Pumpkinseeds are common and abundant in suitable habitat, populations are not considered at risk.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
Pumpkinseeds inhabit dense vegetation to remain hidden from predators. Spines of the dorsal fins and anal fins on pumpkinseeds are spread out when they perceive danger, thus making them harder to swallow.
Known predators of pumpkinseeds include Sander vitreus (walleye), Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass), Perca flavescens (yellow perch), Esox lucius (northern pike), Esox masquinongy (muskellunge), Amia calva (bowfin), Anguilla rostrata (American eel), other muskies (Esox), other sunfish (Centrarchidae), including other pumpkinseeds, mergansers (Lophodytes and Mergus), cormorants (Phalacrocorax), herons (Ardeidae), and humans (Homo sapiens).
Known Predators:
Pumpkinseeds are deep-bodied and laterally compressed. They have brassy yellow to olive green sides that are densely covered with spots of bright copper or gold. The opercle flap has a distinctive crimson spot in a half-moon shape on the rear edge in adults. In young pumpkinseeds a pale spot on the opercle flap distinguishes them from other Centrarchidae.
Etnier and Starnes (1993) describe pumpkinseeds as having: lateral line scales 35 to 43, dorsal fin with 10 (10 to 11) soft rays, anal fin soft rays 9 to 10, pectoral fin rays 13 (12 to 14).
Young pumpkinseeds also have vertical chainlike bands down their sides with dark vertical bars between the primary bands. These help to differentiate them from other sunfishes. Lepomis gibbosus are most easily confused with redear sunfish, L. microlophus and bluegills, L. macrochirus.
Range mass: 620 (high) g.
Average mass: 171-286 g.
Range length: 254 (high) mm.
Average length: 152-203 mm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Pumpkinseeds typically live 5 to 6 years but have reached 12 years old in captivity. In the wild, however, most do not exceed 8 years old.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 8 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 12 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 5 to 6 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 5-6 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 13.0 years.
Pumpkinseeds are freshwater fishes, like other members of the sunfish family, Centrarchidae. They prefer cool to moderately warm, clear water that is 1 to 2 m deep in areas with lots of vegetation for cover. The ideal water temperature for pumpkinseeds ranges from 21 to 24 degrees Celsius.
Average depth: 1 to 2 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; freshwater
Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams
Wetlands: marsh
Pumpkinseeds, Lepomis gibbosus, are found natively in the Atlantic Slope drainages from New Brunswick to the Edisto River in South Carolina and also in the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and upper Mississippi basins from Quebec and New York west to southeastern Manitoba and North Dakota, and south to northern Kentucky and Missouri.
This species has also been widely introduced in Europe, Africa, and South America, as well as other areas of North America.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced , Native ); palearctic (Introduced ); ethiopian (Introduced ); neotropical (Introduced )
Pumpkinseeds consume a diverse diet of small prey including insects, insect larvae, mollusks, snails, crustaceans, leeches, and small fish. They are effective at destroying mosquito larvae and also consume detritus and small amounts of aquatic vegetation.
L. gibbosus feed at all water levels throughout the day, with their heaviest feeding occurring during the afternoon.
Animal Foods: fish; eggs; insects; mollusks; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans; zooplankton
Plant Foods: leaves; algae
Other Foods: detritus
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Molluscivore )
Pumpkinseeds are a vital intermediate link in the food chain. They are an important prey species for birds and larger fish predators. They also impact the insect populations through consumption.
Pumpkinseeds are considered a pest in many areas where they have been introduced. Several countries have reported an adverse ecological impact after their introduction. Pumpkinseeds hybridize readily with most other Lepomis, especially with bluegill and green sunfish. The result is hybrids that are fast-growing, sterile males. This causes overcrowding and stunted growth in endemic species.
Pumpkinseeds have little economic importance. They are aggressive feeders and readily bite at most bait. This, paired with their excellent flavor, causes people to consider them a good 'panfish.' However, experienced anglers often throw them back due to their small size.
