Toxicity
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
P. lima produces a number of toxic substances: prorocentrolide (Torigoe et al. 1988); diarrhetic shellfish poison (DSP) toxins (Yasumoto et al. 1987); okadaic acid (OA) (Murakami et al. 1982); dinophysistoxins-1 (DXT1) (Marr et al. 1992; Morton & Tindall, 1995); dinophysistoxins-2 (DXT2) (Hu et al. 1993); and dinophysistoxins-4 (DXT4) (Hu et al. 1995).
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Comprehensive Description
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
P. lima is an armored, marine, benthic dinoflagellate species with world wide distribution. It produces several toxins. Cell oval in valve view; broad in the middle region, narrow at the anterior end; cell size 22-50 µm long and 20-28 µm wide; both valves concave; surface smooth; valve center devoid of pores; marginal pores useful diagnostic feature of this species from the other species in the Prorocentrum genus; periflagellar area on the right valve is a shallow V-shaped depression of 8 plates and 2 pores: larger flagellar pore(F) and smaller auxiliary pore (A); both valves interiorly indented, left valve margin has a flattened apical ridge that borders the periflagellar area. Cells are slow swimmers.
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Behavior
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
Cell moves by two dissimilar flagella inserted epically: one flagellum is transverse (provides direction) and the longitudinal flagellum (provides direction) for propelling cells in the water; both flagella emerges from the flagellar pore.
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Reproduction
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
Cell reproduction has three different forms: 1) asexual by binary fission; 2); alternate asexual reproduction in which a chain of 4-32 cell pairs is enclosed within a thin-walled cyst (Faust 1993a); and 3) sexual reproduction involves the conjugation of isogamus gametes, and the formation of a large hypnozygote (resting cyst) (Faust 1993b).
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Habitat
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
Temperature 8-32ºC; Salinity 10-34 PSU
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Diagnostic Description
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
Cell armored, photosynthetic with two chloroplasts and pusules, a centrally located pyrenoid and a posterior nucleus are present.
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Distribution
provided by Harmful Phytoplankton Project
World-wide distribution, neritic and estuarine, benthic/epiphytic (Faust et al. 1999), sand dwelling, can be tychoplanktonic (Steidinger & Tangen 1996), attached to the surface of red and brown algae and floating mangrove detritus.
- Morton SL & Tindall DR 1995. Morphological and biochemical variability of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima isolated from three locations at the Heron Island, Australia. J. Phycol.31: 914-921.
- Faust MA 1993b. Sexuality in a toxic dinoflagellate, Prorocentrum lima. In: T.J. Smayda & Y. Shimizu eds., Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 121-126.
- Faust MA & Gulledge RA 2002. Identifying Harmful marine Dinoflagellates. Contributions from the United States Herbarium, Smithsonian Institution, 42: 1-144, Pl.48.
- Hu T, Curtis Walter JA & Wright JLC 1995. Identification of DTX-4, a new water-soluble phosphatase inhibitor from the toxic dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm. 5: 597-599.
- Faust MA 1993a. Alternate asexual reproduction of Prorocentrum lima in cultures pp. In: T.J. Smayda & Y. Shimizu eds., Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 115-120.
- Marr JC, Jackson A & McLachlan JL 1992. Occurrence of Prorocentrum lima, a DSP toxin-producing species from the Atlantic coast of Canada. J. Appl. Phycol. 4: 17-24.
- Faust MA 1991. Morphology of ciguatera-causing Prorocentrum lima (Pyrrophyta) from widely differing cites. J. Phycology 27: 642-648.
- Faust MA, Larsen J and Moestrup Ø 1999. ICES Identification Leaflets for Plankton. Potentially Toxic Phytoplankton: 3. Genus Prorocentrum (Dinophyceae). International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, pp. 1-24.
- Murakami YY, Oshima & T. Yasumoto. 1982. Identification of okadaic acid as a toxic component of a marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 48: 69-72.
