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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 35 years (wild)
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Associations

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Pacific angel sharks are predators that eat a variety of other smaller marine predators. They are, in return, preyed upon by bigger sharks. Parasites associated with Squatina californica include tapeworms (1 family, 1 species), flukes (1 family, 1 sp.), marine leeches (1 family, 1 sp.), and protozoans (1 family, 1 sp.) (Love and Moser 1983, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004).

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • a fluke (Digenea)
  • a protozoan (Protozoa)
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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Untitled

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Squatina californica, commonly known as the Pacific angel shark, was described in 1859 by the first curator of Icthyology at the California Academy of Sciences: William O. Ayres.

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Behavior

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There is little known about communication and perception among Pacific angel sharks. Squatina californica principally utilizes its eyes (on the top of the head) and sense of feel while it camly lies in wait at the bottom of the sea floor for prey. These sharks are known to be electroreceptive, utilizing electric fields to locate prey. While many species of sharks must move/swim in order to breath, Pacific angel sharks have muscles that pump water over the gills and through the spiracles so that it is not necessary for them to move, an adaptation crucial to their ambush style of feeding.

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; electric

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Conservation Status

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Due to the large regulated trawl and gillnet fishery off the California coast, which was primarily instituted by Santa Barbara fish processor Michael Wagner in 1978, the number of Pacific angel sharks significantly decreased (Martin 2003). Landings for Pacific angel sharks jumped from 366 lbs. in 1977 to more than 700,000 lbs. in 1984. It became the leading shark food from 1985 to 1986 until size limits were imposed and near shore fishing (i.e. gillnetting inshore of 3 miles) was banned by a voter initiative (Smith 2004). The gillnet fisheries of California are now closed because of the severely depleted populations of Pacific angel sharks. Renewal of gillnetting could potentially threaten the future survival of Pacific angel sharks off of the U.S. coast. The IUCN red list currently indicates that Squatina californica is tagged as “Near Threatened” (LR/nt).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Life Cycle

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Though there is little known about the development and life cycle of Squatina californica, it has been observed that males grow and reach maturity at a length of 30 to 31 in. (75 to 80 cm) and an age of 8 years whereas females develop and reach maturity at a length of 35 to 39 in. (90 to 100 cm) and the age of 13 years.

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Since Pacific angel sharks spend most of their time buried in sand or mud at the bottom of estuaries, bays or the ocean where they reside, these sharks are considered relatively peaceful if left alone. But if these sharks are provoked (by being trodden on, pulled by the tail, approached head on, captured, etc.) their extremely sharp teeth and aggressive bite can inflict severe and painful lacerations. Consequently, close encounters with these sharks can often adversely affect human health and safety.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings)

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits

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Until the late 1970’s Pacific angel sharks were not marketed. In 1978, the trawl and gillnet fisheries off the California coast expanded and Pacific angel sharks, caught both commercially by the fisheries and recreationally by divers and sportfishers, became an important shark food for human consumption. Primarily during the early and mid 1980’s, the abundant Pacific angel shark flesh was both frozen and marketed fresh for humans to enjoy.

Positive Impacts: food

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy

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Pacific angel sharks are carnivores that primarily feed on bony fish and cephalopods (squid and octopus) but are known to consume crustaceans and other types of mollusks as well. Of the bony fish, Pacific angel sharks attack croakers (Scianidae, Atractoscion nobilis and Seriphus politus); flatfish (Pleuronectiformes); corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus); sea basses (Serranidae, Paralabrax clathratus); blacksmith (Pomacentridae, Chromis punctipinnis); mackerels, tunas, and bonitos (Scombridae); hake and halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis); Pacific sardines (Clupeidae, Sardinops sagax) and also peppered shark (Galeus piperatus)(Fouts and Nelson 1999 and Ebert 2003, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004; Martin 2003).

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Distribution

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Squatina californica, commonly known as the Pacific angel shark but also referred to as the "monk fish" or "sand devil" is found in a fairly limited geographical range. Pacific angel sharks inhabit the Eastern Pacific ocean, ranging from Costa Rica to Southern Chile and also from Southeast Alaska to the Gulf of California (Baja), though it is unusual to encounter these sharks north of California between Oregon and Southern Alaska (Smith 2004). The Pacific angel shark is absent along the southern part of Mexico and most of Central America (i.e. Squatina californica is not found south of the Gulf of California or north of Costa Rica) (Bester 2004).

Biogeographic Regions: pacific ocean (Native )

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Life Expectancy

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The maximum reported age of a Pacific angel shark is 35 years (Natanson 1984, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center 2004).

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
35 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
35 years.

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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The Pacific angel shark is a dorsoventrally flattened ray-like shark, with broad, wing-like pectoral fins (which are separated from the head by deep notches) and slightly smaller, wing-like pelvic fins. A terminal mouth is located at the tip of the snout, the eyes and large spiracles are dorsal (on the top of the head), five pairs of gill slits are found from the side of the head to under the throat, and fleshy, nasal barbels and flaps are also located on the head. Pacific angel sharks have two, spineless dorsal fins, no anal fin, and a well-developed caudal fin with a decidedly longer lower lobe than upper lobe (as opposed to the “top-heavy” caudal fin with a longer upper lobe typical of most other sharks). It has been proposed that this tail shape characteristic of Pacific angel sharks is an evolutionary adaptation to the sudden, rapid lift off the bottom they need to ambush and capture unsuspecting prey (Martin 2003).

The ability of Pacific angel sharks to maintain a stationary position on the bottom of the ocean for a sustained period of time is attributed to specific muscles that pump water over the gills and through the spiracles. This feature allows these sharks to breath without having to move through the watery meduim (Monteray Bay Aquarium 2004).

The teeth of Pacific angel sharks are pointed and conical with broad bases, smooth edges, and large gaps at each symphysis. The upper jaw has 9-9 teeth and the lower jaw has 10-10 teeth (Bester 2004).

Pacific angel sharks are typically whitish with red, brown, and grey splotches but certain individuals have been recorded as dark brown to black with blotches of black and brown shades (Bester 2004). The particular coloration of Pacific angel sharks allows them to camouflage themselves with muddy and sandy bottoms.

These sharks do not exceed lengths of 60 in. (152 cm) and weights of 60 lbs. (27 kg) (Bester 2004). Males grow to a maximum length of 118 cm TL while females grow even larger to a maximum length of 152 cm TL (Natanson 1984, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004).

Range mass: 27 (high) kg.

Range length: 152 (high) cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Inhabiting marine temperate and tropical environments, Pacific angel sharks are generally found in shallow waters at depths of 10 to 328 ft (3 to 100 m) off the coast of California but they have also been found as deep as 610 ft (185 m) in the Sea of Cortez (Bester 2004). These bottom-dwelling (benthic) sharks partially bury themselves in sandy or muddy environments during the day (where they may reside camouflaged for weeks until a decent-sized desirable prey enters their domain), while at night they often take a more active approach and cruise over the bottom. This species of shark generally does not move far beyond its chosen territory. These sharks are often found on the continental shelves of western North and South America, in littoral zones, in shallow bays, in sand channels by rocky reefs and outcrops, at the edges of submarine canyons and in kelp forests.

Range depth: 3 to 185 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; coastal

Other Habitat Features: estuarine ; intertidal or littoral

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Pacific angel sharks are only preyed upon by some larger sharks, including white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) (Bester 2004; Ebert 2003, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004). Humans, through the booming trawl and gillnet fishery in the early 1980’s, also posed a threat to the survival of Pacific angel sharks. Many of these fisheries are now either regulated or closed in order for the depleted population of Pacific angel sharks to increase again.

Known Predators:

  • great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias)
  • broadnosed sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus)
  • humans (Homo sapiens)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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We have no information about the mating systems of the Pacific angel shark.

The reproductive cycle of the Pacific angel shark is typically annual (the fecundity ranges from approximately 1 to 10 ovarian eggs produced with an average of 7) with a gestation period of approximately 10 months and the births occurring primarily between March and June in the northern part of the species' range (Natanson and Cailliet 1986, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004). Pacific angel sharks reproduce by aplacental vivipary (ovovivipary), which means that the eggs hatch inside of the mother’s body and there is no nourishing placenta to sustain the young. Instead, nutrition is provided by an external yolk which shrinks as the pups grow and shifts into an internal sac when the embryo reaches 150 mm TL. The stored yolk is then transferred from the internal sac to the intestine of the embryo where is it absorbed (Bester 2004). Though the litter size can range from 1 to 13, the number of pups per pregnancy is generally between 8 and 13. At birth, the pups are on average, 9 in. (23 cm) long. Males tend to reach sexual maturity earlier than females at the age of 8 years, while females reach sexual maturity around the age of 13 years (Bester 2004).

Breeding interval: Pacific angel sharks breed once per year

Breeding season: S. californica breeds from May to August in the northern portion of its range

Range number of offspring: 1 to 13.

Average number of offspring: 6.

Average gestation period: 10 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 13 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 8 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); ovoviviparous

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
3650 days.

Little has been recorded regarding parental investment in Pacific angel sharks but the long gestation period (approx. 10 months) and the development of the embryo inside the mother’s body indicate that a significant amount of time and energy is invested in ensuring the growth and immediate survival of the young pups. There is no known dependence of the pups on their parents: once the pups are born they are on their own.

Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

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De Craene, L. 2004. "Squatina californica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Squatina_californica.html
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Leanne De Craene, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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William Fink, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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George Hammond, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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Like other members of this family, the Pacific angel shark spends its days lying partially buried in sand or mud, snapping up its head and protruding its jaws at a surprising speed to ambush prey, such as bottom-dwelling fishes and squids. Whilst it does not pose a great danger to humans, its habit of lurching out to grab prey with its powerful jaws and needle-sharp teeth, can also be employed if touched or provoked, inflicting a serious bite on the diver (2). The Pacific angel shark becomes active at night, although does not swim long distances, when it will forage under the cover of darkness, thus still retaining the advantage of ambushing prey (4). The Pacific angel shark is an ovoviviparous fish; the embryos develop inside eggs that remain within the mother's body for nine to ten months until they hatch. Females produce litters of six to ten pups, of which only 20 percent are likely to survive to reach maturity at 10 to 13 years old (4).
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Conservation

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In 1991, depth restrictions were implemented in central Californian fisheries, which banned fishing inshore of 55 meters, and in 1994, area closures restricted set gillnets to waters greater than 5.5 kilometres from the southern California mainland. A year-round ban on gill nets inshore of 110 meters was implemented between Point Reyes and Point Arguello, California, in 2002; however this closure is currently being challenged by fishermen. These measures have resulted in a discernible decrease in fishing effort in the angel shark fishery, and may allow depleted populations a chance to recover (6). By-catch is a global problem that continues to threaten the Pacific angel shark and many other marine species. Many organizations are working to stop the use of particularly damaging fishing methods, develop technology to reduce by-catch, and create marine reserves where marine species are safe from this ubiquitous threat (7).
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Description

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Superficially, the Pacific angel shark resembles a large ray more than a shark, due to its remarkably flat body and huge, wing-like pectoral fins. Its skin is pale beige, scattered with dense small, brown spots, offering perfect camouflage in sandy habitats (3). Small spines that are prominent in young sharks on the back and tail are small or absent on adults. Fleshy projections (nasal barbels) with broad, flat tips, hang down near the nostrils, and are used to taste and feel. The large head is concave between the eyes (2) (4).
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Habitat

