker nest holes. In winter, this species may be found in tropical wetland habitats, particularly in mangroves. Prothonotary Warblers primarily eat small insects and spiders, but may also eat seeds and other plant material during the winter. In appropriate swampy habitats, Prothonotary Warblers may be seen flitting through the undergrowth or low forest canopy, gleaning insects and spiders from leaves and twigs. Birdwatchers may also listen for this species’ song, a series of metallic “zweet” syllables repeated in rapid succession. Prothonotary Warblers are primarily active during the day, but, like many migratory songbirds, this species migrates at night.

Threat Status: Least Concern

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Protonotaria citrea

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A medium-sized (5 ½ inches) wood warbler, the male Prothonotary Warbler is most easily identified by its olive back, gray wings and tail, and bright yellow breast and head. The female Prothonotary Warbler is similar to the male, but is somewhat duller, particularly on the head and breast. The male is unmistakable; the female resembles other female wood warblers, but its combination of yellow breast and gray wings and tail separates it from most, if not all, of its relatives. The Prothonotary Warbler breeds in the eastern United States and southern Canada from Michigan and Ontario south to central Florida and west to Texas. Despite this large range, this species only breeds locally within its range where habitat is appropriate. In winter, Prothonotary Warblers migrate south to southern Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and northern South America. Prothonotary Warblers breed in wooded freshwater swamps, nesting in abandoned woodpecker nest holes. In winter, this species may be found in tropical wetland habitats, particularly in mangroves. Prothonotary Warblers primarily eat small insects and spiders, but may also eat seeds and other plant material during the winter. In appropriate swampy habitats, Prothonotary Warblers may be seen flitting through the undergrowth or low forest canopy, gleaning insects and spiders from leaves and twigs. Birdwatchers may also listen for this species’ song, a series of metallic “zweet” syllables repeated in rapid succession. Prothonotary Warblers are primarily active during the day, but, like many migratory songbirds, this species migrates at night.

References

  • Petit, Lisa J. 1999. Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/408
  • Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea). The Internet Bird Collection. Lynx Edicions, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Protonotaria citrea. Xeno-canto. Xeno-canto Foundation, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • eBird Range Map - Prothonotary Warbler. eBird. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.d. Web. 20 July 2012.

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Rumelt, Reid B. Protonotaria citrea. June-July 2012. Brief natural history summary of Protonotaria citrea. Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
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Prothonotary warbler

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The prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea) is a small songbird of the New World warbler family. It is named for its plumage which resembles the yellow robes once worn by papal clerks (named prothonotaries) in the Roman Catholic Church.

The prothonotary warbler is the only member of the genus Protonotaria and the only eastern warbler that nests in natural or artificial cavities.

Taxonomy

The prothonotary warbler was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1779 in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux from a specimen collected in Louisiana. Buffon coined the French name Le figuier protonotaire.[2] The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle, which was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text.[3] Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Motacilla citrea in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées.[4] The prothonotary warbler is now the only species placed in the genus Protonotaria that was introduced in 1858 by the American naturalist Spencer Baird.[5][6][7] The species is monotypic, no subspecies are recognised.[7]

The genus name is from Late Latin protonotarius, meaning "prothonotary", a notary attached to the Byzantine court who wore golden-yellow robes. The specific citrea is from Latin citreus meaning the colour "citrine".[8] It was once known as the golden swamp warbler.[9]

A molecular phylogenetic study of the family Parulidae published in 2010 found that the prothonotary warbler was a sister species to Swainson's warbler (Limnothlypis swainsonii).[10]

Description

The prothonotary warbler is 13 cm (5.1 in) long, weighs 12.5 g (0.44 oz), and has a wingspan of 22 cm (8.75 in).[11] It has an olive-coloured back with blue-grey wings and tail, yellow underparts, a relatively long pointed bill, and black legs. The adult male has a bright orange-yellow head. Females and immature birds are duller and have a yellow head. In flight from below, the short, wide tail has a distinctive two-toned pattern, white at the base and dark at the tip.[12]

Distribution and habitat

The prothonotary warbler mostly breeds in hardwood swamps in extreme southeastern Ontario and the eastern United States. However, it may nest near other bodies of water such as creeks, streams, ponds, and swimming pools.

The habitat of the warblers during migration is not well known. However, they are particularly prominent in Belize during spring migration.[13]

The warblers winter in the West Indies, Central America and northern South America, primarily in Mangrove Swamps.[14][13]

It is a rare vagrant to parts of the western United States,[15] most notably California.

Behavior and ecology

The prothonotary warbler is the only eastern warbler that nests in natural or artificial cavities, sometimes using old downy woodpecker holes. The male often builds several incomplete, unused nests in his territory; the female builds the real nest and lays 3–7 eggs.[16]

The preferred foraging habitat is dense, woody streams, where the prothonotary warbler forages actively in low foliage, mainly for insects and snails.[16]

The song of this bird is a simple, loud, ringing sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet. The call is a loud, dry chip, like that of a hooded warbler. Its flight call is a loud seeep.[17]

Status

Prothonotary warblers are declining in numbers due to loss of habitat. They also experience parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), and are outcompeted for nest sites by the house wren (Troglodytes aedon). The warblers are listed as endangered in Canada. The species persists in protected environments such as South Carolina's Francis Beidler Forest, which is currently home to more than 2,000 pairs, the densest known population.[18]

In culture

Art and literature

John James Audubon's painting of a prothonotary warbler is the third plate in The Birds of America.[19]

The warbler has also been mentioned several times in literature. First, the warbler is mentioned in A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold as the "[J]ewel of my disease-ridden woodlot", "as proof that dead trees are transmuted into living animals, and vice versa. When you doubt the wisdom of this arrangement, take a look at the prothonotary."[20] Second, Kurt Vonnegut described the warbler as "the only birds that are housebroken in captivity" in his novel, Jailbird.

