Gypsy moths, like most other insects, perceive their environment by sight and tactile organs like legs and wings. In addition, gypsy moth larvae are able to perceive ultraviolet light from the sun. After they hatch from their eggs, they are attracted to this light and can move up their host trees. Eventually, they end up in the canopies, where they can be dispersed by wind.
One way in which gypsy moths communicate with each other is by the use of chemical sex pheromones, which are released by the female abdominal glands in order to attract males. The pheromone released by female moths is known as disparlure (cis-7,8-epoxy-w-methyloctadecane). Sufficient research about its structure and function has been performed in order to allow it to now be synthesized in laboratories.
Communication Channels: chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones
Perception Channels: visual ; ultraviolet; tactile ; chemical
Gypsy moths are not endangered, vulnerable, or threatened. In fact, they are such major pests that there are extensive efforts to eradicate populations from parts of North America. Programs have been created to trap adults and larvae, destroy egg masses, and apply insecticides to locations where the moths are major defoliators.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
There are four stages in the metamorphic life cycle of gypsy moths: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Eggs are laid in July or August, on the trunks or branches of trees. After 4 to 6 weeks, the embryos develop into larvae. These larvae undergo diapause as eggs throughout the winter, and hatch in the spring of the following year, according to the budding cycles of the hardwood trees on which they are laid. As they grow older, larvae pass through a series of molting events, each one resulting in an increase in size. The stages in between molts are called instars. Gypsy moths typically undergo five or six instar stages before they become pupae, which happens in June or July. The pupa stage typically lasts 7 to 14 days. After pupation, males emerge first, usually 1 to 2 days before females. Mating occurs after adult females emerge, and then eggs are laid. Both parents die after the eggs are laid, and the cycle repeats.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis ; diapause
Gypsy moths are notorious for their ability to defoliate almost any kind of tree. If more than 50 percent of the crown of a tree is destroyed, it will probably die. Some hardwoods can survive one or two defoliation events, but additional ones are usually fatal. Gypsy moth defoliation is harmful because the process of refoliation involves a heavy consumption of energy by the rebuilding tree. In addition, weakened trees are more susceptible to attack by viruses and parasitic insects.
Extreme defoliation leads to lost revenue due to lack of timber harvesting, cost of dead tree removal, and decreased property values in certain areas. In addition, defoliation eventually leads to deforestation, which can lead to flooding and loss of biodiversity. It is estimated that gypsy moths have destroyed 30 million hectares of forest in the United States since 1970, and this damage costs the forest industry millions of dollars per year. Unfortunately, the defoliation is getting worse over time. Gypsy moths already cover most of the eastern United States, and spread anywhere from 3 to 10 miles per year. At this rate of dispersal, they are expected to cover half of the entire United States by 2015. Finally, gypsy moths can also have direct impacts on humans. Some people are allergic to the hairs found on larvae, and exposure can lead to unpleasant side-effects.
Negative Impacts: crop pest
Gypsy moth defoliation can benefit humans by opening up forest canopies and by reducing overcrowding of trees on homeowner's properties.
Gypsy moths are defoliators of trees and forests. They are dependent on host trees for survival, and increased dependency results in increased defoliation. The preferred host for the moths is oak trees (Quercus), but most species of trees (especially hardwoods) and shrubs are inhabited. However, they are not found on ash trees (Fraxinus), tulip poplars (Liriodendron tulipifera), or sycamore trees (Platanus), and rarely found on black walnut trees (Juglans nigra).
When gypsy moths continuously feed in one area, outbreaks can occur in four-phase population cycles. The innocuous phase is characterized by very low population levels, and can last for multiple years. The release phase lasts 1 to 2 years and results in rapid increases of moths. Next, the outbreak phase leads to high levels of tree defoliation for 1 to 2 years. Finally, starvation and disease lead to the decline phase, and population levels drop back to those of the innocuous phase.