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The Pacific angel shark inhabits cold to warm-temperate waters, at depths down to 200 meters. It generally occurs in waters over sandy and muddy bottoms, and is also often observed around rocks, and sometimes near kelp forests (2) (4).
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Range

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Occurs in the eastern Pacific, from south-eastern Alaska to the Gulf of California, and Ecuador to southern Chile (2).
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Status

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Classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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Around 1980 the Pacific angel shark became the subject of an expanding gillnet fishery off southern California. The shark was captured for its meat for human consumption, and became a highly sought after food (2). Catches peaked in 1985 and 1986, and then declined rapidly (5). This fishery not only threatened the survival of the Pacific angel shark, but also impacted many other marine species that are incidentally caught in the drift gillnets, including large numbers of California sea lions, harbour seals, and cormorants (6). Restrictions on gillnet fishing in the region, implemented in the early 1990s, are thought to have prevented a total population collapse of the Pacific angel shark (4) (5). Elsewhere, the Pacific angel shark is taken as by-catch, such as in the shrimp bottom-trawl fishery, where it ends up being processed with other fishes for fishmeal (2). The slow reproductive rate and late maturation of the Pacific angel shark makes it particularly vulnerable to such exploitation.
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Brief Summary

provided by FAO species catalogs
A cold to warm-temperate, continental, littoral bottom shark,common to abundant in water from 3 to 46 m deep off California, but down to 183 m in the Gulf of California. It is sluggish and relatively inactive, and lies buried in sand or mud with its eyes and back exposed; its sandy, flecked, mottled colour blends well with the substrate.The Pacific angelshark is often observed around rocks, the head of submarine canyons, and sometimes near kelp forests. It is extremely abundant off the California Channel Islands. Ovoviviparous, size of litters of 10? Feeds on bottom and epibenthic fishes, including croakers and California halibut, and squids. This is an ambush predator, like others of the family, and can quickly shoot out its jaws to grab its prey.
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FAO species catalogue Vol.4. Sharks of the world. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. Compagno, L.J.V.1984FAO Fisheries Synopsis. , (125) Vol.4, Part 1.
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Size

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Maximum total length about 152 cm, males maturing at about 75 to 80 cm and reaching at least 114 cm; mature females 86 to over 108 cm; size at birth between 21 and 26 cm.
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FAO species catalogue Vol.4. Sharks of the world. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. Compagno, L.J.V.1984FAO Fisheries Synopsis. , (125) Vol.4, Part 1.
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Distribution

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Eastern Pacific: Southeastern Alaska to Gulf of California; Ecuador to southern Chile (armata).
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FAO species catalogue Vol.4. Sharks of the world. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. Compagno, L.J.V.1984FAO Fisheries Synopsis. , (125) Vol.4, Part 1.
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Diagnostic Description

provided by FAO species catalogs
fieldmarks: An angelshark with simple, conical nasal barbels and weakly fringed anterior nasal flaps, dermal flaps on sides of head without angular lobes, large eyes with interspace between them and spiracles less than 1.5 times eye diameter, fairly broad and angular pectoral fins, and no ocelli on body. Anterior nasal barbels simple and with a spatulate tip; posterior margin of anterior nasal flaps between nasal barbels and tips weakly fringed; distance from eye to spiracle less than 1.5 times eye diameter; dermal folds on sides of head without triangular lobes. Free rear tips of pectoral fins narrowly subangular. Small spines present on midline of back and tail from head to dorsal fins and between the fin bases; moderate-sized spines present on snout and above eyes. No ocelli on body.

Reference

G. Cailliet (pers. comm.)

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FAO species catalogue Vol.4. Sharks of the world. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. Compagno, L.J.V.1984FAO Fisheries Synopsis. , (125) Vol.4, Part 1.
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Benefits

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This species has recently (1980-1981) become the subject of an expanding gillnet fishery off southern California, supplying high-priced fresh or fresh-frozen meat for human consumption. Skindivers and sportsfishers often hook spear, or even grab this species. In the Gulf of California, this or a closely related species is or has been taken as a bycatch of the shrimp bottom-trawl fishery, and processed along with other fishes for fishmeal. Off Peru, 205 metric tons of this species (if not distinct from S. armata) was taken in fisheries in 1978.
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FAO species catalogue Vol.4. Sharks of the world. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date Part 1 - Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. Compagno, L.J.V.1984FAO Fisheries Synopsis. , (125) Vol.4, Part 1.
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Trophic Strategy

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Also in Ref. 9137. A carnivor (Ref. 9137).
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Recorder
Pascualita Sa-a
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 0; Dorsal soft rays (total): 0; Analspines: 0; Analsoft rays: 0
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Life Cycle

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Ovoviviparous, embryos feed solely on yolk (Ref. 50449).
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Biology

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Found on the continental shelf and littoral areas (Ref. 247).A sluggish and inactive species that buries itself in sand or mud (Ref. 247). Also found around rocks, heads of submarine canyons, and sometimes near kelp forests (Ref. 247). Feeds on bottom and epibenthic fishes, including croakers, California halibut, and squid (Ref. 247). Ovoviviparous (Ref. 50449). Can whip up its head and snap very quickly when touched, provoked, harassed, or speared, and can inflict painful lacerations (Ref. 247).
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Importance

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fisheries: commercial
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Polorejnok kalifornský ( Czech )

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Polorejnok kalifornský (Squatina californica) je paryba z čeledi polorejnokovití.

Popis

Polorejnok kalifornský má zploštělé tělo, podobně jako rejnoci. Samec obvykle dorůstá do délky 75–80 cm, samice je 90–100 cm dlouhá, ale může dorůst délky až 152 cm a vážit až 27 kg.[zdroj?] Přední okraje širokých prsních ploutví jsou volné. Obě hřbetní ploutve jsou až na zadní části těla vedle ocasu, řitní ploutev nemá. Dolní lalok ocasní ploutve je lépe vyvinutý než horní. Oči a pomocný dýchací otvor, tzv. spirakula, jsou na horní části hlavy. Polrejnok kalifornský je zbarven je béžově s tmavými skvrnami, což mu pomáhá k maskování na dně. V případě ohrožení, například při uchopení za ocas, se brání ostrými zuby s širokými základy a může způsobit bolestivé zranění.

Výskyt

Polorejnok kalifornský se vyskytuje ve východní části Tichého oceánu od jihovýchodního pobřeží Aljašky až po Kalifornský záliv a od Kostariky po jižní Chile. V oblasti jižní Aljašky žije menší populace polorejnoků než v kalifornských vodách. Polorejnok se často stěhuje do nových oblastí. Obvykle je samotářský, ale na jednom místě může žít i více polorejnoků. Na rozdíl od mnoha druhů žraloků, tento žralok dává přednost větším hloubkám, až do 205 metrů. Například u pobřeží Kalifornie byl pozorován v hloubce 200 metrů a v Kalifornském zálivu v hloubce 185 metrů.

Chování

Polorejnok kalifornský se živí rybami, korýši a měkkýši. Ve dne číhá na kořist zahrabaný v písku na dně, vidět je jen hlava. Po ulovení kořisti se opět zahrabe a čeká na další. V noci hledá potravu aktivně. Sám je potenciální kořistí pro větší žraloky, např. žraloka bílého.

Páření začíná přibližně na začátku léta. Polorejnok kalifornský je vejcoživorodý, březost trvá 10 měsíců. V těle matky není vyvinuta placenta a zárodek čerpá živiny pouze ze svého žloutkového vaku, který má připevněný k tělu. Samec dospívá ve věku 8 let a samice ve 13 letech. Dožívá se až 35 let.

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-10]

Literatura

  • BESTER, Cathleen. PACIFIC ANGELSHARK. Ichthyology at the Florida Museum of Natural History online. 1997 [cit. 2012-05-29].
  • ŠEBÍK, Jan. Polorejnok kalifornský. ZIVAZEME.CZ. Žraloci, rejnoci, paryby online. 2008 [cit. 2012-05-29].

Externí odkazy

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Polorejnok kalifornský: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Polorejnok kalifornský (Squatina californica) je paryba z čeledi polorejnokovití.

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Pacific angelshark

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The Pacific angelshark (Squatina californica) is a species of angelshark, family Squatinidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to the Gulf of California, and from Ecuador to Chile, although those in the Gulf of California and southeastern Pacific may in fact be separate species. The Pacific angelshark inhabits shallow, coastal waters on sandy flats, usually near rocky reefs, kelp forests, or other underwater features. This species resembles other angel sharks in appearance, with a flattened body and greatly enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins. Characteristic features of this shark include a pair of cone-shaped barbels on its snout, angular pectoral fins, and a brown or gray dorsal coloration with many small dark markings. It attains a maximum length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).

An ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark conceals itself on the sea floor and waits for approaching prey, primarily bony fishes and squid. Prey are targeted visually and, with a quick upward thrust of the head, snatched in protrusible jaws. Individual sharks actively choose ideal ambush sites, where they stay for several days before moving on to a new one. This species is more active at night than during the day, when it stays buried in sediment and seldom moves. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with the embryos hatching inside the mother's uterus and being sustained by a yolk sac until birth. Females give birth to an average of six young every spring.

Pacific angelsharks are not dangerous to humans unless provoked, in which case their bite can cause a painful injury. They are valued for their meat and are captured by commercial and recreational fishers across their range. A targeted gillnet fishery for this species began off Santa Barbara, California in 1976 and ended in 1994, after overfishing and new regulations led to its near-collapse. This species is now mainly fished in Mexican waters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened, as the Californian population is largely protected and recovering, while the impact of Mexican fisheries is unknown.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

The Pacific angelshark was first scientifically described in 1859 by William Orville Ayres, the first Curator of Ichthyology at the California Academy of Sciences.[2] He gave it the specific epithet californica, as the originally-described specimen was caught off San Francisco. Locally, this species may also be referred to as angel shark, California angel shark, or monkfish.[3]

The Chilean angelshark (Squatina armata) of the southeastern Pacific was synonymized with this species by Kato, Springer and Wagner in 1967, but was later tentatively recognized as a separate species again by Leonard Compagno.[4][5] The taxonomic status of angel sharks in the southeastern Pacific – whether they are S. californica, S. armata, or if there is more than one Squatina species in the region – remains unresolved. The angel sharks inhabiting the Gulf of California may also represent a different species, as they mature at a much smaller size than those from the rest of their range.[4]

Squatina dumeril

Squatina californica

Squatina occulta

Squatina guggenheim

Squatina armata

Phylogenetic relationships of the Pacific angelshark.[6]

A phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA, published by Björn Stelbrink and colleagues in 2010, reported that the sister species of the Pacific angelshark is the sand devil (S. dumeril) of the western North Atlantic. The two species are estimated to have diverged approximately 6.1 Ma, close to when the Isthmus of Panama first began to form. The authors also found that Pacific angelsharks from the Gulf of California differed genetically from those elsewhere, though they were equivocal as to whether this represented a species-level distinction.[6]

