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Brief Summary

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The fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, is a moth in the family Arctiidae known principally for its larval stage, which creates characteristic webbed nests on the tree limbs of a wide variety of hardwoods in the late summer and fall. The adult is a white or white and black spotted moth with wing span 30mm. Females lay between 300-1000 eggs in batches of about 100; the larvae hatch out and feed together from a inside their web structure, which they build and continually enlarge as they grow. In North America, where it is native, many natural enemies help maintain low-level populations and although their numbers do periodically crest into outbreaks, the fall webworm is mainly an aesthetic pest usually without economic consequence. Healthy trees, although they can become defoliated sometimes two years in a row in outbreaks, usually recover. The fall webworm is among the most polyphagous of insects, feeding on just about any type of deciduous tree. Worldwide, it has been recorded from 636 species. When it entered Europe in the 1940s there was great concern for containing its rapid spread. Currently it is well established across Europe and Asia, and although it is a significant pest of hardwoods orchard and ornamental trees in some Eastern European regions, it is now fully established across these continents, and is considered a static pest responsible for local damage. Much research energy has been put into biological control of the fall web worm using Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki, which has been especially effective in containing populations in Korea and Hungary. Sex pheromones have been obtained from female H. cunea and are used in monitoring traps. (CABI 2011; Global Invasive Species Database 2007; Hyche 1999)
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Ağ Amerika kəpənəyi ( Azerbaijani )

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Ağ Amerika kəpənəyi (lat. Hyphantria cunea) — buğumayaqlılar tipinin pulcuqqanadlılar dəstəsinin ayıcalar fəsiləsinə aid olan növ.

Xarici quruluşu

Zərərvericinin kəpənəyi ağ rəngdədir. Qanadları açıq halda 40-50 mm-dir. Bığcıqları qaradır. Sanki ağ hissəciklərlə tozlanmışdır. Dişi fərdlər erkəklərdən böyük olur. Erkək fərdlərdə bığcıqlar lələkşəkilli, dişilərdə isə sapşəkillidir. Erkək fərdlərin ön ayaqlarının bud və burma hissələri tünd sarıdır. Erkək fərdlərin qanadları üzərində tünd-qəhvəyi rəngdə nöqtələr vardır. Baş hissəsi uzun tükcüklərlə örtülmüşdür. Bığcıqları qaradır. Qarıncığın çox hissəsi ağdır. Ayaqları açıq-sarıdır. Yumurtası qızılı-sarımtıl olmaqla, kiçik və hamardır, 05-07 mm-dir. Tırtılları, I-II yaşlarda açıq-sarımtıldır, bel hissəsində iki cərgədə qara və ağ tükcüklər vardır. Axırıncı yaş tırtılın uzunluğu 30-35 mm-dir. İpək baramacığın içərisində, pup mərhələsində ağacların qabığı altında, gövdə yarıqlarında, yerə tökülmüş yarpaqlar altında və bəzən də torpağın 2,5-3 sm dərinliyində qışlayır. Pupun uzunluğu 12-15 mm olur. Tünd-qəhvəyi rəngdədir.[1]

Həyat tərzi

Evribiont növdür. Bu ayıca kəpənəyi 120 növ bitkiyə zərər verir. Abşeronda aparılan tədqiqat zamanı onun 30 növ bitki ilə qidalanması müəyyən olunmuşdur. Tut ağacının müxtəlif növlərinə, alça, alma, gavalı, ərik, armud, şaftalı, göyəm, itburnu, yasəmən, göyrüş, qovaq, qarağat və s. növlərə zərər verir. Kəpənəyi may ayının əvvəllərində, iyul aylarında uçur, 2 nəsil verir. Birinci nəsil kəpənəklərin kütləvi uçuşu isə iyun ayının ikinci yarısına təsadüf edir. Uçuş 15-25 gün davam edir. Kəpənəklər 10-14 gün yaşayır. Onlar axşama yaxın uçurlar, gündüzlər yarpaqların alt və üst tərəflərinə topa halında yumurta qoyurlar və yumurtaların üzərini şəffaf tükcüklərlə örtürlər. İyul ayının ikinci yarısında ikinci nəslin kəpənəkləri görünməyə başlayır. amerika kəpənəyinin axırıncı yaşlı tırtıllarını ən çox taxin milçəkləri, puplarını isə xalsid və ixnevmanid parazitləri yoluxdurur. Bəzən bu mərhələlərdə parazit tərəfindən ziyanvericinin məhvi 95%-ə çatır. [2] Ağ amerika kəpənəyinin Avropa arealındakı entomofaq kompleksi əsasən onunla eyni ərazidə yaşayan fitofaq növlərin yırtıcı və parazitləri hesabına baş verir.[3]

Yayılması

Rusiya, Ukrayna, Moldova, Qafqaz, Azərbaycan (Quba-XaçmazAbşeron bölgələri), ABŞ, Meksika, Kanada, Avropa ölkələrində yayılmışdır.

