It is extremely difficult to generalize about any of the behaviors or nesting habits of passerines, because as a group they are so diverse. Perching birds exhibit a bewildering array of plumages and colors derived from diverse keratin structures as well as ingested pigments, such as carotenoids (Gray, 1996). Many passerines, such as some Old World Flycatchers (Muscicapidae) and African Widowbirds (Viduinae) have extremely long tail feathers or highly modified plumes (Birds of Paradise: Paradisaeidae) used in courtship displays. Several groups such as the Wattlebirds of New Zealand (Callaeidae) and Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) have fleshy, bright blue, red or yellow wattles on the face and neck. Perching birds build their nests generally out of sticks or grass on the ground, in trees, and in the case of Dippers (Cinclidae) in the banks of fast-flowing rivers. Many passerines migrate from their nesting grounds in the Nearctic and Palearctic to more equatorial regions, or from southern temperate regions north to the tropics. Parental care by both sexes is common in passerines, although in some highly dimorphic and predominantly lekking groups, such as manakins (Prum, 1994) and birds of paradise (Diamond, 1986), females alone provide for young and build the nest. Cooperative breeding, in which young birds delay breeding and assist other individuals (often parents) in raising young and defending the territory, is common in several passerine groups, such as Australian fairy wrens (Maluridae) and New World Jays (Corvidae; Brown, 1987; Edwards and Naeem, 1993). Some of the most elaborate singers in the bird world are passerines (Kroodsma and Miller, 1996). Some passerine birds are poisonous to the touch and are avoided as prey by indigenous peoples (Dumbacher et al., 1992).
The Passeriformes is the largest and most diverse commonly recognized clade of birds. The Passeriformes (or ‘passerine’ birds) are synonymous with what are commonly known as "perching birds"; this group also contains within it a major radiation commonly known as songbirds (oscine Passerines or Passeri). Of the 10,000 or so extant species of birds, over half (~5,300) are perching birds.
Perching birds have a worldwide distribution, with representatives on all continents except Antarctica, and reaching their greatest diversity in the tropics. Body sizes of passerines vary from about 1.4 kg in northern populations of Ravens (Corvus corax) to just a few grams. Perching birds include some of the most colorful and mysterious of all birds, such as birds of paradise from New Guinea and the bright orange Cock of the Rock from tropical South America. Because of their high diversity, generally small body size and relative ease of observation, collection and field study, perching birds have historically attracted the attention of a wide range of descriptive and experimental biologists, including systematists, behavioral ecologists, and evolutionary biologists.
Historically, it is generally agreed that the Passeriformes constitute a monophyletic group. Raikow (1982) established this monophyly in an explicitly phylogeneticcontext. He noted that Passeriformes possess a suite of distinguishing characteristics, including a unique sperm morphology, a distinctive morphology of the bony palate, a simple yet functionally diverse foot with three toes forward and one (the hallux) oriented backwards, and a distinctive fore- (wing) and hindlimb musculature. There are few if any species which pose problems for avian systematists as to whether they are or are not passerines. Most of the controversy lies in relationships within the clade.
The sister group of the Passeriformes is not so much hotly contested as it is poorly resolved by existing data sets. Traditionally, Passeriformes have been considered closely related to a large group known as the “higher non-Passerines”. These include a number of clades such as cuckoos (Cuculiformes), hornbills, kingfishers and related lineages (Coraciiformes), and woodpeckers and relatives (Piciformes). Many of these groups possess a zygodactyl foot, a condition in which two toes point forward and two point backward. The sister relationship of Passeriformes to woodpeckers, the hornbill group and allies is reflected in Joel Cracraft’s phylogenetic hypothesis for major groups of birds based on cladistic interpretation of morphological and molecular characters (Cracraft, 1988). However, in the other major classification bearing on the relationships of perching birds, that based on DNA-DNA hybridization, Passeriformes appear as the sister group to a large, diverse group containing pigeons and doves (Columbiformes), cranes and rails (Gruiformes) and storks (Ciconiiformes)! These latter three groups share few obvious morphological characteristics with Passeriformes. However, the DNA hybridization tree links Passeriformes with these groups at a very deep level in the tree, rendering this result tenuous. A recent study of nuclear DNA sequences by Hackett et al. (2008) finds Psittaciformes (parrots) to be the sister group of passerines, with Falconidae (falcons) also close. Clearly, more work on the sister-group relationship of Passeriformes is needed, since this relationship will be the basis of any study seeking to identify whether or not Passeriformes are a particularly diverse group (e.g., Nee et al. 1992).