Distribution and habitat

Pacific angelsharks are found in cold to warm-temperate waters from the southeastern corner of Alaska to the Gulf of California, including the entire Baja peninsula, and are most common off central and southern California. It may also occur from Ecuador to the southern tip of Chile (see taxonomic uncertainty above). This bottom-dwelling shark prefers habitats with soft, flat bottoms close to shore, such as estuaries and bays, and are often found near rocky reefs, submarine canyons, and kelp forests. On occasion, they have been seen swimming 15–91 m (49–299 ft) above the sea floor.[3] Off California, the Pacific angelshark is most common at a depth of 3–45 m (9.8–147.6 ft), but has been reported from as deep as 205 m (673 ft).[7]

A number of genetically discrete subpopulations have been identified across the northern range of the Pacific angelshark. Several subpopulations exist along the coast from Point Conception northward to Alaska. In the Southern California Bight, there are at least three separate subpopulations off the mainland and northern and southern Channel Islands. The subpopulation along the Pacific coast of Baja California are distinct from those in the Gulf of California.[3] These subpopulations have diverged from one another over time because Pacific angelsharks do not undertake long migratory movements outside of their preferred home areas, and deep waters serve as effective geographical barriers to population mixing. Heterozygosity, a measure of genetic diversity, is higher in the Pacific angelshark than in other shark species that have been examined.[8]

Description

The Pacific angelshark has dorsally placed eyes, a terminal mouth, and nasal barbels.
Squatina californica jaws

With its flattened body and wing-like pectoral fins, the Pacific angelshark superficially resembles a ray. Unlike in rays, its five pairs of gill slits are located on the sides of the head rather than underneath, and the expanded anterior lobes of its pectoral fins are separate rather than fused to the head. The eyes are located on top of the head, with the spiracles behind. There are folds of skin without triangular lobes on the sides of head. The mouth is very wide and placed terminally (at the front of the snout); a pair of cone-shaped barbels with spoon-like tips are located above.[3][4] There are 9 tooth rows on either side of the upper jaw and 10 tooth rows on either side of the lower jaw, with toothless gaps at the middle of both jaws. Each tooth has a broad base and a single narrow, smooth-edged cusp.[2] Pacific angelsharks are founded in Clover Point, Vancouver Island to southern Baja California and Gulf of California and Peru. Although, there are unverifiable records from southeastern Alaska and Chile. Common from Tomales Bay, northern California southward. Pacific angelsharks grow to be 175 cm (68.9 in) long, and at birth about 25 cm (9.8 in). Depth: surf zone to 205 m (672 ft).

The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and angular with pointed tips. The two dorsal fins are located far back on the body, and there is no anal fin. The lower lobe of the caudal fin is larger than the upper. A row of small thorns runs down the middle of the back and tail; thorns are also present on the snout and over the eyes.[4] As the shark ages, the thorns decrease in size and may disappear. The dorsal coloration is gray, brown, or reddish brown with scattered dark markings: large blotches surrounded by a ring of tiny spots in adults, and pairs of ocelli in juveniles. The underside is white, extending to the margins of the pectoral and pelvic fins.[9] This species measures up to 1.5 m (59 in) long and weighs up to 27 kg (60 lb).[2]

Biology and ecology

During the day, Pacific angelsharks are almost never seen in the open, instead resting motionless on the sea floor buried under a thin layer of sediment that disguises their outlines. At night some individuals remain motionless, waiting for prey, while others may be encountered on the bottom unburied or actively swimming.[10] Large sharks, including the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and the broadnose sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus), and the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) are known to consume Pacific angelsharks.[3][11] Known parasites of this species include the copepod Trebius latifurcatus, which infests the skin, the myxosporidian Chloromyxum levigatum, which infests the gall bladder, and the tapeworm Paraberrapex manifestus, which infests the spiral valve intestine.[12][13][14] The leech Branchellion lobata may be attached around this shark's cloaca, inside the intestine, and even inside the uterus and on developing embryos.[15]

Feeding

The Pacific angelshark's cryptic dorsal coloration enables it to ambush prey.

A sedentary ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark feeds mainly on bony fishes, including kelp bass, croakers, flatfishes, damselfishes, mackerels, and sardines. During the winter and early spring, spawning squid are abundant and become the primary source of food.[3] In the southern Gulf of California, the most important prey species are, in descending order, the mackerel Decapterus macrosoma, the toadfish Porichthys analis, the lizardfish Synodus evermann, the soldierfish Myripristis leiognathus, and the shrimp Sicyonia penicillata.[16] At Catalina Island, this species feeds mainly on the blacksmith (Chromis punctipinnis) and the queenfish (Seriphus politus).[10] Adults and juveniles have similar diets.[16]

Individual sharks choose sites giving them the best ambush success. They prefer junctions of sandy and rocky substrates near reefs (used by many fishes for shelter) usually orienting themselves either toward or parallel to nearby vertical structures. They tend to face upslope, which may facilitate burying via falling sediment, bring more fish swimming downstream from the reef, or ease targeting by silhouetting prey against the sunlight.[10]

Once settled at a successful site, an angelshark may remain there for ten days, re-burying itself on or near the same spot after every strike. As the local prey eventually learn to avoid the stationary predator, the shark periodically shifts at night to a new site several kilometers away. One study off Santa Catalina Island found that over 13–25 hours, nine sharks together used only 1.5 km2 (0.6 mi2). A later, longer-term study found that the sharks' sporadic position changes covered as much as 75 km (47 mi) over three months, almost circling the island. Single individuals swam up to 7.3 km (4.5 mi) in a night.[10][17]

The Pacific angelshark is primarily a visual hunter; experiments in nature show that they strike at fish-shaped targets without any electrical, chemical, vibrational, or behavioral cues. At night, they are guided by the bioluminescence of planktonic dinoflagellates and ostracods disturbed by moving prey.[17] This species' visual system is attuned to the wavelengths of light emitted by these planktonic organisms, showing the importance of night hunting. Pacific angelsharks are more likely to strike at prey approaching from the front.[10] It usually waits until the prey approaches to 15 cm (5.9 in), as its attack is less accurate beyond this distance.[3] The strike is a stereotyped behavior in which the shark presses the forward lobes of its pectoral fins against the bottom and thrusts its head upwards at up to a 90° angle. Its mouth forms a tube when opened, creating a suction force, while its jaws protrude forward to secure the prey between sharp teeth. During the strike, the eyes roll backward into the head for protection. The strike is often completed in under a tenth of a second.[10]

Life cycle

The Pacific angelshark is aplacental viviparous with the unborn young nourished by a yolk sac; reproduction occurs on an annual cycle. Most females have a single functional ovary (on the left side), though some have two; the oviducts are often filled with yolk, which is speculated to be from the resorption of unfertilized eggs. At 35 mm (1.4 in) long, the young embryos have translucent skin, protruding eyes, and exposed gill filaments. Spots of pigment have developed when the embryo is 70 mm (2.8 in) long, and the first row of teeth has appeared when the embryo is 110 mm (4.3 in) long. By the time the embryo is 150 mm (5.9 in) long, the mouth has migrated to a terminal position and the color pattern has fully developed; the external yolk sac begins to shrink as the yolk is transferred to an internal yolk sac, where it is held until it can be transferred to the intestine for digestion. The internal yolk sac is fully resorbed before birth; if the pup is released prematurely, it does not feed until this process is complete.[18]

Off Santa Barbara, birthing takes place from March to June after a gestation period of ten months, and the females mate again shortly afterward. The average litter size is six, with a range of 1–11 (rarely 13); there is no correlation between female size and number of offspring.[18] The young are born in water 55–90 m (180–295 ft) deep, probably to protect them from predators.[17] Pacific angelshark embryos grow at 45 mm (1.8 in) per month when young, slowing down to 10 mm (0.39 in) per month just before birth, and are born at a length of 25–26 cm (9.8–10.2 in). Newborn pups in captivity grow at a rate of around 14 cm (5.5 in) per year, while adults in the wild grow at around 2 cm (0.79 in) per year. Both sexes mature at 90–100 cm (3.0–3.3 ft) long, corresponding to an age of 8–13 years.[18][19] Gulf of California sharks, which may be another species, mature at 78 cm (2.56 ft) long for males and 85 cm (2.79 ft) long for females.[3] About 20% of newborns survive to maturity.[20] The maximum lifespan has been estimated at 25–35 years.[19] Unlike other sharks, the growth rings on the vertebrae of this species are deposited in proportion to the shark's size rather than yearly, making age determination difficult.[17]

Human interactions

Although usually sedate and approachable underwater, Pacific angelsharks are quick to bite if touched, captured, or otherwise provoked, and can inflict severe lacerations.[3] Commercial fisheries for this species exist off Baja California and to a lesser extent off California (see below); the meat is considered excellent and is sold fresh or frozen. This species is captured in limited numbers by recreational fishers using hook-and-line, spears, or even by hand, particularly off southern California. It is also taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls operating in the Gulf of California, and processed into fishmeal.[4] The capacity of this species to withstand a focused fishing effort is limited, due to its low rates of reproduction and movement.[20]

In 1976, the commercial gillnet fishery for the California halibut (Paralichthys californicus), operating off Santa Barbara, expanded to include the Pacific angelshark as well. The sharks had become valuable due to their promotion as a substitute for the seasonally available common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus), and the development of new processing techniques. Around 50% of the shark was used, while the skin, cartilage, and offal were discarded. In the 1980s, rising demand led to the introduction of gillnets with a medium-sized mesh, designed specifically for this species. Fishery landings increased from a dressed (post-processing) weight of 148 kg (326 lb) in 1977, to 117,000 kg (258,000 lb) in 1983, to 277,000 kg (611,000 lb) in 1984. The fishery peaked in 1985 and 1986, when 550,000 kg (1.2 million lbs) were taken annually, making this species the number one shark fished off California. This level of exploitation was unsustainable, and despite a minimum size limit imposed in 1986, catches fell to 112,000 kg (247,000 lb) in 1990.[20][21]

In 1991, the use of gillnets in nearshore Californian waters was banned by a voter initiative (Proposition 132); the restricted area included much of the Pacific angelshark's habitat and reduced fishing pressure on the species. As a result, Pacific angelshark landings dropped further to 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) dressed in 1994, when the central Californian halibut/angel shark fishery was closed completely, and have remained low since. The decline of the Californian fishery led to the industry shifting to Mexico, where gillnet pangas (artisanal fishing vessels) targeting this species now meet most of the angel shark demand in California.[20][21] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened; Pacific angelshark numbers off California appear to be increasing and demographic modeling suggests the stock is healthy.[19] However, the impact of the intense, unregulated Mexican fishery on the global population is yet undetermined. There is continuing interest in California for a resumption of the commercial fishery, though conservation concerns have thus far taken precedence.[20]