The species can be successfully kept in aquariums and may, therefore, be kept as pets or used for lab experiments as well.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food
Pumpkinseeds cause no known negative economic impact.
At 28 degrees Celsius the eggs of pumpkinseeds hatch in as little as three days. The normal range for eggs to hatch is 3 to 10 days. The newly hatched larvae are tiny and transparent. The eyes do not have any pigment in the first 48 hours after the larvae have hatched. They remain at the bottom of the nest for a short time. Male pumpkinseeds continue to guard larvae against predators for around 11 days when they become free-swimming. When they leave the nest the juvenile fish stay in or near the breeding area and can grow to around 50.8 mm in the first year of life. Pumpkinseeds usually reach sexual maturity at age 2.
Male pumpkinseeds change color during breeding season so it would appear that visual cues are important to either other males or females.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Male pumpkinseeds will defend their nests agressively against other fish by spreading their opercula, charging, biting, chasing, and on occasion, they will mouth-fight. Females come in from deeper waters and at first appear to be chased away from the nest but, after a considerable amount of chasing, the male attempts to drive her into his nest and the female will approach the nest.
When the male pumpkinseed gets the female in his nest they will swim in a circular path above the nest with their bellies touching. The male releases milt and the female releases her eggs at intervals and fertilization occurs. Female pumpkinseeds can spawn in more than one nest. Also more than one female can use the same nest. Occasionally two females will spawn with a male at the same time.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Spawning occurs when water is between 13 to 28 degrees Celsius, during late spring to late summer, depending on location. A female between 2 to 5 years of age can produce anywhere from 4000 to 7000 eggs in a single season and a male will breed several times (every 11 days or so) through the season.
Male pumpkinseeds build a nest in very shallow weedy bays of lakes or near the shore of runs and pools of streams in colonies of 3 to 15 nest sites. Pumpkinseeds maintain larger territories than bluegill but they will sometimes build their nests among bluegill and other sunfish nests and the different species will interbreed. Average pumpkinseed nests are around 30 cm in diameter and 5 to 7 cm deep.
Eggs can hatch in 3 days at 28 degrees Celsius. After hatching, the larvae will stay around 5 days in the nest, getting their nutrients from the yolk sac. When the larvae are able to self-feed they have a fully developed mouth and partially developed fins. The pelvic fins are the last to complete development. Pumpkinseeds reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age.
Breeding interval: The male will continue to spawn every 11 days or so through the breeding season.
Breeding season: Spawning and nesting occurs anywhere from April to August depending on location.
Average number of offspring: 600 to 3000 eggs.
Average gestation period: 3 - 10 days.
Average time to independence: 10 - 11 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous
Male pumpkinseeds guard and defend the nest until the fry have hatched and dispersed. Sometimes one male will guard two nests by moving back and forth between them. He will fan the nest with his fins to keep it clean and well-oxygenated until the larvae are able to feed on their own (usually around 10 to 11 days). Male pumpkinseeds will even return the fry to the nest in his mouth if they stray.
Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Male); pre-independence (Protecting: Male)
The pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), also referred to as pond perch, common sunfish, punkie, sunfish, sunny, and kivver, is a small/medium-sized North American freshwater fish of the genus Lepomis (true sunfishes), from family Centrarchidae (sunfishes, crappies and black basses) in the order Perciformes.