Species diversity:The tradition of recognizing perching birds (Passeriformes) as the most diverse and rapidly radiating clade has been questioned because there are few obvious “key innovations” that should cause systematists to recognize Passeriformes over any other arbitrarily larger or smaller monophyletic group within birds (Raikow, 1986). One point that has been missed in debates on this issue is that the branch leading to the songbirds (oscines), a group comprising 80% of extant perching birds, is the longest internal branch on the DNA hybridization tree produced by Sibley and Ahlquist (1990). This branch has also been one of the few to be well resolved in applications of mtDNA sequences to higher level questions in birds, presumably because it is long. Given the large number of clades that will require names under phylogenetic taxonomy, perhaps the length of branches leading to particular clades should be one criterion whereby systematists decide which of the many clades to name.
Origin and biogeography of passerines:The temporal and geographic origin of passerine birds is obscure. Traditionally the group was thought to have originated in the Tertiary, at about the same time as extant orders of mammals. Some recent workers favor a later, Eocene origin (Feduccia, 1995; Wilson, 1989), but the DNA -DNA hybridization data again favors an earlier origin (Sibley and Ahlquist, 1990). Recently some of the oldest oscine fossils have been uncovered in Queensland, Australia (Boles, 1995); this and other paleobiogeographical data suggest that passerines may have in fact originated in the Southern hemisphere (Olson, 1989).
A passerine (/ˈpæsəraɪn/) is any bird of the order Passeriformes (/ˈpæsərɪfɔːrmiːz/; from Latin passer 'sparrow' and formis '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their toes (three pointing forward and one back), which facilitates perching.
With more than 140 families and some 6,500 identified species,[1] Passeriformes is the largest order of birds and among the most diverse clades of terrestrial vertebrates, representing 60% of birds.[2][3] Passerines are divided into three clades: Acanthisitti (New Zealand wrens), Tyranni (mostly-South American suboscines), and Passeri (oscines or songbirds).[4][5] The passerines contain several groups of brood parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches, and the cowbirds. Most passerines are omnivorous, though shrikes are carnivorous, and others are insectivorous.
The terms "passerine" and "Passeriformes" are derived from the scientific name of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, and ultimately from the Latin term passer, which refers to sparrows and similar small birds.
The order is divided into three suborders, Tyranni (suboscines), Passeri (oscines or songbirds), and the basal Acanthisitti.[6] Oscines have the best control of their syrinx muscles among birds, producing a wide range of songs and other vocalizations, though some of them, such as the crows, do not sound musical to human beings. Some, such as the lyrebird, are accomplished mimics.[7] The New Zealand wrens are tiny birds restricted to New Zealand, at least in modern times; they were long placed in Passeri.
Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders. The heaviest and altogether largest passerines are the thick-billed raven[8] and the larger races of common raven, each exceeding 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) and 70 cm (28 in). The superb lyrebird and some birds-of-paradise, due to very long tails or tail coverts, are longer overall. The smallest passerine is the short-tailed pygmy tyrant, at 6.5 cm (2.6 in) and 4.2 g (0.15 oz).[9]
The foot of a passerine has three toes directed forward and one toe directed backward, called anisodactyl arrangement, and the hind toe (hallux) joins the leg at approximately the same level as the front toes. This arrangement enables passerine birds to easily perch upright on branches. The toes have no webbing or joining, but in some cotingas, the second and third toes are united at their basal third.
The leg of passerine birds contains an additional special adaptation for perching. A tendon in the rear of the leg running from the underside of the toes to the muscle behind the tibiotarsus will automatically be pulled and tighten when the leg bends, causing the foot to curl and become stiff when the bird lands on a branch. This enables passerines to sleep while perching without falling off.[10][11]
Most passerine birds have 12 tail feathers but the superb lyrebird has 16,[12] and several spinetails in the family Furnariidae have 10, 8, or even 6, as is the case of Des Murs's wiretail. Species adapted to tree trunk climbing such as woodcreeper and treecreepers have stiff tail feathers that are used as props during climbing. Extremely long tails used as sexual ornaments are shown by species in different families. A well-known example is the long-tailed widowbird.
The chicks of passerines are altricial: blind, featherless, and helpless when hatched from their eggs. Hence, the chicks require extensive parental care. Most passerines lay colored eggs, in contrast with nonpasserines, most of whose eggs are white except in some ground-nesting groups such as Charadriiformes and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and in some parasitic cuckoos, which match the passerine host's egg. The vinous-throated parrotbill has two egg colors, white and blue, to deter the brood parasitic common cuckoo.