Ədəbiyyat

  • S.Ə.Hacıyeva. Azərbaycanın ayıca (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) kəpənəkləri (dissertasiya). Bakı: 2005.
  • E.F.Səfərova. Abşeronda bəzək bitkilərinə zərərverən cücülər, onların biotənzimlənməsində entomofaqların rolu (dissertasiya). Bakı: 2013.
  • Чураев И.А. Сельхозгиз. Москва: 1962, 102 с.

Həmçinin bax

Xarici keçidlər

İstinadlar

  1. E.F.Səfərova. Abşeronda bəzək bitkilərinə zərərverən cücülər, onların biotənzimlənməsində entomofaqların rolu (dissertasiya). Bakı: 2013.
  2. S.Ə.Hacıyeva. Azərbaycanın ayıca (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) kəpənəkləri (dissertasiya). Bakı: 2005.
  3. S.Ə.Hacıyeva. Azərbaycanın ayıca (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) kəpənəkləri (dissertasiya). Bakı: 2005.
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Ağ Amerika kəpənəyi: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

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Ağ Amerika kəpənəyi (lat. Hyphantria cunea) — buğumayaqlılar tipinin pulcuqqanadlılar dəstəsinin ayıcalar fəsiləsinə aid olan növ.

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Amerikanischer Webebär ( German )

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 src=
Halberwachsene Raupe
 src=
Raupennest
 src=
Von Raupen eingesponnener Eschen-Ahorn-Baum (Acer negundo)
Raupen im Nest

Der Amerikanische Webebär (Hyphantria cunea), zuweilen auch Weißer Bärenspinner genannt, ist ein Schmetterling (Nachtfalter) aus der Unterfamilie der Bärenspinner (Arctiinae).

Merkmale

Falter

Die Falter besitzen eine Flügelspannweite von 24 bis 34 Millimetern bei den Männchen und von 29 bis 38 Millimetern bei den Weibchen.[1] Ihre Vorderflügeloberseite hat eine schneeweiße Farbe. Bei einigen Exemplaren heben sich darauf mehr oder weniger kleine schwarze Punkte oder schmale Streifen ab. Der Apex ist spitz. Die Hinterflügeloberseite ist ebenfalls weiß. Auch Thorax und Abdomen sind weiß gefärbt und seidig behaart. Die Fühler der Männchen sind beidseitig bewimpert, diejenigen der Weibchen sind fadenförmig und leicht sägezähnig. Der Saugrüssel ist verkümmert.

Raupe

Junge Raupen sind dünn behaart, gelblich gefärbt und auf jedem Segment mit dunklen Warzen versehen. Bei ausgewachsenen Raupen ist die Behaarung lang und buschig. Sie haben eine grüngelbe Grundfarbe sowie dunkle Rücken- und Nebenrückenlinien. Die Warzen sind auf dem Rücken schwarz und an den Seiten orange gelb. Die Haarbüschel bestehen aus einer Kombination von rötlichen, weißen und schwarzen Haaren. Der Kopf ist glänzend schwarz.

Ähnliche Arten

Der Breitflügelige Fleckleibbär (Spilosoma lubricipeda) sowie der Schmalflügelige Fleckleibbär (Spilosoma urticae) unterscheiden sich durch den gelben, schwarz gepunkteten Leib. Die weiß gefärbten Falter des Graubären (Diaphora mendica) unterscheiden sich ebenfalls durch den schwarz gepunkteten Leib. Der Pappelspinner (Leucoma salicis) ist deutlich größer. Die Weibchen des Schilf-Bürstenspinners (Laelia coenosa) unterscheiden sich durch die gelben Beine. Goldafter (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) und Schwan (Euproctis similis) unterscheiden sich durch einen gelbbraunen Afterbusch. Alle vorgenannten Arten haben zudem breitere Vorderflügel und einen gerundeten Apex.

Verbreitung und Vorkommen

Die Art war zunächst nur in Nordamerika und Mexiko heimisch, wurde jedoch in vielen Gegenden Europas und Asiens über den internationalen Warenverkehr eingeschleppt. Im Jahr 1940 wurden Falter bei Budapest nachgewiesen.[1] Seitdem ist die Art weiter in Ausbreitung begriffen. Sie besiedelt bevorzugt flache oder leicht hügelige Landschaften.