References

  1. ^ Cailliet, G.M.; Chabot, C.L.; Nehmens, M.C.; Carlisle, A.B. (2020). "Squatina californica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T39328A177163701. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T39328A177163701.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c Bester, Cathleen. "Biological Profiles: Pacific Angelshark". flmnh.ufl.edu. Florida Museum of Natural History, Ichthyology Department. Archived from the original on November 12, 2014. Retrieved June 22, 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ebert, D.A. (2003). Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. University of California Press. pp. 76–80. ISBN 0-520-23484-7.
  4. ^ a b c d e Compagno, L.J.V. (2002). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 144–145. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
  5. ^ Lamilla, J. & Romero, M. (2004). "Squatina armata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T44571A10921133. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44571A10921133.en.
  6. ^ a b Stelbrink, B.; T. von Rintelen; G. Cliff & J. Kriwet (2010). "Molecular systematics and global phylogeography of angel sharks (genus Squatina)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (2): 395–404. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.07.029. PMID 19647086.
  7. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2009). "Squatina californica" in FishBase. June 2009 version.
  8. ^ Gaida, I.H. (December 9, 1997). "Population Structure of the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica (Squatiniformes: Squatinidae), around the California Channel Islands". Copeia. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. 1997 (4): 738–744. doi:10.2307/1447291. JSTOR 1447291.
  9. ^ Compagno, L.J.V.; Dando, M. & Fowler, S. (2005). Sharks of the World. Princeton University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Fouts, W.R. & Nelson, D.R. (May 7, 1999). "Prey Capture by the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica: Visually Mediated Strikes and Ambush-Site Characteristics". Copeia. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. 1999 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1447476. JSTOR 1447476.
  11. ^ Sinclair, E.H. (1994). "Prey of juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) in the Southern California Bight". Marine Mammal Science. 10 (2): 230–239. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1994.tb00267.x.
  12. ^ Deets, G.B. & Dojiri, M. (March 1989). "Three species of Trebius Krøyer, 1838 (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida) parasitic on Pacific elasmobranchs". Systematic Parasitology. 13 (2): 81–101. doi:10.1007/BF00015217. S2CID 45745111.
  13. ^ Jameson, A.P. (December 1931). "Notes on Californian Myxosporidia". The Journal of Parasitology. The American Society of Parasitologists. 18 (2): 59–68. doi:10.2307/3271964. JSTOR 3271964.
  14. ^ Jensen, K. (2001). "Four New Genera and Five New Species of Lecanicephalideans (Cestoda: Lecanicephalidea) From Elasmobranchs in the Gulf of California, Mexico". Journal of Parasitology. 87 (4): 845–861. doi:10.1645/0022-3395(2001)087[0845:FNGAFN]2.0.CO;2. PMID 11534651. S2CID 7384427.
  15. ^ Moser, M. & Anderson, S. (1977). "An intrauterine leech infection: Branchellion lobata Moore, 1952 (Piscicolidae) in the Pacific angel shark (Squatina californica) from California". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 55 (4): 759–760. doi:10.1139/z77-098.
  16. ^ a b Escobar-Sanchez, O.; Abitia-Cardenas, L.A. & Galvan-Magnan, F. (2007). "Food habits of the Pacific angel shark Squatina californica in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico". Cybium. 30 (4): 91–97.
  17. ^ a b c d Martin, R.A. Sandy Plains: Pacific Angel Shark. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on June 22, 2009.
  18. ^ a b c Natanson, L.J. & Cailliet, G.M. (December 23, 1986). "Reproduction and Development of the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica, off Santa Barbara, California". Copeia. 1986 (4): 987–994. doi:10.2307/1445296. JSTOR 1445296.
  19. ^ a b c Cailliet, G.M.; Mollet, H.F.; Pittenger, G.G.; Bedford, D. & Natanson, L.J. (1992). "Growth and demography of the Pacific Angel Shark (Squatina californica), based upon tag returns off California". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 43 (5): 1313–1330. doi:10.1071/MF9921313.
  20. ^ a b c d e Fowler, S.L.; Cavanagh, R.D.; Camhi, M.; Burgess, G.H.; Cailliet, G.M.; Fordham, S.V.; Simpfendorfer, C.A. & Musick, J.A. (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 233–234. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.
  21. ^ a b Leet, W.S.; Dewees, C.M.; Klingbeil, R.; Larson, E.J., eds. (2001). "Pacific Angel Shark". California's Living Resources: A Status Report (PDF) (fourth ed.). ANR Publications. pp. 248–251. ISBN 1-879906-57-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-14.

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Pacific angelshark: Brief Summary

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The Pacific angelshark (Squatina californica) is a species of angelshark, family Squatinidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to the Gulf of California, and from Ecuador to Chile, although those in the Gulf of California and southeastern Pacific may in fact be separate species. The Pacific angelshark inhabits shallow, coastal waters on sandy flats, usually near rocky reefs, kelp forests, or other underwater features. This species resembles other angel sharks in appearance, with a flattened body and greatly enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins. Characteristic features of this shark include a pair of cone-shaped barbels on its snout, angular pectoral fins, and a brown or gray dorsal coloration with many small dark markings. It attains a maximum length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).

An ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark conceals itself on the sea floor and waits for approaching prey, primarily bony fishes and squid. Prey are targeted visually and, with a quick upward thrust of the head, snatched in protrusible jaws. Individual sharks actively choose ideal ambush sites, where they stay for several days before moving on to a new one. This species is more active at night than during the day, when it stays buried in sediment and seldom moves. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with the embryos hatching inside the mother's uterus and being sustained by a yolk sac until birth. Females give birth to an average of six young every spring.

Pacific angelsharks are not dangerous to humans unless provoked, in which case their bite can cause a painful injury. They are valued for their meat and are captured by commercial and recreational fishers across their range. A targeted gillnet fishery for this species began off Santa Barbara, California in 1976 and ended in 1994, after overfishing and new regulations led to its near-collapse. This species is now mainly fished in Mexican waters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened, as the Californian population is largely protected and recovering, while the impact of Mexican fisheries is unknown.

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Squatina californica ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Squatina californica es una especie de elasmobranquio escuatiniforme de la familia Squatinidae.[1]

Véase también

Referencias

  1. FishBase (en inglés)

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Squatina californica: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Squatina californica es una especie de elasmobranquio escuatiniforme de la familia Squatinidae.​

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Squatina californica ( Basque )

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Squatina californica Squatina generoko animalia da. Arrainen barruko Squatinidae familian sailkatzen da.

Erreferentziak

  1. Froese, Rainer & Pauly, Daniel ed. (2006), Squatina californica FishBase webgunean. 2006ko apirilaren bertsioa.

Ikus, gainera

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Squatina californica: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Squatina californica Squatina generoko animalia da. Arrainen barruko Squatinidae familian sailkatzen da.

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Kirjomerienkeli ( Finnish )

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Kirjomerienkeli eli kalifornianmerienkeli (Squatina californica) on yksi kenties parhaiten pohjaelämään sopeutuneista hailajeista. Se muistuttaa huomattavasti rauskuja leveine rintaevineen ja litteine ruumiineen, mutta suu on kuonon kärhessä eikä vatsan alla kuten rauskuilla. Sukupuolet ovat eri kokoiset. Koiraan enimmäispituus on noin 120 senttimetriä ja naaraan 150 senttimetriä. Kirjomerienkeli elää korkeintaan 35-vuotiaaksi.

Levinneisyys ja ravinto

Kirjomerienkelin levinneisyysalue ulottuu eteläisestä Alaskasta Chilen rannikolle. Se viihtyy hiekka- ja mutapohjilla 3–100 metrin syvyydessä, mutta havaintoja on tehty vielä 185 metrin syvyydessä. Joidenkin rauskujen tavoin se osaa jopa kaivautua pohjaan piiloon. Näin se pystyy saalistamaan pääravintoaan rauskuja, kampeloita ja muita pohjakaloja väijyksistä. Myös selkärangattomat kuten hummerit kelpaavat. Pelästyessään tai hyökätessään se pystyy ampaisemaan nopeasti liikkeelle vahvalla pyrstöllään. Sitä itseään saalistaa ihmisen lisäksi (kirjomerienkelin lihalla on taloudellista merkitystä) mm. valkohai (Carcharodon carcharias). Ihmisen ei tarvitse pelätä kirjomerienkeliä ellei tätä häiritä.

Lisääntyminen

Lisääntymisaika on touko-elokuussa. Koiraat tulevat sukukukypsiksi 8 vuoden iässä ja naaraat 13 vuoden iässä. Munat kehittyvät emon sisällä 10 kuukautta ja poikaset syntyvät 23 sentin pituisina. Kerralla voi syntyä 1–13 poikasta.

Lähteet

  1. Cailliet, G.M.: Squatina californica IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.1. 2005. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 01.08.2013. (englanniksi)

Aiheesta muualla

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Kirjomerienkeli: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Kirjomerienkeli eli kalifornianmerienkeli (Squatina californica) on yksi kenties parhaiten pohjaelämään sopeutuneista hailajeista. Se muistuttaa huomattavasti rauskuja leveine rintaevineen ja litteine ruumiineen, mutta suu on kuonon kärhessä eikä vatsan alla kuten rauskuilla. Sukupuolet ovat eri kokoiset. Koiraan enimmäispituus on noin 120 senttimetriä ja naaraan 150 senttimetriä. Kirjomerienkeli elää korkeintaan 35-vuotiaaksi.

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Squatina californica ( French )

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Squatina californica, l'ange de mer du Pacifique, est une espèce de requins.

Voir aussi

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Squatina californica: Brief Summary ( French )

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Squatina californica, l'ange de mer du Pacifique, est une espèce de requins.

Squatina squatina.004 - Aquarium Finisterrae.JPG Squatina squatina.003 - Aquarium Finisterrae.JPG
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Hiu malaikat pasifik ( Indonesian )

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Hiu malaikat pasifik ((Inggris) pasific angelshark) atau Squatina californica adalah sebuah spesies hiu yang menyerupai ikan pari.[2][3] Panjang maksimal pejantan adalah 118, sementara betina dapat mencapai 152 cm.[2] Hiu malaikat pasifik, tidak seperti hiu lainnya, mediami dasar laut.[4] Hiu malaikat pasifik bersifat karnivora, dan umumnya mereka memangsa ikan dan sefalopoda (cumi-cumi dan gurita).[2]

Deskripsi Fisik dan Ukuran

Panjang hiu malaikat pasifik tidak lebih panjang dari 152 cm, dan tidak lebih berat dari 27 kg.[2] Panjang maksimal pejantan adalah 118, sementara betina dapat mencapai 152 cm.[2] Hiu malaikat pasifik adalah hiu yang menyerupai ikan pari.[3] Hiu ini mempunyai tubuh pipih, mulut di bagian bawah, mata pada bagian atas, deretan insang di belakang mata, dan sirip samping (sirip pektoral) yang cukup lebar.[3][5] Sirip pektoral terpisah dari kepala. Insangnya terdapat pada bagian sisi kepala.[3] Di samping itu, hiu ini juga memiliki sirip samping sekunder yang lebih kecil dan sebuah sirip dubur.[3] Gigi hiu ini lancip dan runcing.[3] Bintik-bintik pada sisi tengah tubuh lebih intens daripada sisi samping. Warna hiu ini adalah abu-abu pasir atau coklat muda, dihiasi dengan bintik-bintik gelap. Di bagian bawah, kulit hiu ini bewarna putih.[3]

Habitat dan Penyebaran Geografis

Hiu malaikat pasifik, tidak seperti hiu lainnya, mediami dasar laut.[4] Hiu ini biasa ditemukan di daerah landas kontinen dan daerah litoral, dan kadang-kadang berdiam diri di dekat bebatuan, tebing, dan hutan rumput laut.[4] Di pesisir California, hiu ini dapat ditemukan pada kedalaman 1 hingga 200 meter.[4] Hiu malaikat pasifik, hidup di Samudera Pasifik bagian timur, dari Alaska bagian tenggara, hingga Teluk California, dan dari Kosta Rika hingga selatan Chile.[4] Di tengah laut, hiu ini sesekali dapat ditemukan dari Oregon hingga selatan Alaska.[4]