Gypsy moth populations are also subject to disease. Wilt disease, caused by the nucleopolyhedrosis (NPV) virus, kills moths in both the larva and pupa stages. It is the most harmful natural disease of gypsy moths.
Species Used as Host:
Gypsy moths are herbivores that feed on the leaves of over 500 species of trees and shrubs. Their preferred sources of food are oak (Quercus), alber broadleaf trees (Alnus rubra), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), and western hemlock needle trees (Tsuga heterophylla). Because adults do not have fully-developed mouthparts, larvae are the only life forms that feed on their hosts.
Plant Foods: leaves
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )
Gypsy moths are native to southern Europe, northern Africa, central and southern Asia, and Japan. They have spread quickly since their introduction to the United States and Canada in 1869, and are especially prevalent in the northeastern United States.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: holarctic
Gypsy moths are terrestrial animals that are only found in temperate forests or wooded areas (natural or artificial) in which their primary hosts comprise more than 20 percent of the total area.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest
Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban
Gypsy moths are seasonal breeders, laying eggs approximately once per year. Therefore, life expectancy is 12 months. The egg stage lasts for approximately 8 to 9 months. Gypsy moth larvae live for about 2 to 3 months before entering the pupa stage, which lasts for approximately 2 weeks. Adults live for about 1 week before they lay new eggs.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 12 months.
Adult male gypsy moths are light brown with dark brown wings, which have a series of black bands down their lengths. Male antennae are feathery in texture and appearance. Adult females are slightly larger than males and are mostly white, also with a few dark bands on the wings. Female bodies are covered with tiny hairs and their antennae are thread-like in texture and appearance. Gypsy moths are 15 to 35 mm long on average, with a wingspan of 37 to 62 mm. There are three subspecies, which are European, Asian, and Japanese. Although all three are similar in appearance, Asian gypsy moths tend to have the largest larvae.
Newly hatched larvae are black, hairy caterpillars, and as they age, they grow two rows of blue, then red, spots on their backs. Each spot has a patch of yellow or brown hair growing out of it. Legs of larvae are dark red.
Range length: 15 to 35 mm.
Range wingspan: 37 to 62 mm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently
When population numbers are low, gypsy moths have many natural predators. Some of these include wasps (Hymenoptera), flies (Diptera), ground beetles (Carabidae), ants (Formicidae), and spiders (Araneae). Birds like chickadees (Paridae), bluejays (Cyanocitta cristata), nuthatches (Sitta), towhees (Pipilo), and robins (Turdus) also consume and compete with them. In addition, mammals such as white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), shrews (Soricidae), chipmunks (Tamias), squirrels (Sciuridae), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are considered predators. When population numbers are high, additional predators are attracted to densely populated areas of gypsy moths. These include Calosoma beetles (Calosoma semilaeve), cuckoos (Cuculidae), starling grackles (Onychognathus tristramii), and red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus).
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Mating begins when female gypsy moths release a sex pheromone from their abdominal glands, which attracts males. Mating lasts approximately 30 minutes, and females lay their eggs within 24 hours of mating. Males are polygynous, but females mate with just one male because their pheromones cannot be released if multiple matings occur.
Mating System: polygynous
Adult gypsy moths breed once per year, usually in July or August. Females typically lay about 1,000 eggs per breeding season on tree trunks and branches. Although it only takes about one month for larvae to develop inside of the eggs, they usually do not hatch for 8 or 9 months. After hatching, larvae are attracted to light, and move up their host trees by spinning silk threads. They spend much of their lives in tree canopies, until they reach the pupa stage, which is typically spent in a silk net on or near the host tree. After pupation, it only takes about about 2 weeks for adults to form, which is when the next mating cycle occurs. Overall, gypsy moths reach sexual maturity in about 11 months.
Breeding interval: Gypsy moths breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Females lay their eggs in July or August.
Average eggs per season: 1,000.
Average gestation period: 8 months.
Range time to independence: 8 to 8 weeks.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 11 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 11 months.