Lebensweise

Die Flugzeit der Falter ist je nach den klimatischen Verhältnissen des Vorkommensgebiets unterschiedlich. So können ein bis vier Generationen pro Jahr auftreten. In Europa werden meist zwei Generationen pro Jahr gebildet, deren Falter von April bis Juni und dann wieder im Spätsommer fliegen. Sie sind nachtaktiv und besuchen künstliche Lichtquellen. Nach der Begattung legen die Weibchen bis zu 500 Eier an Blättern ab.[2] Die Jungraupen leben zunächst gesellig in gesponnenen Nestern. Aufgrund ihrer großen Anzahl treten sie gebietsweise als gefürchtete Agrarschädlinge auf, da sie Bäume in Obstplantagen oder ganze Wälder kahl fressen. Obwohl ein Teil der Raupen von Parasiten befallen oder von Vögeln gefressen wird, ist ihre schädliche Wirkung dadurch nicht einzudämmen. In den USA werden deshalb verschiedene Insektizide zur Bekämpfung der jungen Raupen eingesetzt, dazu zählen Carbaryl (Sevin) und Acephat (Orthene).[3] Ausgewachsene Raupen leben einzeln. Sie ernähren sich polyphag von den Blättern der verschiedensten Wirtspflanzen, dazu zählen: Laubbäume, Obstgehölze, Sträucher, Büsche, Zierpflanzen, Gemüse sowie niedrig wachsende Pflanzen. Es wurden bereits 250 verschiedene Nahrungspflanzen nachgewiesen. Da die Fresslust der Raupen bis in den Herbst (englisch: fall) anhält und auch gerne die Blätter des Maulbeerbaumes (Morus) (englisch: mulberry) gefressen werden, wird die Art im englischen Sprachgebrauch als Fall Webworm oder Mulberry Moth bezeichnet. Die Verpuppung erfolgt in einem Kokon an verschiedenen versteckten und geschützten Plätzen. Die Puppe überwintert.

Quellen

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b Josef J. de Freina, Thomas J. Witt: Noctuoidea, Sphingoidea, Geometroidea, Bombycoidea. In: Die Bombyces und Sphinges der Westpalaearktis. 1. Auflage. 1, EFW Edition Forschung & Wissenschaft, München 1987, ISBN 3-926285-00-1, S. 151/152
  2. Walter Forster, Theodor A. Wohlfahrt: Die Schmetterlinge Mitteleuropas. Band 3: Spinner und Schwärmer. (Bombyces und Sphinges). Franckh'sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart 1960, , S. 35–36.
  3. Webworm Treatment: Tips For Controlling Webworms

Literatur

  • Josef J. de Freina, Thomas J. Witt: Noctuoidea, Sphingoidea, Geometroidea, Bombycoidea. In: Die Bombyces und Sphinges der Westpalaearktis. 1. Auflage. 1, EFW Edition Forschung & Wissenschaft, München 1987, ISBN 3-926285-00-1, S. 151/152

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Amerikanischer Webebär: Brief Summary ( German )

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 src= Halberwachsene Raupe  src= Raupennest  src= Von Raupen eingesponnener Eschen-Ahorn-Baum (Acer negundo) Raupen im Nest

Der Amerikanische Webebär (Hyphantria cunea), zuweilen auch Weißer Bärenspinner genannt, ist ein Schmetterling (Nachtfalter) aus der Unterfamilie der Bärenspinner (Arctiinae).

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Америка ак көпөлөгү ( Kirghiz; Kyrgyz )

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(2062a) Autumn Webworm Moth (Hyphantria cunea) (15221652600).jpg

Америка ак көпөлөгү (лат. Hyphantria cunea) — эжекебесасы көп түрдүү өсүмдүктөрдү жечү зыяндуу көпөлөктөрдүн бир түрү. Европага кокустан илешип келген. Азыр кеңири жайылууда.

Колдонулган адабияттар

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Fall webworm

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The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) is a moth in the family Erebidae known principally for its larval stage, which creates the characteristic webbed nests on the tree limbs of a wide variety of hardwoods in the late summer and fall. It is considered a pest but, does not harm otherwise healthy trees. It is well known to commercial tree services and arboriculturists. It's an invasive species in East Asia.[1]

Description

The adult fall webworm has a wingspan of approximately 30 mm and is generally white-colored, although some individuals may have dark-colored marks.[2]

Distribution

The moth is native to North America, ranging from Canada to Mexico and has been introduced into other continents.[3] Introduced to what was formerly Yugoslavia in the 1940s (firstly recorded in 1949[4]), it now has occupied probably its entire range in Europe from France to the Caspian Sea in the east as well as penetrated into Central Asia: Turkmenistan (from 1990 to 1993), Uzbekistan (Fergana valley from 1996 to 1997), Kyrgyzstan, and southeastern Kazakhstan. It was also introduced into Japan in 1945 and has adjusted its number of generations per year since its arrival.[5] It spread into China, southern Mongolia, Korea and southern Primorsky Krai of Russia so that now it is considered holarctic in distribution.[1]

Life cycle

One generation per year emerges in the northern part of North America, with larvae appearing in late summer through early fall. South of an approximate latitude of 40°N there are two or more generations annually, with webs appearing progressively earlier further south.[6]

Eggs

The adult moth lays her eggs on the underside of leaves in 'hair'-covered clusters of a few hundred.[7] Eggs hatch in about a week.[8]