Reproduksi

Siklus reproduksi hiu malaikat pasifik umumnya bersifat musiman, dengan periode kehamilan sepanjang 10 bulan dan kelahiran umummnya terjadi selama bulan Maret hingga Juni.[2] Hiu malaikat pasifik bersifat ovovivipar.[2] Hal tersebut berarti bahwa telur menetas di rahim induk, dan bayi tidak diberi nutrisi melalui plasenta, melainkan melalui kuning telur yang menyusut seiring dengan perkembangan anakan (pup) hiu.[2] Seorang induk dapat membawa 1 hingga 10 telur, dengan rata-rata hiu membawa 7 butir telur.[2] Ketika anakan mencapai ukuran 150 mm, kuning telur telah menyusut jauh dan berubah menjadi "kantung internal".[2] Bayi hiu yang baru lahir mempunyai panjang rata-rata 23 cm (9 inci).[2] Pejantan cenderung mencapai kematangan seksual dengan lebih mudah dibanding betina, yaitu 8 tahun pada jantan dibanding 13 tahun pada betina.[2]

Perilaku

Hiu malaikat pasifik biasanya hidup soliter, namun terkadang dapat ditemukan dalam sebuah perkumpulan.[2] Hiu malaikat pasifik dewasa hidup secara berpindah-pindah, dan telah diamati menghabiskan beberapa hari dalam sebuah tempat sebelum berpindah ke tempat yang lain.[2] Di Pulau Katalina, California, masing-masing individu menunjukkan variasi dalam mobilitas (pergerakkan).[2] Beberapa berdiam diri selama bertahun-tahun, sementara yang lain berpindah-pindah secara berkala.[2] Mereka menghabiskan siang hari, di dasar laut untuk menunggu dan menjebak mangsa.[2] Di malam hari, hiu ini secara aktif bergerak untuk mencari makanan.[2] Telah diamati bahwa hiu malaikat pasifik akan memilih tempat yang strategis yang cocok untuk menjebak mangsanya.[2]

Diet

Hiu malaikat pasifik bersifat karnivora, dan umumnya mereka memangsa ikan dan sefalopoda (cumi-cumi dan gurita).[2] Di samping itu, mereka juga memangsa krustasea dan hewan-hewan moluska.[2] Beberapa contoh ikan yang menjadi mangsa hiu ini adalah ikan gepeng, ikan sarden, ikan kembung, dan ikan tuna.[2]

Referensi

  1. ^ (Inggris)Cailliet, G.M. (2005). "Squatina californica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Diakses tanggal May 15, 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v (Inggris)De Craene L (2004). "Squatina californica (dalam jaringan)". Animal Diversity Web. Diakses tanggal 15 May 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g (Inggris)Castro JI (2011). The Sharks of North America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199780976.
  4. ^ a b c d e f (Inggris)Bester C. "PACIFIC ANGELSHARK". Florida Museum of National History. Diakses tanggal 15 May 2014.
  5. ^ (Inggris)Allen GR (1994). Fishes of the Tropical Eastern Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824816759.
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Hiu malaikat pasifik: Brief Summary ( Indonesian )

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Hiu malaikat pasifik ((Inggris) pasific angelshark) atau Squatina californica adalah sebuah spesies hiu yang menyerupai ikan pari. Panjang maksimal pejantan adalah 118, sementara betina dapat mencapai 152 cm. Hiu malaikat pasifik, tidak seperti hiu lainnya, mediami dasar laut. Hiu malaikat pasifik bersifat karnivora, dan umumnya mereka memangsa ikan dan sefalopoda (cumi-cumi dan gurita).

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Pacifische zee-engel ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Pacifische zee-engel (Squatina californica) is een vis uit de familie van zee-engelen (Squatinidae) en behoort tot de superorde van de haaien. Deze haai kan een lengte bereiken van 152 centimeter. De hoogst geregistreerde leeftijd is 35 jaar.

Leefomgeving

De Pacifische zee-engel is een zoutwatervis. De vis leeft hoofdzakelijk in de Grote Oceaan op het continentaal plat van Noord- en Zuid-Amerika (zie kaartje). De diepteverspreiding is 3 tot 205 meter onder het wateroppervlak.

Relatie tot de mens

De Pacifische zee-engel is voor de visserij van aanzienlijk commercieel belang. De vis wordt beschouwd als een overbeviste soort. Dankzij het verbod op kieuwnetvisserij in de kustwateren van Zuid Californië geniet de pacifische zee-engel een zekere bescherming. Deze haai is net als de andere bodembewonende zee-engelen uiterst gevoelig voor intensieve visserij met bodemsleepnetten, en staat als zodanig op de Rode Lijst van de IUCN.[1]

Voetnoot

Externe link

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Pacifische zee-engel: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Pacifische zee-engel (Squatina californica) is een vis uit de familie van zee-engelen (Squatinidae) en behoort tot de superorde van de haaien. Deze haai kan een lengte bereiken van 152 centimeter. De hoogst geregistreerde leeftijd is 35 jaar.

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Raszpla kalifornijska ( Polish )

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Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Raszpla kalifornijska[3] (Squatina californica) – gatunek średniego rekina z rodziny aniołowatych (Squatina), zamieszkującego głębiny oceaniczne wschodniego Pacyfiku. Po raz pierwszy ten gatunek opisał amerykański ichtiolog William Orville Ayres[4]. Gatunek nie jest zaliczany do niebezpiecznych dla człowieka, ale zaskoczone lub sprowokowane zwierzę będzie się bronić gryząc. Zwierzęta te prowadzą przede wszystkim nocny tryb życia. Nadmierne połowy sprawiają, że ich liczba gwałtownie spada[5]. Międzynarodowa Unia Ochrony Przyrody zakwalifikowała gatunek jako NT – bliski zagrożenia.

Występowanie

Raszpla kalifornijska występuje we wschodniej części Pacyfiku: od zimnych wód u wybrzeży Alaski, aż do ciepłych wód półwyspu kalifornijskiego. Możliwe jest także występowanie gatunku od Ekwadoru, do południowych krańców Chile[3]. Osobniki te zamieszkują dno morskie w pobliżu wybrzeży od płycizn do 1300 m[5].

Wygląd

 src=
Gatunek posiada oczy umiejscowione na czubku głowy i charakterystyczne wąsiki.

Raszpla kalifornijska jest rekinem średniej wielkości, osiąga 1,5 m długości. Kształtem przypomina płaszczkę. Ciało spłaszczone grzbietobrzusznie, brzegi płetw piersiowych nie przyrośnięte do boków ciała. Płetwy piersiowe i brzuszne szerokie i zaokrąglone na końcu, płetwy grzbietowe, płetwa odbytowa i ogonowa małe. Tępe zakończenie głowy, duże tryskawki i jama ustna położona na końcu pyska. Oczy ma umiejscowione na czubku głowy, a szczeliny grzbietowe położone na stronie brzusznej. Rekin uchodzi za powolnego. Jego ubarwienie od nakrapianego piaskowego do szarego lub brązowego, ułatwia kamuflowanie w dnie morskim[5].

Odżywianie i rozmnażanie

 src=
Ubarwienie rekina ułatwia mu kamuflowanie i atakowanie z zaskoczenia.

Raszpla kalifornijska poluje z zasadzki na ryby strefy przydennej. Preferuje mieszane dna piaszczysto-kamienne w pobliżu raf. Potrafi polować w jednym niewielkim obszarze nawet do 10 dni[6]. Główne pożywienie tego gatunku stanowią ryby z rodzaju Paralabrax, a także z rodzin: kulbinowatych, garbikowatych, makrelowatych i śledziowatych, czy z rzędu flądroksztaltnych. Zimą i wczesną wiosną żywi się kałamarnicami, które występują bogato w tych porach roku[7].

Gatunek ten jest jajożyworodny. Samica w zależności od wielkości ciała, rodzi od 8 do 13 młodych w jednym miocie. Poród przypada od marca do czerwca, po 10-miesięcznej ciąży[5].

Przypisy

  1. Squatina californica, w: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ang.).
  2. Squatina californica. Czerwona księga gatunków zagrożonych (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) (ang.).
  3. a b Squatina californica (ang.). Fishbase. [dostęp 12 lipca 2016].
  4. Catalog of fishes - Squatina californica (ang.). California Academy of Sciences. [dostęp 12 lipca 2016].
  5. a b c d L. Compagno: Rekiny. Warszawa: CIBET, 1999.
  6. William R. Fouts i Donald R. Nelson: Prey Capture by the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica: Visually Mediated Strikes and Ambush-Site Characteristics. Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists), 1999, s. 304-312.
  7. D.A. Ebert: Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. University of California Press, 2003, s. 76-80.
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Raszpla kalifornijska: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Raszpla kalifornijska (Squatina californica) – gatunek średniego rekina z rodziny aniołowatych (Squatina), zamieszkującego głębiny oceaniczne wschodniego Pacyfiku. Po raz pierwszy ten gatunek opisał amerykański ichtiolog William Orville Ayres. Gatunek nie jest zaliczany do niebezpiecznych dla człowieka, ale zaskoczone lub sprowokowane zwierzę będzie się bronić gryząc. Zwierzęta te prowadzą przede wszystkim nocny tryb życia. Nadmierne połowy sprawiają, że ich liczba gwałtownie spada. Międzynarodowa Unia Ochrony Przyrody zakwalifikowała gatunek jako NT – bliski zagrożenia.

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Pasifik deniz meleği ( Turkish )

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Pasifik deniz meleği (Squatina californica), Squatinidae ailesinin bir türü. Büyük Okyanus'un doğu kesimlerinde, Alaska'dan Meksika Körfezi'ne uzanan kıyı şeridinde, 60° Kuzey ve 22° Kuzey enlemleri arasında, genellikle 200 m derinde görülür. Uzunluğu ortalama 1,52 m'dir. Ovovivipar ürerler. Tek seferde 6-10 yavru doğar.

Stub icon Balık ile ilgili bu madde bir taslaktır. Madde içeriğini geliştirerek Vikipedi'ye katkıda bulunabilirsiniz.
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Акула-янгол тихоокеанська ( Ukrainian )

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Опис

Загальна довжина досягає 1,52 м при вазі 27 кг зазвичай 80-110 м. Голова велика з помірно великими шипами. Морда округла з м'ясистими і невеличкими вусиками, що звужуються на кінцях. Очі маленькі, розташовані на верхній частині голови. За ними розташовані великі бризкальця Біля ніздрів є шкіряні вирости, що слабко вирізняються. Рот широкий, розташовано у передній частині морди. На верхній щелепі розташовано 9 рядків зубів, на нижній — 10. Зуби гострі з 1 верхівкою. Тулуб масивний, широкий, сильно сплощений. На спині шипи маленькі, майже не помітні. Грудні і черевні плавці великі, нагадують плавці-«крила» скатів, розташовані поруч, навіть перекривають один одного. Має 2 маленьких спинних плавця однакового розміру. Розташовані у хвостовій частині. Анальний плавець відсутній. Хвостовий плавець невеличкий, його нижня лопать довга за верхню.

Забарвлення спини коричневе, червонувато-коричневе або сіре з темними крапочками. Черево має білуватий колір.