The pumpkinseed's natural range in North America is from New Brunswick down the east coast to South Carolina. It then runs inland to the middle of North America, and extends through Iowa and back through Pennsylvania. Pumpkinseed sunfish have however been introduced throughout most of North America. They can now be found from Washington and Oregon on the Pacific Coast to Georgia on the Atlantic Coast. Yet they are primarily found in the northeastern United States and more rarely in the south-central or southwestern region of the continent.[3]
In Europe, the pumpkinseed is considered an invasive species. They were introduced to European waters, and could outcompete native fish.[4] This species is included since 2019 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list).[5] This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, or intentionally released into the environment in the whole of the European Union.[6]
Pumpkinseeds have a small body that is shaped much like a pumpkin seed (thus the common name), typically about 10 cm (4 in) in length, but can grow up to 28 cm (11 in).[2] They typically weigh less than 1 pound (450 g), with the world record being 1 pound 8 ounces (680 g) caught by Robert Warne while fishing Honeoye Lake in Upstate New York.[7] They are orange, green, yellow or blue in color, with speckles over their sides and back and a yellow-orange breast and belly, and the coloration of the ctenoid scales of the pumpkinseed is one of the most vibrant of any freshwater fish and can range from an olive-green or brown to bright orange and blue. The sides are covered with vertical bars that are a faint green or blue, which are typically more prevalent in female pumpkinseeds. Orange spots may cover the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins and the cheeks have blue lines across them. The pumpkinseed is noted for the orange-red spot on the margin of its black gill cover. The pectoral fins of a pumpkinseed can be amber or clear, while the dorsal spines are black. They have a small mouth with an upper jaw stopping right under the eye.[8]
Pumpkinseeds are very similar to the larger bluegill, and are often found in the same habitats. One difference between the two species is their opercular flap, which is black in both species but the pumpkinseed has a crimson spot in the shape of a half moon on the back portion. Pumpkinseeds have seven or eight vertical, irregular bands on their sides that are duller in color compared to the bluegill.[9]
Pumpkinseeds typically live in warm, calm lakes, ponds, and pools of creeks and small rivers with plenty of vegetation. They prefer clear water where they can find shelter to hide. They tend to stay near the shore and can be found in numbers within shallow and protected areas. They will feed at all water levels from the surface to the bottom in the daylight, and their heaviest feeding will be in the afternoon. Pumpkinseed sunfish usually travel together in schools that can also include bluegills and other sunfish.[10]
Pumpkinseeds are more tolerant of low oxygen levels than bluegills are, but less tolerant of warm water. Groups of young fish school close to shore, but adults tend to travel in groups of two to four in slightly deeper yet still covered waters. Pumpkinseeds are active throughout the day, but they rest at night near the bottom or in shelter areas in rocks or near submerged logs.
Pumpkinseeds are carnivorous and feed on a variety of small prey both at the water surface and at the bottom. Among their favorites are insects, small molluscs and crustaceans (such as small crawfish), worms, minnow fry, small frogs or tadpoles, and even cannibalizing other smaller pumpkinseeds. They are effective at destroying mosquito larvae and even occasionally consume small pieces of aquatic vegetation and detritus.[11]
The pumpkinseed sunfish has a terminal mouth, allowing it to open at the anterior end of the snout.[3] Pumpkinseed sunfish that live in waters with larger gastropods have larger mouths and associated jaw muscles to crack the shells.[12]
The pumpkinseed sunfish are typically very likely to bite on a worm bait, which makes them easy to catch while angling. Many fishermen consider the pumpkinseed to be a nuisance fish, as it bites so easily and frequently when the fisherman is attempting to catch something else. The pumpkinseeds are very popular with young fishermen due to their willingness to bite, their abundance and close locations to the shore. Although many people consider the meat of a pumpkinseed to be good-tasting, it is typically not a popular sport fish due to its small size.[3]
Because pumpkinseeds tend to remain in the shallows and feed all day, pumpkinseeds are relatively easy to catch via bank fishing. They will bite at most bait – including garden worms, insects, leeches, or bits of fish meat. They will also take small lures and can be fished for with a fly rod with wet or dry flies. They will also hit at grubs early in the winter, but are less active from mid- to late winter. They may be easy to catch and popular with the youngest anglers, but pumpkinseeds are often sought by adults as well. The fish do put up an aggressive fight on line, and they have an excellent flavor and are low in fat and high in protein.[8]
The IGFA world record for the species stands at 0.68 kg (1 lb 8 oz), caught near Honeoye, New York, in 2016.[13]
The pumpkinseed sunfish is very common and is not listed by CITES. It is considered Least Concern (not threatened) by the IUCN.[1] Spawning grounds of the pumpkinseeds can be disturbed by shoreline development and shoreline erosion from heavy lake use. Their susceptibility to silt and pollution makes the pumpkinseed a good indicator of the cleanliness and health of water.[10]
Once water temperatures reach 55–63 °F (13–17 °C) in the late spring or early summer, the male pumpkinseeds will begin to build nests. Nesting sites are typically in shallow water on sand or gravel lake bottoms. The males will use their caudal fins to sweep out shallow, oval-shaped nesting holes that stretch about twice the length of the pumpkinseed itself. The fish will remove debris and large rocks from their nests with their mouths.