Key Reproductive Features: semelparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
Adult gypsy moths only live long enough to ensure that the female's eggs are successfully laid on host tree trunks and branches. The female lays her eggs close to the spot where she pupated. Once the eggs are secure on the trees, both of the parents die. When the larvae hatch from their eggs, they are left to fend for themselves.
Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
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Lymantria dispar, also known as the gypsy moth[1] or the spongy moth,[2][3] is a species of moth in the family Erebidae. Lymantria dispar is subdivided into several subspecies, with subspecies such as L. d. dispar and L. d. japonica being clearly identifiable without ambiguity. Lymantria dispar has been introduced to several continents and is now found in Europe, Africa, Asia, North America and South America. The polyphagous larvae live on a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees[4] and can cause severe damage in years of mass reproduction. Due to these features, Lymantria dispar is listed among the world's 100 worst invasive alien species.[5]
The name “gypsy moth” does not have conclusive origins, however it has been in use since 1908.[6]
Moths of the subfamily Lymantriinae are commonly called tussock moths due to the tussock-like tufts of hair on the caterpillars.[7]: 9
The name Lymantria dispar is composed of two Latin-derived words. The generic name Lymantria means 'destroyer'.[8] The species epithet dispar means 'to separate' in Latin; it refers to the sexual dimorphism observed in the male and female imagines.[7]: 9
In July 2021 the Entomological Society of America decided to remove the name "gypsy moth" from its Common Names of Insects and Related Organisms List as "hurtful to the Romani people".[9][10] In January 2022, the new common name "spongy moth" was proposed, as a translation from the French name "spongieuse" for the species, referring to the sponge-like egg masses laid by L. dispar.[2]
The North American and European Lymantria dispar moths are considered to be the same subspecies, usually referred to as Lymantria dispar dispar.[11]: 6 Confusion over the classification of species and subspecies exists. The U. S. Department of Agriculture defines the Asian subspecies as "any biotype of L. dispar possessing female flight capability",[11]: 5 despite L. d. asiatica not being the only accepted subspecies that is capable of flight.[11]: 6 Traditionally, L. dispar has been referred to as "gypsy moth" even when referring to Japanese, Indian and Asiatic populations.[11]: 5
The European subspecies (Lymantria dispar dispar) is native to temperate forests in western Europe. It had been introduced to the United States in 1869, and to Canada in 1912.
The Asian subspecies (Lymantria dispar asiatica) is native to temperate Asia east of the Ural mountains. Since the early 1990s it has also been detected along the West Coast of temperate North America. From Southern Europe it is spreading northwards into Germany and other countries, where it hybridizes with the European spongy moth, L. d. dispar. A colony had been reported from Great Britain in 1995.
In North America, several species of parasitoids and predators have been introduced as biological control agents in attempts to help control this moth. Beginning in the late 1800s, at least 10 species have become established in this way, but for nearly a century there was little regulation or research on the effectiveness or non-target effects of these introduced natural enemies. Several were generalists that offered little control of L. dispar and attacked other native insects. One such species is the tachinid fly Compsilura concinnata, which attacked many other host species (over 180 known hosts documented), decimating many of the large moth species previously abundant in the Northeast.[13] Another is the encyrtid wasp Ooencyrtus kuvanae which attacks L. dispar eggs but is not strictly host specific, and also parasitizes the eggs of other Lepidoptera species.[14][15] The most effective control agents are microbial pathogens: a virus (LdmNPV), and a fungus (Entomophaga maimaiga).[16]
A Lymantria dispar caterpillar Lymantria dispar, also known as the gypsy moth or the spongy moth, is a species of moth in the family Erebidae. Lymantria dispar is subdivided into several subspecies, with subspecies such as L. d. dispar and L. d. japonica being clearly identifiable without ambiguity. Lymantria dispar has been introduced to several continents and is now found in Europe, Africa, Asia, North America and South America. The polyphagous larvae live on a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees and can cause severe damage in years of mass reproduction. Due to these features, Lymantria dispar is listed among the world's 100 worst invasive alien species.