Спосіб життя

Тримається на глибинах від 3 до 205 м, до 45 м. Воліє до ділянок з нерельєфним дном поблизу берегової лінії, полюбляє скелясті рифи і підводні каньйони. Доволі млява і повільна акула. Полює біля дна, є бентофагом. Атакує здобич із засідки, зарившись у піщаний або мулисто-піщаний ґрунт. Нападає, коли жертва наблизиться на відстань у 15 см від кінчика морди, після чого різко відштовхується грудними плавцями, розкрив пащу та висунувши щелепи уперед. Стрімкість атаки цієї акули становить 1/100 секунди. Живиться невеличкою костистою рибою (оселедцевими, сардинами, бичками, камбалами), ракоподібними (креветками), головоногими молюсками (кальмарами).

Статева зрілість настає при розмірах 90-100 см у віці 8-13 років. Це яйцеживородна акула. Породілля відбувається навесні та на початку літа на глибині 55-90 см. Самиця народжує від 8 до 13 акуленят завдовжки 25-26 см.

Тривалість життя становить 35 років.

Може нанести травми людині у випадку сильно роздратування.

Розповсюдження

Мешкає від Аляски до Каліфорнійської затоки. Раніше частиною ареалу вважалася прибережні води Еквадору, Перу і Чилі, проте з часом цю акваторію визначеном ареалом іншого виду — чилійської акули-янгола.

Джерела

  • Compagno, L.J.V. (2002). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 144–145. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
  • Cailliet, G.M., Mollet, H.F., Pittenger, G.G., Bedford, D. and Natanson, L.J. (1992). Growth and demography of the Pacific Angel Shark (Squatina californica), based upon tag returns off California. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 43 (5): 1313–1330
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Cá mập thiên thần Thái Bình Dương ( Vietnamese )

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Cá mập thiên thần Thái Bình Dương, tên khoa học Squatina californica, là một loài cá mập trong chi Squatina, chi duy nhất còn sinh tồn trong họ và bộ của nó. Loài này được Ayres miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1859.[2]

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

Tham khảo

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Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết về Cá sụn này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Cá mập thiên thần Thái Bình Dương: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Cá mập thiên thần Thái Bình Dương, tên khoa học Squatina californica, là một loài cá mập trong chi Squatina, chi duy nhất còn sinh tồn trong họ và bộ của nó. Loài này được Ayres miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1859.

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Тихоокеанский морской ангел ( Russian )

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 src=
Калифорнийская скватина, расположившаяся головой вверх и занесённая осадками, почти не заметна на фоне дна.

У калифорнийских скватин ограничен индивидуальный участок обитанияruen, на котором они предпочитают выжидать в засаде добычу. Они предпочитают залегать на местах перехода песка в каменистое дно вблизи рифов, которые многие рыбы используют в качестве укрытия. При этом они обычно располагаются по направлению либо параллельно к ближайшему вертикальному объекту, рылом к подъёму дна. Такая позиция помогает им замаскироваться под слоем падающих осадков и нацелиться на силуэт добычи против солнечного света, кроме того, в таких местах больше рыб, которые плывут вниз по течению от рифа[11].

Разместившись в удачном месте, калифорнийская скватина может не покидать его до 10 дней и возвращаться на исходную позицию после каждого броска. Поскольку со временем рыбы начинают избегать опасной территории, периодически ночью акулы переплывают в другое место, удалённое на несколько километров. В ходе одного исследования, проведённого у берегов острова Санта-Каталина, было обнаружено, что за 13—25 часов 9 калифорнийских скватин совместно использовали площадь всего 1,5 км². За 3 месяца площадь «освоенной» территории увеличилась до 75 км, при этом акулы практически обогнули остров. Отдельные особи проплывали за ночь до 7,3 км[11][17].

Калифорнийские скватины охотятся, ориентируясь в первую очередь на зрение. Эксперименты в живой природе показали, что они атакуют приманку в виде рыбы, которая не испускает электричества и химических сигналов, не вибрирует и никак не ведёт себя. Ночью они опираются на биолюминесценцию планктонных динофлагеллятов и остракод, вызываемую движением рыб[17]. Зрение калифорнийских скватин адаптировано к восприятию световой длины волны, испускаемой этими планктонными организмами, что подтверждает важность ночной охоты. Эти акулы предпочитают приближаться к жертве спереди[11]. Обычно они ждут, когда добыча окажется на расстоянии около 15 см, на большем расстоянии броски теряют точность[7]. Атаки калифорнийских скватин представляют собой стереотипное поведение. Акулы опираются грудными и брюшными плавниками на дно, выталкивая голову вверх под прямым углом. Рот открывается, образуя засасывающую воронку, а челюсти выдвигаются вперед, фиксируя добычу между острыми зубами. В ходе броска глаза закатываются, что обеспечивает им защиту. Продолжительность атаки может составлять менее десятой доли секунды[11].

Жизненный цикл

Калифорнийские скватины размножаются яйцеживорождением, у них годичный цикл репродукции. У большинства самок имеется один функциональный яичник, расположенный справа, хотя бывают особи с двумя яичниками. Яйцевод зачастую заполнен желтком, который, предположительно, образуется из рассосавшихся неоплодотворённых яиц. Для эмбрионов длиной до 35 мм на ранней степени развития характерна прозрачная кожа, выступающие глаза и наружные жаберные тычинки. Когда эмбрион достигает длины 70 мм, у него на коже появляются пигментированные пятна, первый ряд зубов образуется при достижении 110 см. У эмбриона длиной 150 мм рот сдвигается на кончик рыла и полностью формируется окраска. Внешний желточный мешок начинает сокращаться, желток перемещается во внутренний желточный мешок, а затем усваивается сформировавшимся кишечником. Перед появлением на свет внутренний желточный мешок полностью опустевает; если детёныш рождается недоразвитым, он не питается, пока процесс развития не завершится[18].

В водах Санта Барбары роды происходят с марта по июнь, беременность длится 10 месяцев. Вскоре после родов самки снова готовы к спариванию. В помёте бывает от 1 до 11 новорожденных, в среднем 6. Связи между размером самки и численностью помёта не наблюдается[18]. Новорождённые появляются на свет на глубине 55—90 м, что, вероятно, обеспечивает им защиту от хищников[17]. Эмбрионы прибавляют в месяц по 45 мм, перед родами скорость роста замедляется до 10 мм в месяц, длина новорождённых около 25—26 см. В неволе они вырастают за год на 14 см. Скорость роста взрослых акул составляет 2 см ежегодно. Калифорнийские скватины достигают половой зрелости при длине 90—100 см, что соответствует возрасту 8—13 лет[18][19]. Самцы и самки скватин, обитающих в Калифорнийском заливе, которые, вероятно, принадлежат к самостоятельному виду, и становятся половозрелыми при длине 78 и 85 см соответственно. До созревания доживают 20 % новорожденных[20]. Максимальная продолжительность жизни оценивается в 25—35 лет[19]. В отличие от других акул, ростовые кольца на позвонках калифорнийских скватин откладываются пропорционально размеру, а не ежегодно, что затрудняет определение их возраста[17].

Взаимодействие с человеком

Калифорнийские скватины не пугливы, к ним можно подплыть на близкое расстояние. Будучи потревоженными или при поимке они способны наносить молниеносные укусы, чреватые серьёзными травмами. Вид представляет интерес для коммерческого рыбного промысла в водах Нижней Калифорнии. Мясо высоко ценится, оно поступает в продажу свежим или замороженным. Незначительное количество скватин рыбаки-любители бьют острогой, ловят на крючок или даже руками, особенно на юге Калифорнии. В качестве прилова эти акулы попадаются в ходе креветочного промысла. Добытых акул перерабатывают на рыбную муку[4]. Способность этого вида противостоять целевому промыслу ограничена из-за медленного воспроизводства и территориальной привязки[20].

В 1976 году рыболовецкий коммерческий флот, добывавший с помощью жаберных сетей у берегов Санта Барбары калифорнийского паралихтаruen, начал промысел калифорнийских скватин. Эти акулы стали цениться в качестве замены обыкновенных лисьих акул, добыча которых носит сезонный характер, а также благодаря развитию новых технологий переработки. Использовалось около 50 % туши, тогда как кожа, хрящи и отходы выбрасывали. Рост спроса обусловил применение жаберных сетей с ячеями среднего размера, специально приспособленными для ловли скватин. Добыча выросла со 148 кг в 1977 году (вес после обработки) до 117 000 кг в 1983 году и 277 000 кг в 1984 году. Пиковые уловы пришлись на 1985 и 1986 годы, когда ежегодно добывали по 550 000 кг. Тогда калифорнийская скватина стала самым промышляемым видом акул в водах Калифорнии. Перелов, несмотря на введённое в 1986 году ограничение на минимальный размер вылавливаемых рыб, привёл к падению улова, который в 1990 году составил 112 000 кг[20][21].

В 1991 году использование жаберных сетей по инициативе избирателей было запрещено. В зону моратория попала большая часть ареала калифорнийских акул и промысловое давление на вид снизилось. В результате улов упал до 10 000 кг в 1994, когда промысел акул и паралихтов в водах Калифорнии был полностью закрыт. Прекращение добычи привело к перемещению рыболовецкой индустрии в Мексику, где местные рыбаки, использующие жаберные сети, обеспечивают спрос на акул, существующий в Калифорнии[20]. Международный союз охраны природы присвоил этому виду статус сохранности «Близкий к уязвимому положению».[3].