Clutches vary considerably in size: some larger passerines of Australia such as lyrebirds and scrub-robins lay only a single egg, most smaller passerines in warmer climates lay between two and five, while in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, hole-nesting species like tits can lay up to a dozen and other species around five or six. The family Viduidae do not build their own nests, instead, they lay eggs in other birds' nests.
The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the wrens of the Americas and Eurasia, those of Australia, and those of New Zealand, look superficially similar and behave in similar ways, yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes.[a]
Advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data gradually are revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.[14][15] The first passerines are now thought to have evolved in Gondwana (in the Southern Hemisphere) in the late Paleocene or early Eocene, around 50 million years ago.[5][15]
The initial split was between the New Zealand wrens (Acanthisittidae) and all other passerines (Eupasserine), and the second split involved the Tyranni (suboscines) and the Passeri (oscines or songbirds).[3] A rupture of the Gondwanan continent caused the core split of the Eupasseres, which were divided into these groups, one in Western Gondwana (Tyranni) and the other in Eastern Gondwana (Passeri).[2] Passeri experienced a great radiation of forms out of the Australian continent. A major branch of the Passeri, parvorder Passerida, expanded deep into Eurasia and Africa, where a further explosive radiation of new lineages occurred.[15] This eventually led to three major Passerida lineages comprising about 4,000 species, which in addition to the Corvida and numerous minor lineages make up songbird diversity today. Extensive biogeographical mixing happens, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on.[3]
Perching bird osteology, especially of the limb bones, is rather diagnostic.[16][17][18] However, the early fossil record is poor because the first Passeriformes were relatively small, and their delicate bones did not preserve well. Queensland Museum specimens F20688 (carpometacarpus) and F24685 (tibiotarsus) from Murgon, Queensland, are fossil bone fragments initially assigned to Passeriformes.[16] However, the material is too fragmentary and their affinities have been questioned.[19] Several more recent fossils from the Oligocene of Europe, such as Wieslochia, Jamna, Resoviaornis and Crosnoornis,[20] are more complete and definitely represent early passeriforms, although their exact position in the evolutionary tree is not known.
From the Bathans Formation at the Manuherikia River in Otago, New Zealand, MNZ S42815 (a distal right tarsometatarsus of a Tūī-sized bird) and several bones of at least one species of saddleback-sized bird have recently been described. These date from the Early to Middle Miocene (Awamoan to Lillburnian, 19–16 mya).[21]
In Europe, perching birds are not too uncommon in the fossil record from the Oligocene onward, but most are too fragmentary for a more definite placement:
That suboscines expanded much beyond their region of origin is proven by several fossil from Germany such as a broadbill (Eurylaimidae) humerus fragment from the Early Miocene (roughly 20 mya) of Wintershof, Germany, the Late Oligocene carpometacarpus from France listed above, and Wieslochia, among others.[17][15] Extant Passeri super-families were quite distinct by that time and are known since about 12–13 mya when modern genera were present in the corvoidean and basal songbirds. The modern diversity of Passerida genera is known mostly from the Late Miocene onwards and into the Pliocene (about 10–2 mya). Pleistocene and early Holocene lagerstätten (<1.8 mya) yield numerous extant species, and many yield almost nothing but extant species or their chronospecies and paleosubspecies.
In the Americas, the fossil record is more scant before the Pleistocene, from which several still-existing suboscine families are documented. Apart from the indeterminable MACN-SC-1411 (Pinturas Early/Middle Miocene of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina),[f] an extinct lineage of perching birds has been described from the Late Miocene of California, United States: the Palaeoscinidae with the single genus Palaeoscinis. "Palaeostruthus" eurius (Pliocene of Florida) probably belongs to an extant family, most likely passeroidean.
Acanthisitti – New Zealand wrens (1 family containing 4 species)
Tyranni – suboscines (16 families containing 1,356 species)
Passeri – oscines (125 families containing 5,158 species)
Phylogenetic relationship of the suborders within the Passeriformes. The numbers are from the list published by the International Ornithologists' Union in January 2020.[1][29]The Passeriformes is currently divided into three suborders: Acanthisitti (New Zealand wrens), Tyranni (suboscines) and Passeri (oscines or songbirds). The Passeri is now subdivided into two major groups recognized now as Corvides and Passerida respectively containing the large superfamilies Corvoidea and Meliphagoidea, as well as minor lineages, and the superfamilies Sylvioidea, Muscicapoidea, and Passeroidea but this arrangement has been found to be oversimplified. Since the mid-2000s, studies have investigated the phylogeny of the Passeriformes and found that many families from Australasia traditionally included in the Corvoidea actually represent more basal lineages within oscines. Likewise, the traditional three-superfamily arrangement within the Passeri has turned out to be far more complex and will require changes in classification.