Larva

The caterpillars are highly variable in coloration, ranging from a pale yellow to dark grey, with yellow spots and long and short bristles.[6] There are two cream stripes along the sides. The two races—one more common in the north, the other in the south—differ in head capsule coloration.[8] The maximum length of larvae is 35 mm. Webs are progressively enlarged and much messier looking than those of tent caterpillars (which occur only in spring and have shorter hairs and very little yellow on their bodies); also, webs from the fall webworm are concentrated to the tips of the branches, whereas the tent caterpillar webs are largely found in the unions. Larvae feed inside the tents until the late instars. Very young larvae feed only on the upper surfaces of leaves; later, they consume whole leaves. The larval stage lasts about four to six weeks.[8] Larvae are known to wiggle vigorously at periodic intervals in synchrony. How they synchronize these movements especially when distributed over a wide area has not been established.[9]

Pupa

The pupa stage overwinters in the bark and leaf litter at the base of the trees. It is dark brown and about 10 mm long. The thin brown cocoon is made of silk with bits of detritus interwoven.[8]

Adult

Male
Female

The adult is mostly white in the North America regions, but in the south it may be marked with black or brown spots on the forewings.[7][8] It is quite 'hairy' and the front legs have bright yellow or orange patches. The underwings will have less marking than the forewings, and the abdomen often has a sprinkling of brown hairs. It has a wingspan with a range of 35–42 mm.

Illustration of webworm (1917)

Food plants

Webworms moving in their nest

The fall webworm feeds on just about any type of deciduous tree, where leaves are chewed; branches or the entire tree may become defoliated. Worldwide, it has been recorded from 636 species,[10] and it is considered to be among the most polyphagous of insects. In the eastern U.S., pecan trees (Carya illinoinensis), black walnut, American elm (Ulmus americana L.), hickory, fruit trees, and some maples are preferred hosts; in some areas persimmon and sweetgum are also readily eaten. In the west, alder, willow (Salix spp.), cottonwood and fruit trees are commonly used. Additional host plant examples include madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh), mulberry, ailanthus, American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.), and Asian white birch (Betula platyphylla).[2][7][11] [12]

Host plant selection is dependent on factors like the plant's degree of sun exposure, age, environmental stress undergone, toughness, and nutritional quality.[2][11] For example, for an insect that needs energy for processes like dispersal or diapause, consuming plants that provide a lot of carbohydrates could be beneficial; for a female insect that is producing eggs, consuming plants that provide a lot of protein could be beneficial.[11]

Behavior

The fall webworm is a gregarious insect.[13] Groups of larvae live in self-created large webs that are found on tree branches.[13][14] These webs allow for the finding of mates, temperature regulation, increased growth rate, and protection from predators, but also result in higher rates of infections and predation.[13][14]

The caterpillars of the fall webworm have several strategies to defend against threats. Some examples of protective behavior or defense are shaking and jerking together, repellant scent, and irritants on hairs or spines.[2][14]

The fall webworm exhibits a form of parental care, where the female will try to protect the eggs after oviposition by covering her newly laid eggs with her abdomen hairs.[2]

Reproduction

Mating limitations

Male fall webworms are typically only available for mating for about 30–60 minutes per day.[2]

Sex pheromone

The sex pheromone consists of the components (9Z,12Z)- 9,12-octadecadienal (I), (9Z,12Z,15Z)-9,12,15-octadecatrienal (II), cis-9,10-epoxy-(3Z,6Z)-3,6-henicosa- diene (III), and cis-9,10-epoxy-(3Z,6Z)-1,3,6-henicosatriene (IV).[15]

Physiology

Thermoregulation

Fall webworms experience behavioral thermoregulation.[2][16] The fall webworms' self-created web (which is where the fall webworms live) is able to trap heat.[2][16] Due to this, the fall webworm (which is an ectotherm) is able to maintain a warm temperature of about 40-50 °C, which allows the larvae to grow and develop faster.[2][16] Inside the web, there is a temperature difference because the central part tends to have a higher temperature, while the back part tends to have a lower temperature.[16] However, a web's heat trapping process is not always stable; wind can disturb the heat trapping.[16]

Intestinal tract

There are several components to the fall webworm gut, such as the foregut and the midgut. The foregut and midgut of the fall webworm are alkaline, and Johnson and Felon found that the midgut pH ranged from 8.7 to 11.4.[17][18]

Natural enemies

Predators

There are many predators of the fall webworm, such as Monomorium minimum, Vespula spp., Coleomegilla maculata, and Rogas hyphantriae.[2][3]

Parasites

The fall webworm is parasitized by around 50 species, such as the flies Musca domestica and Muscina stabulans, and parasitic wasps such as Chouioia cunea and Therion morio.[2][3][19][20][1] There are also several species of microsporida that can be harmful, such as Nosema necatrix Kramer (N. necatrix), Pleistophora schubergi hyphantriae Weiser (P.s. hyphantriae), Nosema sp., and Nosema bombycis (N. bombycis ).[21] Nosema bombycis can affect many body tissues, such as the midgut, fat body, gonads, nervous tissue, and Malpighian tubules, and the length of its polar filament is 100 µm.[21] Spores from Nosema of fall webworms are typically egg-shaped and can sometimes be attached to each other, and the length of its polar filament is 57.5 µm ± 8.7 µm.[21]