Примечания

  1. Губанов Е. П., Кондюрин В. В., Мягков Н. А. Акулы Мирового океана: Справочник-определитель. — М.: Агропромиздат, 1986. — С. 216. — 272 с.
  2. Решетников Ю. С., Котляр А. Н., Расс Т. С., Шатуновский М. И. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных. Рыбы. Латинский, русский, английский, немецкий, французский. / под общей редакцией акад. В. Е. Соколова. — М.: Рус. яз., 1989. — С. 38. — 12 500 экз.ISBN 5-200-00237-0.
  3. 1 2 Squatina californica (англ.). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Compagno, Leonard J.V. 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes // FAO species catalogue. — Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, 1984. — Vol. 4. Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. — P. 144–145. — ISBN 92-5-101384-5.
  5. Ayres, W.O. On new fishes of the California coast // Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, (Series 1). — 1859. — № 2. — P. 25—32.
  6. 1 2 Stelbrink, B., T. von Rintelen, G. Cliff, and J. Kriwet. Molecular systematics and global phylogeography of angel sharks (genus Squatina) // Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. — 2010. — Vol. 54, № 2. — P. 395—404. — DOI:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.07.029.. — PMID 19647086.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Ebert, D.A. Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. — Калифорния: University of California Press, 2003. — P. 76—80. — ISBN 0520234847.
  8. Compagno, L. J. V., F. Krupp and W. Schneider. Tiburones = In W. Fischer, F. Krupp, W. Schneider, C. Sommer, K.E. Carpenter and V. Niem (eds.) Guia FAO para Identification de Especies para los Fines de la Pesca. Pacifico Centro-Oriental. 3 Vols. — Rome: FAO, 1995. — P. 647—744.
  9. 1 2 Bester, C. Biological Profiles: Pacific Angelshark. (неопр.). Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Проверено 4 февраля 2014.
  10. Compagno, L., M. Dando, and S. Fowler. Sharks of the World. — Princeton University Press., 2005. — P. 140—141. — ISBN 978-0-691-120720..
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fouts, W.R. and Nelson, D.R. Prey Capture by the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica: Visually Mediated Strikes and Ambush-Site Characteristics // Copeia. — (May 7, 1999). — № 2. — P. 304—312.
  12. Sinclair, E.H. Prey of juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) in the Southern California Bight // Marine Mammal Science. — 1994. — Vol. 10, № (2). — P. 230—239. — DOI:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1994.tb00267.x.
  13. Deets, G.B. and Dojiri, M. Three species of Trebius Krøyer, 1838 (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida) parasitic on Pacific elasmobranchs // Systematic Parasitology. — (March 1989). — Vol. 13, № (2). — P. 81—101. — DOI:10.1007/BF00015217.
  14. ameson, A.P. Notes on Californian Myxosporidia // The Journal of Parasitology (The American Society of Parasitologists). — (December 1931). — Vol. 18, № (2). — P. 59—68. — DOI:10.2307/3271964.
  15. Jensen, K. Four New Genera and Five New Species of Lecanicephalideans (Cestoda: Lecanicephalidea) From Elasmobranchs in the Gulf of California, Mexico // Journal of Parasitology. — 2001. — Vol. 87, № (4). — P. 845—861. — DOI:10.1645/0022-3395(2001)087[0845:FNGAFN]2.0.CO;2. — PMID 11534651.
  16. 1 2 Escobar-Sanchez, O., Abitia-Cardenas, L.A. and Galvan-Magnan, F. Food habits of the Pacific angel shark Squatina californica in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico // Cybium. — 2007. — Vol. 30, № (4). — P. 91—97.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Martin, R.A. Sandy Plains: Pacific Angel Shark. (неопр.). ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.. Проверено 5 февраля 2014.
  18. 1 2 3 Natanson, L.J. and Cailliet, G.M. Reproduction and Development of the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica, off Santa Barbara, California // Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists). — 1986. — № (4). — С. 987—994.
  19. 1 2 Cailliet, G.M., Mollet, H.F., Pittenger, G.G., Bedford, D. and Natanson, L.J. Growth and demography of the Pacific Angel Shark (Squatina californica), based upon tag returns off California // Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. — 1992. — Vol. 43, № (5). — P. 1313—1330.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Fowler, S.L., Cavanagh, R.D., Camhi, M., Burgess, G.H., Cailliet, G.M., Fordham, S.V., Simpfendorfer, C.A. and Musick, J.A. Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. — International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2005. — P. 223—224. — ISBN 2831707005.
  21. Leet, W.S., Dewees, C.M., Klingbeil, R. and Larson, E.J., ed. Pacific Angel Shark. California's Living Resources: A Status Report (fourth ed.). — ANR Publications. — P. 248—251. — ISBN 1-879906-57-0.. Архивировано 14 июня 2011 года.
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Авторы и редакторы Википедии

Тихоокеанский морской ангел: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
 src= Калифорнийская скватина, расположившаяся головой вверх и занесённая осадками, почти не заметна на фоне дна.

У калифорнийских скватин ограничен индивидуальный участок обитанияruen, на котором они предпочитают выжидать в засаде добычу. Они предпочитают залегать на местах перехода песка в каменистое дно вблизи рифов, которые многие рыбы используют в качестве укрытия. При этом они обычно располагаются по направлению либо параллельно к ближайшему вертикальному объекту, рылом к подъёму дна. Такая позиция помогает им замаскироваться под слоем падающих осадков и нацелиться на силуэт добычи против солнечного света, кроме того, в таких местах больше рыб, которые плывут вниз по течению от рифа.

Разместившись в удачном месте, калифорнийская скватина может не покидать его до 10 дней и возвращаться на исходную позицию после каждого броска. Поскольку со временем рыбы начинают избегать опасной территории, периодически ночью акулы переплывают в другое место, удалённое на несколько километров. В ходе одного исследования, проведённого у берегов острова Санта-Каталина, было обнаружено, что за 13—25 часов 9 калифорнийских скватин совместно использовали площадь всего 1,5 км². За 3 месяца площадь «освоенной» территории увеличилась до 75 км, при этом акулы практически обогнули остров. Отдельные особи проплывали за ночь до 7,3 км.

Калифорнийские скватины охотятся, ориентируясь в первую очередь на зрение. Эксперименты в живой природе показали, что они атакуют приманку в виде рыбы, которая не испускает электричества и химических сигналов, не вибрирует и никак не ведёт себя. Ночью они опираются на биолюминесценцию планктонных динофлагеллятов и остракод, вызываемую движением рыб. Зрение калифорнийских скватин адаптировано к восприятию световой длины волны, испускаемой этими планктонными организмами, что подтверждает важность ночной охоты. Эти акулы предпочитают приближаться к жертве спереди. Обычно они ждут, когда добыча окажется на расстоянии около 15 см, на большем расстоянии броски теряют точность. Атаки калифорнийских скватин представляют собой стереотипное поведение. Акулы опираются грудными и брюшными плавниками на дно, выталкивая голову вверх под прямым углом. Рот открывается, образуя засасывающую воронку, а челюсти выдвигаются вперед, фиксируя добычу между острыми зубами. В ходе броска глаза закатываются, что обеспечивает им защиту. Продолжительность атаки может составлять менее десятой доли секунды.

Жизненный цикл

Калифорнийские скватины размножаются яйцеживорождением, у них годичный цикл репродукции. У большинства самок имеется один функциональный яичник, расположенный справа, хотя бывают особи с двумя яичниками. Яйцевод зачастую заполнен желтком, который, предположительно, образуется из рассосавшихся неоплодотворённых яиц. Для эмбрионов длиной до 35 мм на ранней степени развития характерна прозрачная кожа, выступающие глаза и наружные жаберные тычинки. Когда эмбрион достигает длины 70 мм, у него на коже появляются пигментированные пятна, первый ряд зубов образуется при достижении 110 см. У эмбриона длиной 150 мм рот сдвигается на кончик рыла и полностью формируется окраска. Внешний желточный мешок начинает сокращаться, желток перемещается во внутренний желточный мешок, а затем усваивается сформировавшимся кишечником. Перед появлением на свет внутренний желточный мешок полностью опустевает; если детёныш рождается недоразвитым, он не питается, пока процесс развития не завершится.

В водах Санта Барбары роды происходят с марта по июнь, беременность длится 10 месяцев. Вскоре после родов самки снова готовы к спариванию. В помёте бывает от 1 до 11 новорожденных, в среднем 6. Связи между размером самки и численностью помёта не наблюдается. Новорождённые появляются на свет на глубине 55—90 м, что, вероятно, обеспечивает им защиту от хищников. Эмбрионы прибавляют в месяц по 45 мм, перед родами скорость роста замедляется до 10 мм в месяц, длина новорождённых около 25—26 см. В неволе они вырастают за год на 14 см. Скорость роста взрослых акул составляет 2 см ежегодно. Калифорнийские скватины достигают половой зрелости при длине 90—100 см, что соответствует возрасту 8—13 лет. Самцы и самки скватин, обитающих в Калифорнийском заливе, которые, вероятно, принадлежат к самостоятельному виду, и становятся половозрелыми при длине 78 и 85 см соответственно. До созревания доживают 20 % новорожденных. Максимальная продолжительность жизни оценивается в 25—35 лет. В отличие от других акул, ростовые кольца на позвонках калифорнийских скватин откладываются пропорционально размеру, а не ежегодно, что затрудняет определение их возраста.

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Авторы и редакторы Википедии

カリフォルニアカスザメ ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
カリフォルニアカスザメ Squatina californica.jpg 保全状況評価[1] NEAR THREATENED
(IUCN Red List Ver.3.1 (2001))
Status iucn3.1 NT.svg 分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 脊索動物門 Chordata : 軟骨魚綱 Chondrichthyes : カスザメ目 Squatiniformes : カスザメ科 Squatinidae : カスザメ属 Squatina : カリフォルニアカスザメ S. californica 学名 Squatina californica Ayres, 1859 シノニム

Rhina philippi Garman, 1913(不明確)

英名 Pacific angelshark Squatina californica distmap.png
分布

カリフォルニアカスザメ Squatina californicaカスザメ属に属するサメの一種。北東太平洋の沿岸の砂底に生息する。他のカスザメ類同様、平たい体と大きな胸鰭腹鰭を持つ。本種の特徴としては1対の円錐形のを持つこと、胸鰭の先端の角度が小さいこと、灰色から茶色の体色に、多数の小さな黒斑があることが挙げられる。最大で1.5mになる。

待ち伏せ型捕食者で、海底に隠れ硬骨魚イカを捕食する。捕食は視覚に頼って行われる。夜間には待ち伏せに適した場所を求めて定期的に移動を行う。胎生で、春に6匹程度の仔魚を産む。

刺激されなければ人は攻撃しない。カリフォルニア州で肉を目的とした商業漁業が行われていたが、現在はその中心はメキシコに移っている。IUCN保全状況準絶滅危惧としている。

分類[編集]

カリフォルニア科学アカデミーの最初の魚類学キュレーターであるウィリアム・オービル・エアーズによって1859年に記載された[2]種小名は標本がサンフランシスコ(カリフォルニア州)から得られたことに由来する。地元では単にangel shark、monkfish、またはCalifornia angel sharkと呼ばれることもある[3]

Kato, Springer and Wagner (1967) によって、南米太平洋岸に分布するSquatina armata と本種が同種とされていた。だが、その後レオナルド・コンパーニョによって暫定的に再び分離されている[4][5]。東太平洋に分布するカスザメ類としてはこの2種のみが記載されているが、この地域にはさらに1種以上の未記載種が存在する可能性がある。例えば、カリフォルニア湾に生息するカスザメは他の地域の個体より性成熟時の大きさが小さく、別種であることが示唆されている[4]

2010年のmtDNAをもちいた分子系統解析では、本種は北西大西洋に分布するカリブカスザメと近縁であるという結果が得られた。この2種の分岐はおよそ610万年前で、パナマ地峡が形成された時代と概ね一致する。また、カリフォルニア湾の個体と他の地域の個体の比較も行われたが、種レベルの遺伝的差異があるという結果は得られなかった[6]

分布[編集]

アラスカ南東からバハ・カリフォルニア半島、カリフォルニア湾までの冷温帯から暖温帯に分布する。特にカリフォルニア州の中部から南部で最もよく見られる。エクアドルやチリに分布するとしているものもあるが、この記録は不明確である。底生で、河口や湾内の柔らかく平らな沿岸近くの底質を好む。岩礁海底谷海中林の近くでもよく見られる。時折、海底から15–91mも離れて泳いでいる姿が見られることもある[3]。カリフォルニアでは主に水深3–45m、最大で205mから報告がある[7]

分布域の北部を通して多数の進化的に重要な単位としての個体群が同定されている。コンセプション岬からアラスカにかけて複数の個体群が存在しており、南カリフォルニア沿岸でも、本土とチャンネル諸島の北部、南部に最低でも3つの個体群が存在する。バハカリフォルニア沿岸の個体群も、カリフォルニア湾内の個体群とは異なる[3]。本種は出生地を大きく離れて回遊することがなく、また、深海が個体群間の交流を妨げているため、これらの個体群は時間とともに別種へと分化していくと予想される。遺伝的多様性の指標であるヘテロ接合型の割合は、調査された他のサメ類よりも高い.[8]

形態[編集]