Major "wastebin" families such as the Old World warblers and Old World babblers have turned out to be paraphyletic and are being rearranged. Several taxa turned out to represent highly distinct lineages, so new families had to be established, some of them – like the stitchbird of New Zealand and the Eurasian bearded reedling – monotypic with only one living species.[30] In the Passeri alone, a number of minor lineages will eventually be recognized as distinct superfamilies. For example, the kinglets constitute a single genus with less than 10 species today but seem to have been among the first perching bird lineages to diverge as the group spread across Eurasia. No particularly close relatives of them have been found among comprehensive studies of the living Passeri, though they might be fairly close to some little-studied tropical Asian groups. Nuthatches, wrens, and their closest relatives are currently grouped in a distinct super-family Certhioidea.
This list is in taxonomic order, placing related families next to one another. The families listed are those recognised by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[1] The order and the division into infraorders, parvorders and superfamilies follows the phylogenetic analysis published by Carl Oliveros and colleagues in 2019.[29][g] The relationships between the families in the suborder Tyranni (suboscines) were all well determined but some of the nodes in Passeri (oscines or songbirds) were unclear owing to the rapid splitting of the lineages.[29]
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Infraorder Eurylaimides: Old World suboscines
Infraorder Tyrannides: New World suboscines
Parvorder Furnariida
Parvorder Tyrannida
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Relationships between living Passeriformes families based on the phylogenetic analysis of Oliveros et al (2019).[29] Some terminals have been renamed to reflect families recognised by the IOC but not in that study.[1] The IOC families Alcippeidae and Teretistridae were not sampled in this study.
Passeriformes AcanthisittiAcanthisittidae (New Zealand wrens)
Tyranni EurylaimidesPhilepittidae (asites)
Eurylaimidae (eurylaimid broadbills)
Calyptomenidae (African and green broadbills)
Sapayoidae (sapayoa)
Pittidae (pittas)
Tyrannides FurnariidaMelanopareiidae (crescent chests)
Conopophagidae (gnateaters)
Thamnophilidae (antbirds)
Grallariidae (antpittas)
Rhinocryptidae (tapaculos)
Formicariidae (antthrushes)
Scleruridae (leaftossers)
Dendrocolaptidae (woodcreepers)
Furnariidae (ovenbirds)
TyrannidaPipridae (manakins)
Cotingidae (cotingas)
Tityridae (tityras, becards)
Oxyruncidae (sharpbill)
Onychorhynchidae (royal flycatchers & allies)
Pipritidae (piprites)
Platyrinchidae (spadebills)
Tachurididae (many-coloured rush tyrant)
Rhynchocyclidae (mionectine flycatchers)
Tyrannidae (tyrant flycatchers)
Passeri MenuridaMenuridae (lyrebirds)
Atrichornithidae (scrubbirds)
ClimacteridaClimacteridae (Australian treecreepers)
Ptilonorhynchidae (bowerbirds)
MeliphagidaMaluridae (Australasian wrens)
Dasyornithidae (bristlebirds)
Pardalotidae (pardalotes)
Acanthizidae (Australasian warblers)
Meliphagidae (honeyeaters)
OrthonychidaPomatostomidae (Australasian babblers)
Orthonychidae (logrunners)
CorvidesCinclosomatidae (quail-thrushes, jewel-babblers)
Campephagidae (cuckooshrikes)
Mohouidae (whitehead & allies)
Neosittidae (sittellas)
OrioloideaPsophodidae (whipbirds & allies)
Eulacestomidae (ploughbill)
Falcunculidae (shriketits)
Oreoicidae (Australo-Papuan bellbirds)
Paramythiidae (painted berrypickers)
Vireonidae (vireos)
Pachycephalidae (whistlers)
Oriolidae (orioles, figbirds)
MalaconotoideaMachaerirhynchidae (boatbills)
Artamidae (woodswallows, butcherbirds)
Rhagologidae (mottled berryhunter)
Malaconotidae (bush-shrikes, puffbacks)
Pityriaseidae (bristlehead)
Aegithinidae (loras)
Platysteiridae (wattle-eyes, batsies)
Vangidae (vangas)
CorvoideaRhipiduridae (fantails)
Dicruridae (drongos)
Monarchidae (monarchs)
Ifritidae (ifrit)