- bibliographic citation
- Guide to UK Coastal Planktonic Ciliates © 2001 DJS Montagnes, University of Liverpool http://www.liv.ac.uk/ciliate/
- author
- David J.S. Montagnes
Ecology
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. lima is a benthic and epiphytic species that can be tycoplanktonic. Cultured cells readily adhere to the culturing vessel via mucous strands and rarely swim freely (Fukuyo 1981; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). This species produces a pale colored resting cyst as part of its life cycle. Cysts are large (70-75 µm diameter) and round with a smooth triple-layered wall (Faust 1993c).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Habitat and Locality
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Prorocentrum lima is a neritic, estuarine species with world-wide distribution (Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Cells can be found in temperate (Lebour 1925; Schiller 1933; Carter 1938) as well as tropical oceans (Fukuyo 1981; Steidinger 1983; Carlson 1984; Faust 1990b). This species occurs in sand (Lebour 1925; Drebes 1974; Dodge 1985), attached to the surface of red and brown algae and benthic debris (Fukuyo 1981; Steidinger 1983; Carlson 1984), associated with coral reefs (Yasumoto et al. 1980; Fukuyo 1981; Bomber et al. 1985; Carlson & Tindall 1985), or can be found attached to floating detritus in mangrove habitats (Faust 1991).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Morphology and Structure
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Prorocentrum lima is a photosynthetic species containing two chloroplasts, a central pyrenoid and a large posterior nucleus (Figs. 5, 6) (Dodge 1975).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Nomenclatural Types
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Holotype: Prorocentrum lima (Ehrenberg) Dodge, 1975: 109, figs. 1 E, F, plate 1B, C
Type Locality: unknown
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Reproduction
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. lima reproduces asexually by binary fission. This species also exhibits an alternate form of asexual reproduction in which a chain of cell pairs is enclosed within a thin-walled cyst. In this mode multiple vegetative divisions occur within a hyaline envelope (a division cyst) which may contain a chain of 4 to 32 cells (Faust 1993d). Sexual reproduction has also been documented: isogamous gametes form, conjugation takes place, and a large hypnozygote (resting cyst) is produced (Fig. 7)(Faust 1993c).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Species Comparison
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. lima is difficult to identify due to its similar morphology to several other Prorocentrum species with a triangular periflagellar area and an oval or ovoid shape (e.g. P. foraminosum, P. concavum and P. hoffmannianum). P. lima can be distinguished by its size, shape, narrow periflagellar area and the presence of valve and marginal pores. P. concavum, however, is larger, broader, has more valve pores and does not have marginal pores. P. foraminosum and P. hoffmannianum are also similar in shape to P. lima, though both are larger species with very different valve pore numbers and arrangements. P. hoffmannianum, moreover, is much broader and its valve surface is deeply areolated (Steidinger 1983; Steidinger & Tangen 1985; 1996; Fukuyo 1981; Faust 1990b; 1991; 1993b). Steidinger (1983) recognized that the marginal pores of P. lima can be used to differentiate this species at the light microscope level from completely areolated species such as P. concavum or P. compressum which are similar in shape.
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Species Overview
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. lima is an armoured, marine, benthic dinoflagellate species with world-wide distribution.
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Synonyms
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Exuviaella marina Cienkowski, 1881
Exuviaella lima (Ehrenberg) Bütschli, 1885
Exuviaella marina var. lima (Ehrenberg) Schiller 1933
Basionym: Cryptomonas lima Ehrenberg, 1860
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Taxonomic Description
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
P. lima is a bivalvate species often observed in valve view. Cells are oblong to ovate, small to medium-sized, broadest in the mid-region, and narrow toward the anterior end (Figs. 1, 2, 4-6). Cell size ranges between 32-50 µm in length and 20-28 µm in width. Thecal valves are thick and smooth with scattered surface pores (Figs. 1-4). Each valve contains about 50-80 small round marginal pores evenly spaced around the perifery of the valve (0.6 µm in diameter) (Figs. 1, 3), and about 60-100 larger round to oblong unevenly distributed valve pores with trichocysts (0.48 µm in diameter) (Figs. 1,2,4). All pores have smooth edges (Figs. 3,4). The center is devoid of pores (Figs. 1, 2, 4). Marginal pores are a useful diagnostic feature of this species distinguishing it from other Prorocentrum species. Occasionally P. lima can be found without marginal pores or with partially filled pores. In older cells, the thecal surface can become vermiculate. The intercalary band appears as a thick, smooth, and well-defined margin at the periphery of the valve giving the appearance of a flared ridge (Figs. 1, 2, 4-6) (von Stosch 1980; Dodge 1975; Faust 1990b; Faust 1991; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). The periflagellar area is a shallow V-shaped depression on the right valve (Fig. 3) made up of eight platelets and two pores: a larger flagellar pore and a smaller auxiliary pore (Figs. 1, 3-5). A protruding periflagellar collar surrounds the auxiliary pore (Fig. 3). Both valves are anteriorly indented; the left valve margin has a flattened apical ridge that borders the periflagellar area (Figs. 1, 2, 6) (Faust 1991; Steidinger & Tangen 1996).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Toxicity
provided by NMNH Marine Dinoflagellates
Prorocentrum lima is a toxic dinoflagellate species known to produce a number of toxic substances: fast-acting toxin (FAT)(Tindall et al. 1989); prorocentrolide (Torigoe et al. 1988); and diarrhetic shellfish poison (DSP) toxins (Yasumoto et al. 1987): okadaic acid (OA)(Murakami et al. 1982; Lee et al. 1989; Marr et al. 1992); Dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) (Marr et al. 1992); Dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) (Hu et al. 1993); and Dinophysistoxin-4 (DTX4) (Hu et al. 1995).