The Hiss-Chambers Hearing

The prothonotary warbler became known to a wider audience in the 1940s as the bird that established a connection between Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee.

On August 3, 1948, in a hearing before the committee, Chambers accused Hiss of being a communist spy who sought to infiltrate the U.S. government. Two days later, Hiss testified before the committee and claimed, among other things, that Chambers' allegations were false and that he did not know Chambers.

However, future U.S. president, Richard Nixon, who was then a freshman congressman on the committee, became convinced that Hiss had committed perjury at the hearing.[21] To verify this suspicion, the committee had Chambers appear before it again on August 7, 1948, to testify about his relationship with Hiss. At that hearing, Chambers testified that Hiss enjoyed bird-watching, and once bragged to Chambers about seeing a prothonotary warbler along the Potomac River. When Hiss appeared before the committee again, he haphazardly confirmed spotting a prothonary warbler on the Potomac, causing many members of the committee to become convinced of the pair's acquaintance.[22][23][24] Ultimately, the Hiss-Chambers hearing led, in part, to Nixon's political rise.[13]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Protonotaria citrea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22721765A94730179. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22721765A94730179.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc de (1779). "Le figuier protonotaire". Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux (in French). Vol. 9. Paris: De L'Imprimerie Royale. p. 465.
  3. ^ Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc de; Martinet, François-Nicolas; Daubenton, Edme-Louis; Daubenton, Louis-Jean-Marie (1765–1783). "Figuier à ventre et tête jaunes de la Loisiane". Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle. Vol. 8. Paris: De L'Imprimerie Royale. Plate 704 Fig. 2.
  4. ^ Boddaert, Pieter (1783). Table des planches enluminéez d'histoire naturelle de M. D'Aubenton : avec les denominations de M.M. de Buffon, Brisson, Edwards, Linnaeus et Latham, precedé d'une notice des principaux ouvrages zoologiques enluminés (in French). Utrecht. p. 38, Number 704 Fig. 2.
  5. ^ Curson, Jon; Quinn, David; Beadle, David (1994). New World Warblers. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 159–161. ISBN 0-7136-3932-6.
  6. ^ Baird, Spencer F. (1858). Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practical and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean made under the direction of the secretary of war in 1853-1856. Vol. 9 Birds. Washington: Printed by Beverly Tucker. pp. xix, xxxi, 235, 239.
  7. ^ a b Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "New World warblers, mitrospingid tanagers". IOC World Bird List Version 9.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
  8. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 109, 318. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  9. ^ Bird: The Definitive Visual guide. DK Publishing. 2007. ISBN 0756655749.
  10. ^ Lovette, I.J.; Pérez-Emán, J.L.; Sullivan, J.P.; Banks, R.C.; Fiorentino, I.; Córdoba-Córdoba, S.; Echeverry-Galvis, M.; Barker, F.K.; Burns, K.J.; Klicka, J.; Lanyon, S.M.; Bermingham, E. (2010). "A comprehensive multilocus phylogeny for the wood-warblers and a revised classification of the Parulidae (Aves)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (2): 753–770. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.07.018. PMID 20696258.
  11. ^ "Prothonotary Warbler | State of Tennessee, Wildlife Resources Agency". www.tn.gov. Retrieved 2020-09-30.
  12. ^ Dunne, Pete (2006). Pete Dunne's Essential Field Guide Companion. Houghton Mifflin.
  13. ^ a b c Petit, Lisa J. (2020). "Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.prowar.01.
  14. ^ Stiles, Gary; Skutch, Alexander (1989). A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9600-4.
  15. ^ "Prothonotary Warbler". BirdWeb. November 2017. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  16. ^ a b Atwell, Leigh. "Protonotaria citrea (prothonotary warbler)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  17. ^ Alderfer, Jonathan (2006). National Geographic Complete Birds of North America. National Geographic Society.
  18. ^ Burns, Jim (October 2, 2018). "158. Francis Beidler Forest, Harleyville, South Carolina". BirdWatching.
  19. ^ "Audubon's Birds of America at the University of Pittsburgh". audubon.library.pitt.edu. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  20. ^ Aldo Leopold (1996). A Sand County Almanac. The Random House Publishing Group. p. 82.
  21. ^ "Chambers accuses Hiss of being a communist spy". HISTORY. July 30, 2020. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  22. ^ Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness. Random House. pp. 362, 564, 572, 573, 580. ISBN 0-89526-571-0.
  23. ^ Linder, Doug (2003). "The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary". Famous Trials. University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law. Archived from the original on 2006-08-30.
  24. ^ Miller, John J. (30 April 2007). "The Unsung Hero of the Cold War". National Review. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012.

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Prothonotary warbler: Brief Summary

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The prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea) is a small songbird of the New World warbler family. It is named for its plumage which resembles the yellow robes once worn by papal clerks (named prothonotaries) in the Roman Catholic Church.

The prothonotary warbler is the only member of the genus Protonotaria and the only eastern warbler that nests in natural or artificial cavities.

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