Paradisaeidae (birds-of-paradise)
Corcoracidae (Australian mudnesters)
Melampittidae (melampittas)
Laniidae (shrikes)
Platylophidae (crested jay)
Corvidae (crows, jays)
PasseridesCnemophilidae (satinbirds)
Melanocharitidae (berrypeckers)
Callaeidae (New Zealand wattlebirds)
Notiomystidae (stitchbird)
Petroicidae (Australian robins)
Eupetidae (rail-babbler)
Chaetopidae (rock-jumpers)
Picathartidae (rockfowl)
SylviidaHyliotidae (hyliotas)
Stenostiridae (crested flycatchers)
Paridae (tits, chickadees)
Remizidae (penduline tits)
Panuridae (bearded reedling)
Alaudidae (larks)
Nicatoridae (nicators)
Macrosphenidae (crombecs, African warblers)
Cisticolidae (cisticolas)
LocustelloideaAcrocephalidae (acrocephalid warblers)
Locustellidae (grassbirds)
Donacobiidae (donacobius)
Bernieridae (Malagasy warblers)
Pnoepygidae (wren warblers)
Hirundinidae (martins, swallows)
SylvioideaPycnonotidae (bulbuls)
Paradoxornithidae (parrotbills, fulvettas)
Sylviidae (typical warblers, sylviid babblers)
Zosteropidae (white-eyes)
Timaliidae (babblers, tit-babblers, scimitar bablers)
Leiothrichidae (laughingthrushes)
Pellorneidae (fulvettas, ground babblers)
AegithaloideaPhylloscopidae (leaf-warblers and allies)
Hyliidae (hylias)
Aegithalidae (long-tailed tits or bushtits)
Erythrocercidae (yellow flycatchers)
Scotocercidae (streaked scrub warbler)
Cettiidae (Cettia bush warblers and allies)
Muscicapida BombycilloideaDulidae (palmchat)
Bombycillidae (waxwings)
Ptiliogonatidae (silky-flycatchers)
Hylocitreidae (hylocitrea)
Hypocoliidae (hypocolius)
Mohoidae (Hawaiian honeyeaters)
MuscicapoideaElachuridae (elechura)
Cinclidae (dippers)
Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers, chats)
Turdidae (thrushes)
Buphagidae (oxpeckers)
Sturnidae (starlings, mynas)
Mimidae (mockingbirds, thrashers)
ReguloideaRegulidae (kinglets)
CerthioideaTichodromidae (wallcreeper)
Sittidae (nuthatches)
Certhiidae (treecreepers)
Polioptilidae (gnatcatchers, gnatwrens)
Troglodytidae (wrens)
PasseridaPromeropidae (sugarbirds)
Modulatricidae (dapple-throat & allies)
Nectariniidae (sunbirds)
Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers)
Chloropseidae (leafbirds)
Irenidae (fairy bluebirds)
Peucedramidae (olive warbler)
Urocynchramidae (Przevalski's finch)
PhoceoideaPloceidae (weavers)
Viduidae (indigobirds, whydals)
Estrildidae (estrildid finches)
Prunellidae (accentors)
Passeridae (sparrows)
Motacillidae (wagtails, pipits)
Fringillidae (finches, euphonias)
EmberizoideaRhodinocichlidae (thrush-tanager)
Calcariidae (longspurs, snow buntings)
Emberizidae (buntings)
Cardinalidae (cardinal grosbeaks)
Mitrospingidae (mitrosingus & allies)
Thraupidae (tanagers)
Passerellidae (American sparrows)
Parulidae (wood warblers)
Icteriidae (yellow-breasted chat)
Icteridae (New World blackbirds)
Calyptophilidae (chat-tanagers)
Zeledoniidae (wrenthrush)
Nesospingidae (Puerto Rican tanager)
Spindalidae (spindalises)
Phaenicophilidae (Hispaniolan tanagers and allies)
A passerine (/ˈpæsəraɪn/) is any bird of the order Passeriformes (/ˈpæsərɪfɔːrmiːz/; from Latin passer 'sparrow' and formis '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their toes (three pointing forward and one back), which facilitates perching.
With more than 140 families and some 6,500 identified species, Passeriformes is the largest order of birds and among the most diverse clades of terrestrial vertebrates, representing 60% of birds. Passerines are divided into three clades: Acanthisitti (New Zealand wrens), Tyranni (mostly-South American suboscines), and Passeri (oscines or songbirds). The passerines contain several groups of brood parasites such as the viduas, cuckoo-finches, and the cowbirds. Most passerines are omnivorous, though shrikes are carnivorous, and others are insectivorous.
The terms "passerine" and "Passeriformes" are derived from the scientific name of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, and ultimately from the Latin term passer, which refers to sparrows and similar small birds.