Diseases

Several types of pathogens can infect this species, such as granulovirus (which causes granulosis disease) and nucleopolyhedrosis virus.[2][3][22] Granulovirus has a rod-like shape.[23] Also, an individual will be more likely to be infected at a younger age.[22]

Interaction with humans

The fall webworm’s interaction with humans is important because of how adaptable this species is, which is one of the main reasons that it spread so widely across the world.[24][3] Fall webworms are able to forage on large amounts of leaves inside their web, they are able to create webs on many different types of host plants, they are able to create webs at many different elevations and of many different shapes, and they spread very quickly.[2][24][16][25][3] In addition, the fall webworm tends to create many webs or defoliate plants in places that humans spend time, such as recreational areas and parks; fall webworms tend to create their webs on branches and therefore defoliate parts of the tree that are very visible and draw attention.[2][3][16][24] There have been methods with trying to control this organism, such as physical removal or chemical methods; however, there are some issues with these options because physical removal can be challenging with certain types of trees (based on factors like how tall the tree is, what its function is, where it is located), and the side effects of chemicals (such as important pollinators dying and therefore not being able to perform their functions).[2][3] New, effective methods are needed to control this organism; Wang et al. (2016) showed the effectiveness of a community-based system to monitor webworms, which involved using mobile devices.[24]

A tree, when covered by the web of the fall webworm is, in the Southern States, sometimes called a "fuzzy tree" because of its fuzzy appearance.