- bibliographic citation
- Faust, Maria A. and Rose A. Gulledge. Identifying Harmful Marine Dinoflagellates. Smithsonian Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 42: 1-144 (including 48 plates, 1 figure and 1 table).
Prorocentrum lima
(
Italian
)
provided by wikipedia IT
Prorocentrum lima è una specie di alga marina unicellulare flagellata, appartenente alla divisione dei Dinoflagellati classe Dinoficee, ordine Prorocentrales, famiglia Prorocentracee. È un'alga, come Ostreopsis ovata e Coolia monotis, che ha la caratteristica di produrre sostanze potenzialmente tossiche per la salute umana.
Distribuzione
È una specie tipica dei climi caldi e tropicali, ma negli ultimi anni è presente anche sulle coste italiane (Toscana, Liguria), ritrovata sin dai primi anni del 2000.
Descrizione
Il corpo cellulare è costituito da due valve, lunghezza 30-40 um, una è bombata e l'altra è dritta, un tallo che morfologicamente riprende quello del gruppo, ma è una forma, visto le comparazioni tra le specie, variabile. Comunque sono facili da identificare tra di loro: P. micans e P.scutellum e P.lima. La specie si va a localizzare sulle alghe brune e sul substrato che costituisce il bentos, e può essere brucata dagli erbivori, o inghiottita dai molluschi.
Tossicità
Produce le tossine acido okadaico (OA), dinophytitossina 1 (DTX-1), dinophytitossina 2 (DTX-2), prorocentrolide (PRO) e FAT (fast acting toxin) implicate nella sindrome diarroica da molluschi bivalvi (DSP).[1] La sintomatologia comprende diarrea, nausea, vomito e dolore addominale.
Cosa si fa per contenere il fenomeno
Con l'entrata in vigore, il 25 maggio 2010, del decreto 30 marzo 2010, attuativo del D.Lgs 116/2008, in Italia è diventato obbligatorio (art.3) effettuare monitoraggi in aree a rischio di Ostreopsis ovata e altre alghe potenzialmente tossiche (Coolia monotis, Ostreopsis ovata,ecc.).[2]
Le Agenzie Regionali per la Protezione dell'Ambiente (ARPA) effettuano monitoraggi sulla presenza dell'alga nelle acque dei litorali nei periodi estivi, avvertendo i comuni e le ASL di competenza al superamento della soglia di 10000 unità cellulari per litro (come da "Linee guida del Ministero della Salute" della Repubblica Italiana).[3][4]
Note
Bibliografia
YASUMOTO et AL , 1980 - Toxicity of Benthic donoflagellates found in Coral Reef. Bull.Jap.Soc.Scient. Fish 46 (3): 327-331.
- license
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- copyright
- Autori e redattori di Wikipedia
Prorocentrum lima: Brief Summary
(
Italian
)
provided by wikipedia IT
Prorocentrum lima è una specie di alga marina unicellulare flagellata, appartenente alla divisione dei Dinoflagellati classe Dinoficee, ordine Prorocentrales, famiglia Prorocentracee. È un'alga, come Ostreopsis ovata e Coolia monotis, che ha la caratteristica di produrre sostanze potenzialmente tossiche per la salute umana.
- license
- cc-by-sa-3.0
- copyright
- Autori e redattori di Wikipedia