Nests are arranged in colonies consisting of about three to 15 nests each. Often, pumpkinseeds build their nests near bluegill colonies, and the two species interbreed. Male pumpkinseeds are vigorous and aggressive, and defend their nests by spreading their opercula. Because of this aggressive behavior, pumpkinseeds tend to maintain larger territories than bluegills.
Females arrive after the nests are completed, coming in from deeper waters. The male then releases milt and the female releases eggs. Females may spawn in more than one nest, and more than one female may use the same nest. Also, more than one female will spawn with a male in one nest simultaneously. Females are able produce 1,500 to 1,700 eggs, depending on their size and age.
Once released, the eggs stick to gravel, sand, or other debris in the nest, and they hatch in as few as three days. Females leave the nest immediately after spawning, but males remain and guard their offspring. The male guards them for about the first 11 days, returning them to the nest in his mouth if they stray from the nesting site.
The young fish stay on or near the shallow breeding area and grow to about 2 in (5 cm) in their first year. Sexual maturity is usually achieved by age two. Pumpkinseeds have lived to be 12 years old in captivity, but in nature most do not exceed six to eight years old.[14]
The pumpkinseed sunfish has adapted in many ways to the surroundings where it lives. Its skin reflects camouflage for its habitat. The pattern that appears on the pumpkinseed resembles that of the sunlight patterns that reflect on the shallow water of bays and river beds.
The pumpkinseed sunfish has developed a specific method of protection. Along the dorsal fin are 10 to 11 spines, and three additional spines on the anal fin. These spines are very sharp, which aid the fish in defense. The pumpkinseed has the ability to anticipate approaching predators (or prey) via a lateral line system, allowing it to detect changes or movements in the water using different mechanical receptors.
The brightly colored gill plates of the pumpkinseed sunfish also serve as a method of protection and dominance. Also known as an eye spot, the dark patch at the posterior of the gill plate provides the illusion that the eye of the fish is larger and positioned further back on the body, thus making the fish seem up to four times larger than it actually is. When a pumpkinseed feels threatened by a predator, it flares its gills to make it seem larger in size, and shows off the flashy red coloration. Males of the species also flare their gills in the spring spawning season in a show of dominance and territoriality.
In the southernmost regions of its distribution, the pumpkinseed has developed a larger mouth opening and abnormally large jaw muscles to aid in feeding; its forage is small crustaceans and mollusks. The larger bite radius and enhanced jaw muscles allow the pumpkinseed to crack the shells of their prey to attain the soft flesh within, thus providing one common name of 'shellcracker'.[12]
Lepomis, in Greek, means 'scaled gill cover' and gibbosus means 'humped'. The defining characteristic of a pumpkinseed sunfish is the bright red spot at the tip of the ear flap. The pumpkinseed sunfish is widely recognized by its shape of a pumpkin seed, from which its common name comes.[15]
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The pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), also referred to as pond perch, common sunfish, punkie, sunfish, sunny, and kivver, is a small/medium-sized North American freshwater fish of the genus Lepomis (true sunfishes), from family Centrarchidae (sunfishes, crappies and black basses) in the order Perciformes.