References

  1. ^ a b c Edosa, Tariku T.; Jo, Yong H.; Keshavarz, Maryam; Anh, Young Sang; Noh, Mi Young; Han, Yeon S. (February 2019). "Current status of the management of fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea : Towards the integrated pest management development". Journal of Applied Entomology. 143 (1–2): 1–10. doi:10.1111/jen.12562. S2CID 92540632.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Schowalter, T. D.; Ring, D. R. (2017-01-01). "Biology and Management of the Fall Webworm, Hyphantria cunea (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)". Journal of Integrated Pest Management. 8 (1). doi:10.1093/jipm/pmw019.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Warren, L. O.; Tadić, Milorad (1967). "The Fall Webworm, Hyphantria cunea, Its Distribution and Natural Enemies: A World List (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 40 (2): 194–202. JSTOR 25083620.
  4. ^ Lopez-Vaamonde, C.; Agassiz, D.; Augustin, S.; De Prins, J.; De Prins, W.; Gomboc, S.; Ivinskis, P.; Karsholt, O.; Koutroumpas, A.; Koutroumpa, F.; Laštůvka, Z. K.; Marabuto, E.; Olivella, E.; Przybylowicz, L.; Roques, A.; Ryrholm, N.; Sefrova, H.; Sima, P.; Sims, I.; Sinev, S.; Skulev, B.; Tomov, R.; Zilli, A.; Lees, D. (2010). "Lepidoptera. Chapter 11". BioRisk. 4: 603–668. doi:10.3897/biorisk.4.50.
  5. ^ Gomi, Takeda (1996). "Changes in life-history traits of Fall Webworm within half a century of introduction into Japan". Functional Ecology. 10 (3): 384–389. doi:10.2307/2390287. JSTOR 2390287.
  6. ^ a b Wagner, DL (2005). Caterpillars of Eastern Forests. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  7. ^ a b c Douce, GK. "The Fall Webworm" Archived 2013-06-13 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed August 21, 2006.
  8. ^ a b c d e Hyche, LL. "Fall webworm: A Guide to Recognition and Habits in Alabama". Accessed August 21, 2006.
  9. ^ Peairs, L. M. (1917-05-25). "Synchronous rhythmic movements of fall web-worm larvae". Science. 45 (1169): 501–502. doi:10.1126/science.45.1169.501. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17833470.
  10. ^ Warren, L. O.; Tadic, M. (1970). "The fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury)". Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin. 759: 1–106.
  11. ^ a b c Jang, Taehwan; Rho, Myung Suk; Koh, Sang-Hyun; Lee, Kwang Pum (2015-02-01). "Host–plant quality alters herbivore responses to temperature: a case study using the generalist Hyphantria cunea". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 154 (2): 120–130. doi:10.1111/eea.12261. ISSN 1570-7458. S2CID 84658376.
  12. ^ Tang, Rui; Zhang, Feng; Zhang, Zhong-Ning (2016-05-03). "Electrophysiological Responses and Reproductive Behavior of Fall Webworm Moths (Hyphantria cunea Drury) are Influenced by Volatile Compounds from Its Mulberry Host (Morus alba L.)". Insects. 7 (2): 19. doi:10.3390/insects7020019. ISSN 2075-4450. PMC 4931431. PMID 27153095.
  13. ^ a b c Loewy, Katrina (2013). "Life History Traits and Rearing Techniques for Fall Webworms (Hyphantria CuneaDrury) in Colorado" (PDF). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 67 (3): 196–205. doi:10.18473/lepi.v67i3.a6. S2CID 87027424. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-05-06. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
  14. ^ a b c Hunter, Alison F. (2000-11-01). "Gregariousness and repellent defences in the survival of phytophagous insects". Oikos. 91 (2): 213–224. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.910202.x. ISSN 1600-0706.
  15. ^ Kiyota, Ryutaro; Arakawa, Maki; Yamakawa, Rei; Yasmin, Abeda; Ando, Tetsu (2011-06-01). "Biosynthetic pathways of the sex pheromone components and substrate selectivity of the oxidation enzymes working in pheromone glands of the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 41 (6): 362–369. doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2011.02.004. PMID 21338674.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Rehnberg, Bradley (2002). "Heat Retention by webs of the fall webworm Hyphantria cunea (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae): infrared warming and forced convective cooling". Journal of Thermal Biology. 27 (6): 525–530. doi:10.1016/S0306-4565(02)00026-8.
  17. ^ Johnson, K. S.; Felton, G. W. (1996-03-01). "Physiological and dietary influences on midgut redox conditions in generalist lepidopteran larvae". Journal of Insect Physiology. 42 (3): 191–198. doi:10.1016/0022-1910(95)00096-8.
  18. ^ Fitzgerald, T. D. (2008-03-01). "Larvae of the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, inhibit cyanogenesis in Prunus serotina". Journal of Experimental Biology. 211 (5): 671–677. doi:10.1242/jeb.013664. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 18281329.
  19. ^ Xin, B (October 2017). "Identification of Venom Proteins of the Indigenous Endoparasitoid Chouioia cunea". Journal of Economic Entomology. 110 (5): 2022–2030. doi:10.1093/jee/tox200. PMID 28981711.
  20. ^ Tothill, John D. (1922). The natural control of the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury) in Canada : together with an account of its several parasites. Ottawa: F.A. Acland, King's Printer. pp. 88–102. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.63051.
  21. ^ a b c Nordin, G. L.; Maddox, J. V. (1974-07-01). "Microsporida of the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea: I. Identification, distribution, and comparison of Nosema sp. with similar Nosema spp. from other lepidoptera". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 24 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(74)90156-6. PMID 4212168.
  22. ^ a b Boucias, D. G.; Nordin, G. L. (1977-07-01). "Interinstar susceptibility of the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, to its nucleopolyhedrosis and granulosis viruses". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 30 (1): 68–75. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(77)90038-6.
  23. ^ Boucias, D. G.; Nordin, G. L. (1980-09-01). "Comparative analysis of the alkali-liberated components of the Hyphantria cunea and the Diacrisia virginica granulosis viruses". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 36 (2): 264–272. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(80)90032-4.
  24. ^ a b c d Wang, Chengbo; Qiao, Yanyou; Wu, Honggan; Chang, Yuanfei; Shi, Muyao (2016-12-01). "Empowering fall webworm surveillance with mobile phone-based community monitoring: a case study in northern China". Journal of Forestry Research. 27 (6): 1407–1414. doi:10.1007/s11676-016-0230-5. ISSN 1007-662X. S2CID 255345324.
  25. ^ Lu, Haixia; Song, Haitao; Zhu, Huaiping (2017-10-01). "A series of population models for Hyphantria cunea with delay and seasonality". Mathematical Biosciences. 292 (Supplement C): 57–66. doi:10.1016/j.mbs.2017.07.010. PMID 28735086.
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Fall webworm: Brief Summary

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The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) is a moth in the family Erebidae known principally for its larval stage, which creates the characteristic webbed nests on the tree limbs of a wide variety of hardwoods in the late summer and fall. It is considered a pest but, does not harm otherwise healthy trees. It is well known to commercial tree services and arboriculturists. It's an invasive species in East Asia.

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Hyphantria cunea ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Conjunto de larvas en un árbol

Hyphantria cunea es una polilla de la familia Erebidae conocida principalmente por sus estadios larvarios que construyen nidos hilados como redes en las ramas de los árboles de los cuales se alimentan. Son activos en el fin del verano y en el otoño. Es una plaga, si bien no causa daños serios en general, pero sí daños estéticos, por eso es bien conocido por los arboricultores.

Descripción

El adulto tiene una envergadura de 30 mm y es generalmente de color blanquecino, si bien algunos tienen marcas oscuras.[1]

Distribución

Es nativa de Norteamérica, desde Canadá a México. Es uno de los pocos insectos introducidos de Norteamérica a otros continentes. Ha sido introducida a lo que era Yugoslavia en la década de 1940,[2]​ ahora posiblemente se extiende por toda Europa desde Francia al mar Caspio y hasta Asia central. Ha llegado a Rusia y a China. También ha sido introducida en Japón en 1945 y ha adaptado su número de generaciones por año desde su llegada.[3]

Se ha difundido rápidamente desde Norteamérica a otras partes del mundo debido al comercio y al transporte rápido.[4]

Comportamiento

Es un insecto gregario.[5]​ Los grupos de larvas viven en grandes redes entre las ramas de los árboles.[5][6]​ Las redes que construyen les permite regular la temperatura, acelerar el crecimiento y protegerse de depredadores, si bien en algunos casos estos números altos de presas atraen a depredadores.[5][6]​ Entre las medidas de protección contra depredadores efectúan movimientos en grupo, tienen olores repelentes y sustancias irritantes en sus pelos o espinas.[1][6]

Hyphantria cunea presenta comportamiento maternal, en el que la hembra protege los huevos y los cubre con sus pelos abdominales que son irritantes y proporcionan protección.[1]

Referencias

  1. a b c Schowalter, T. D.; Ring, D. R. (1 de enero de 2017). «Biology and Management of the Fall Webworm, Hyphantria cunea (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)». Journal of Integrated Pest Management (en inglés) 8 (1). doi:10.1093/jipm/pmw019.
  2. Lopez-Vaamonde, C.; Agassiz, D.; Augustin, S.; De Prins, J.; De Prins, W.; Gomboc, S.; Ivinskis, P.; Karsholt, O.; Koutroumpas, A.; Koutroumpa, F.; Laštůvka, Z. K.; Marabuto, E.; Olivella, E.; Przybylowicz, L.; Roques, A.; Ryrholm, N.; Sefrova, H.; Sima, P.; Sims, I.; Sinev, S.; Skulev, B.; Tomov, R.; Zilli, A.; Lees, D. (2010). «Lepidoptera. Chapter 11». BIORISK – Biodiversity and Ecosystem Risk Assessment 4: 603-668.
  3. Gomi, Takeda (1996). «Changes in life-history traits of Fall Webworm within half a century of introduction into Japan.». Functional Ecology 10 (3): 384-389. JSTOR 2390287. doi:10.2307/2390287.
  4. Warren, L. O.; Tadić, Milorad (1967). «The Fall Webworm, Hyphantria cunea, Its Distribution and Natural Enemies: A World List (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)». Journal of the Kansas -Entomological Society 40 (2): 194-202. JSTOR 25083620.
  5. a b c Loewy, Katrina (2013). «Life History Traits and Rearing Techniques for Fall Webworms (Hyphantria cunea Drury) in Colorado.». Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 67 (3): 196-205. doi:10.18473/lepi.v67i3.a6. Archivado desde el original el 6 de mayo de 2018. Consultado el 1 de diciembre de 2017.
  6. a b c Hunter, Alison F. (1 de noviembre de 2000). «Gregariousness and repellent defences in the survival of phytophagous insects». Oikos (en inglés) 91 (2): 213-224. ISSN 1600-0706. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.910202.x.

Lecturas adicionales

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wikipedia ES

Hyphantria cunea: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

provided by wikipedia ES
 src= Conjunto de larvas en un árbol

Hyphantria cunea es una polilla de la familia Erebidae conocida principalmente por sus estadios larvarios que construyen nidos hilados como redes en las ramas de los árboles de los cuales se alimentan. Son activos en el fin del verano y en el otoño. Es una plaga, si bien no causa daños serios en general, pero sí daños estéticos, por eso es bien conocido por los arboricultores.

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Hyphantria cunea ( Italian )

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L'ifantria americana (Hyphantria cunea (Drury, 1773)), è un lepidottero defogliatore della famiglia Erebidae, diffuso in Eurasia e America Settentrionale e Centrale.

Comparve in Europa negli anni quaranta, in Ungheria e Germania, e successivamente si propagò in altri Paesi europei. Le prime segnalazioni di ifantria in Italia avvennero tra la fine degli anni settanta e i primi ottanta, soprattutto in pianura padana e zone limitrofe.

Descrizione

Adulto

Gli adulti si presentano sotto forma di farfalla, con ali di colore bianco o bianco punteggiato nero, con aperture alari di circa 2.5–4 cm;, la maggior parte delle farfalle punteggiate sono i maschi. Le uova sono di colore verde chiaro e gli adulti le depongono a gruppi nella pagina inferiore della foglia.

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Larva giovane

Larva

Sono considerate larve giovani quelle di prima e seconda età ed appaiono di colore giallastro con una doppia fila di puntini nerastri lungo il corpo. Le larve mature raggiungono una lunghezza di 3-3.5 cm e sono pelose, di colore brunastro e con file longitudinali di tubercoli nerastri; da questi compaiono dei ciuffi di peli chiari (sui fianchi) e scuri (sul dorso). Sui lati del corpo si presentano due fasce longitudinali di colore giallastro. Questo defogliatore è in grado di infestare varie piante sia allo stato coltivato che ornamentale. In base agli stadi larvali si determina il danno, causato principalmente dalla cibazione delle foglie da parte di questa larva che provoca intense defogliazioni.

Le larve giovani provocano delle erosioni superficiali intaccando il mesofillo ma lasciando intatte le nervature e certe volte anche l'epidermide superiore; il danno provoca comunque una scheletrizzazione delle foglie. Le larve più maturano e più diventano voraci, mangiando l'intera foglia, compresa la nervatura principale. Spesso il danno risulta essere devastante, a causa della natura gregaria delle larve; durante l'estate sono in grado di defogliare l'intera pianta, provocando su di essa un forte stress, anche per il forzato ricaccio conseguente alla defogliazione in periodi di carenza idrica e di caldo eccessivo.

Pupa

Questo fitofago sverna come crisalide, compiendo 2 generazioni all'anno con adulti che si presentano rispettivamente tra aprile e maggio, e luglio-agosto.

Metodi di controllo

Controllo meccanico

Questo metodo di lotta consiste nella distruzione dei nidi per abbassare il potenziale infestante; si applica soprattutto sulle piante d'interesse paesaggistico, nei parchi urbani, nei giardini dove i trattamenti chimici non sono spesso possibili da utilizzare sia per motivi sanitari che tecnici (come le piante grandi dove non è facile raggiungere certi punti).

Controllo chimico

La lotta chimica diretta deve tener conto sia del tipo di pianta infestata che il contesto in cui essa si trova (coltivata in frutteto, coltivazione legnosa come il pioppo, nei vivai, nei parchi, giardini o viali pubblici, ecc.). L'Infatria americana si combatte quando si trova allo stadio larvale, meglio ancora in presenza di giovani larve, che sono molto sensibili, quando il danno è ancora limitato. I prodotti che possono essere utilizzati sono i larvicidi come: Carbaril, Clorpirifos etile, Etofenprox, Fenitrotion ed Azinfos-metile.

Controllo biologico e biotecnologico

Sono due lotte ancora in fase sperimentale; d'altro canto presentano alcune possibilità esecutive che si sono dimostrate di sicuro effetto sulle larve di Hyphantria cunea.
Su specie vegetali (come il pioppo ed alcune piante forestali), in determinate condizioni operative, si può applicare una lotta microbiologica usando formulati a base di Bacillus thuringiensis (principalmente la sottospecie kurstaki). Oltre al bacillo appena accennato si stanno sperimentando dei preparati microbiologici tra cui miscele di Bacillus thuringensis con preparati a base di funghi, in particolare il fungo Metarhizium anisopliae che ha evidenziato una discreta attività sulle larve dell'Ifantria americana.

Tra i nemici naturali della Hyphantria cunea dei vari stadi di sviluppo si ricordano:

Buoni sono anche i risultati da parte dell'impiego dei regolatori di sviluppo chitino-inibitori, come Diflubenzuron, Triflumuron, Teflubenuron e Flufenoxuron, sulle uova o sulle giovani larve (in base alla compatibilità della pianta infestata). Un'ottima efficacia è data dal composto MAC: Tebufenozide. Grazie a questo composto, utilizzato per la prima volta nel 1992, le larve di Infatria americana mostrano un comportamento piuttosto insolito, con crescite lente e di bassa vitalità e con una elevata mortalità sulle varie popolazioni.

Alcune analisi ed osservazioni hanno dimostrato che queste larve sono portatrici del Baculovirus, meglio conosciuto come virus delle Granulosi (HcGV), responsabile delle sintomatologie sopra descritte. Si crede che sia un virus di un'altra specie di lepidottero già presente nell'ambiente e che attacca le larve sottoposte a stress ambientali o per effetto dei trattamenti (anche a base di Bacillus thuringensis); in ogni caso questa "malattia" dell'Infatria americana è da seguire con interesse per i possibili futuri risvolti applicativi. Va infine segnalato che è stato messo a punto il feromone dell'Infatria americana, importante supporto alla lotta chimica e biotecnologica, soprattutto per l'utilizzo nelle trappole sessuali di monitoraggio per il censimento delle popolazioni e per seguirne l'andamento dei voli e le conseguenti ovideposizioni.

Bibliografia

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Hyphantria cunea: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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L'ifantria americana (Hyphantria cunea (Drury, 1773)), è un lepidottero defogliatore della famiglia Erebidae, diffuso in Eurasia e America Settentrionale e Centrale.

Comparve in Europa negli anni quaranta, in Ungheria e Germania, e successivamente si propagò in altri Paesi europei. Le prime segnalazioni di ifantria in Italia avvennero tra la fine degli anni settanta e i primi ottanta, soprattutto in pianura padana e zone limitrofe.

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