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眼は上に、口は吻端に位置し、鼻孔には髭がある。

他のカスザメ類と同様、平たい体と大きな胸鰭を持ちエイに似ているが、頭部側面にある5対の鰓裂、胸鰭の前端が頭部から分離することはエイと異なる。眼は頭部上方に位置し、その後方に噴水孔がある。頭部側面には皮褶があるが、特に葉状の突出部は持たない。口は非常に幅広くて吻端に位置し、その上に先端が匙状になった1対の円錐形のを持つ[3][4]。片側の歯列は、上顎で9・下顎で10。中央には歯のない隙間がある。各歯は基部が幅広く、1本の細く、縁の滑らかな尖頭を持つ[2]

胸鰭と腹鰭は幅広く、先端は角張って尖る。2基の背鰭は体後部に位置し、臀鰭はない。尾鰭下葉は上葉より大きい。背の正中線上には小さな棘の列が走る。吻と眼の上にも棘の塊がある[4]。成長とともに棘は小さくなり、消失することもある。背面は灰色、茶色、赤褐色などで、暗色の斑点が散らばる。成体では大きな斑点は小さな斑点の輪で取り巻かれ、幼体では複数対の眼状紋がある。腹面は白で、これは胸鰭・腹鰭の縁まで広がる[9]。全長1.5m、体重27kgになる[2]

生態[編集]

他のカスザメ類同様に夜行性で、日中に遊泳することは少なく、海底で堆積物を被って休息している。夜間にも動かずに待ち伏せを続ける個体もいるが、他の個体は堆積物から出るか、積極的に泳ぎ回る[10]ホホジロザメエビスザメキタゾウアザラシが本種を捕食することが知られている[3][11]寄生虫として、皮膚に寄生するカイアシ類Trebius latifurcatus胆嚢に寄生する粘液胞子虫Chloromyxum levigatum螺旋腸に寄生する条虫Paraberrapex manifestus が知られている[12][13][14]ウオビル科Branchellion lobata総排泄孔、腸内、子宮内の胎児にまで寄生することがある[15]

摂餌[編集]

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体色は待ち伏せの際に保護色となる。

底生の待ち伏せ型捕食者で、主にケルプバス, ニベ科カレイ類・スズメダイ科サバ類・サーディンなどの硬骨魚を食べる。冬から初春にかけては繁殖期のイカが大量に出現するため、これが主要な獲物となる[3]。カリフォルニア湾南部での餌生物を重要度順に並べるとムロアジ属Decapterus macrosomaイサリビガマアンコウ属Porichthys analisアカエソ属Synodus evermanniアカマツカサ属Myripristis leiognathusイシエビ属Sicyonia penicillata となる[16]サンタカタリナ島では、主にスズメダイ属Chromis punctipinnisニベ科Seriphus politus を捕食していた[10]。成体も幼体も餌の種類はほぼ同じである[16]

各個体はそれぞれ待ち伏せに適した場所を探す。多くの魚が隠れ家とする岩礁に近い、砂底と岩石底の境界を好み、岩棚などの垂直構造物に向き合うか、平行な姿勢を取る。斜面の上に体を向ける傾向があり、上から落ちてくる堆積物に潜りやすい、岩礁から下降流に乗って降りてくる魚を捕食できる、逆光となるため魚の影を認識しやすいなどの利点があると考えられる[10]

一旦適した場所に落ち着くと、捕食行動のたびに位置を変えながら10日間程度はその場所に留まる。獲物も捕食者の位置を学習するため、定期的に、数km離れた新しい場所に夜間に移動する。サンタカタリナ島での調査では、13–25時間以上、9匹の個体がたった1.5 km2の範囲に留まっていた。その後の長期の調査では、3ヶ月で75kmを、島を周回するように移動していることが分かった。ある個体は夜間に7.3kmを遊泳した[10][17]

自然条件下の実験では、電気的・化学的刺激や動き・振動を示さない魚型の模型にも攻撃したため、捕食は視覚に頼って行っているようである。夜間の捕食は、獲物の動きによる渦鞭毛虫貝形虫生物発光を目印として行う[17]。本種の視覚システムはこれらのプランクトンの発する波長に敏感で、夜間の狩りが重要であることを示している。前方から近づく獲物を積極的に攻撃するようである[10]。大抵は獲物が15cm以内に近づくまで待機し、これ以上の距離だと捕食の成功率は落ちる[3]。攻撃行動の流れは毎回ほぼ一定で、胸鰭の前部を底に押し付けて、頭部を上方90°までの角度に急激に押し出す。口を開けて筒状とすることで吸引力を生み、顎を突き出し、鋭い歯の間に獲物を吸い込むようにする。攻撃中、眼球は保護のために後方に引き込まれる。攻撃は0.1秒ほどで完了される[10]

生活史[編集]

無胎盤性の胎生で、胎児は卵黄嚢から栄養を得る。繁殖は毎年行われる。雌は左側の卵巣のみが機能するが、稀に両方が機能する個体もいる。輸卵管にはよく卵黄が詰まっており、受精しなかった卵を再吸収していると考えられる。初期の胎児は35mm程度で、透明な皮膚と突き出た両眼、外鰓を持つ。70mm程度で色素の斑点が形成され、110mm程度で最初の歯が生える。150mm程度で口が吻端に移動し、体の模様が完成する。卵黄嚢は縮み始め、卵黄は体内へと移動して最終的には腸で消化される。卵黄は出生時には完全に吸収されるが、未熟な状態で出生した場合は卵黄の吸収が終わるまで餌を食べない[18]

妊娠期間は10ヶ月程度で、サンタバーバラでは出産は3-6月である。その後すぐに交尾が行われる。産仔数は1-11(平均6)だが、13匹という記録もある。母体の大きさと産仔数に相関はない[18]。出産は、おそらく捕食者との遭遇を避けるために深度55-90mで行われる[17]。胚の成長速度は、初期には45mm/月で、出産前には10mm/月に落ちる。出生時は25-26cmで、その後も14cm/年程度の成長を続けるが、成体になると成長速度は2cm/年程度に落ちる。雌雄ともに90-100cm、8-13歳で性成熟する[18][19]。カリフォルニア湾内の個体はこれより小さい、雄で78cm・雌で85cmの大きさで性成熟する[3]。成体になるまで生き残る新生児は約20%である[20]。寿命は25-35年と推定されている[19]。他のサメと異なり、年単位ではなく個体の大きさに比例して椎骨に成長輪ができるため、年齢の測定が難しい[17]

人との関わり[編集]

他のカスザメ類同様、積極的に人を攻撃することはないが刺激されると噛み付き、ひどい裂傷を負わせる[3]。商業的には主にバハカリフォルニアで漁獲され、肉は生・冷凍で販売される。特にカリフォルニア南部において、本種を対象とした遊漁者が存在し、少数が釣り、スピアフィッシング、素手などで捕獲されている。カリフォルニア湾ではエビ漁の底引き網で混獲され、魚粉へと加工される[4]。繁殖力と移動性が低いため、集中的な漁獲圧に耐えることは難しい[20]

1976年、サンタバーバラ沖でのカリフォルニアビラメ (Paralichthys californicus) の刺し網漁が、本種を対象とするように拡張された。本種は季節的に漁獲されるマオナガの代替として売り込まれ、新たな加工技術が開発された。重量にして約50%が利用され、皮膚軟骨は捨てられた。1980年代には需要量の増大に応じて、本種のために設計された中程度の目の刺し網が導入された。水揚げ量は、処理後の重量にして、1977年の0.1t (148kg) から1983年には117t、1984年には277tへと急激に増加した。ピークは1985-1986年で、年間550tが水揚げされ、カリフォルニアで最も捕獲されているサメであった。これは持続不可能な漁業であり、1986年には小型個体の捕獲に規制が入ったが、乱獲により1990年の水揚げ量は112tへと低下した[20][21]

1991年より、カリフォルニア沿岸での刺し網漁は有権者発案 (提案132号) によって禁止された。禁止領域は本種の主要な生息域を含み、漁獲圧は減少した。この結果、1994年には本種の水揚げ量は10tにまで低下し、カリフォルニア中部でのヒラメ/カスザメ漁は終焉を迎えた。現在も水揚げ量はこの水準にある。これはメキシコへのカスザメ産業の移転を招き、"pangas"と呼ばれる小型漁船による刺し網漁によって、カリフォルニアでの本種の需要が満たされている[20][21]IUCN保全状況準絶滅危惧としている。カリフォルニアでは個体数が増加しており、統計モデルからは資源量が健全な状態にあると予測されるが[19]、メキシコでの規制されていない大量の漁獲が個体数に与えている影響は未知である。保護状況への懸念が優先されてはいるが、カリフォルニアでも商業漁業の再開に向けた根強い動きがある[20]

脚注[編集]

  1. ^ Cailliet, G.M. ("Squatina californica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. April 24, 2010閲覧. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ a b c Bester, C. Biological Profiles: Pacific Angelshark. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on June 22, 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ebert, D.A. (2003). Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. University of California Press. pp. 76–80. ISBN 0-520-23484-7.
  4. ^ a b c d e Compagno, L.J.V. (2002). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 144–145. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
  5. ^ Lamilla, J. & Romero, M. (Squatina armata. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2008. 2009年6月22日閲覧。
  6. ^ Stelbrink, B., T. von Rintelen, G. Cliff, and J. Kriwet (2010). “Molecular systematics and global phylogeography of angel sharks (genus Squatina)”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 54 (2): 395–404. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.07.029. PMID 19647086.
  7. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2009). "Squatina californica" in FishBase. June 2009 version.
  8. ^ Gaida, I.H. (December 9, 1997). “Population Structure of the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica (Squatiniformes: Squatinidae), around the California Channel Islands”. Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists) 1997 (4): 738–744. doi:10.2307/1447291. JSTOR 1447291.
  9. ^ Compagno, L.J.V., Dando, M. and Fowler, S. (2005). Sharks of the World. Princeton University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Fouts, W.R. and Nelson, D.R. (May 7, 1999). “Prey Capture by the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica: Visually Mediated Strikes and Ambush-Site Characteristics”. Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists) 1999 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1447476. JSTOR 1447476.
  11. ^ Sinclair, E.H. (1994). “Prey of juvenile northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) in the Southern California Bight”. Marine Mammal Science 10 (2): 230–239. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1994.tb00267.x.
  12. ^ Deets, G.B. and Dojiri, M. (March 1989). “Three species of Trebius Krøyer, 1838 (Copepoda: Siphonostomatoida) parasitic on Pacific elasmobranchs”. Systematic Parasitology 13 (2): 81–101. doi:10.1007/BF00015217.
  13. ^ Jameson, A.P. (December 1931). “Notes on Californian Myxosporidia”. The Journal of Parasitology (The American Society of Parasitologists) 18 (2): 59–68. doi:10.2307/3271964. JSTOR 3271964.
  14. ^ Jensen, K. (2001). “Four New Genera and Five New Species of Lecanicephalideans (Cestoda: Lecanicephalidea) From Elasmobranchs in the Gulf of California, Mexico”. Journal of Parasitology 87 (4): 845–861. doi:10.1645/0022-3395(2001)087[0845:FNGAFN]2.0.CO;2. PMID 11534651.
  15. ^ Moser, M. and Anderson, S. (1977). “An intrauterine leech infection: Branchellion lobata Moore, 1952 (Piscicolidae) in the Pacific angel shark (Squatina californica) from California”. Canadian Journal of Zoology 55 (4): 759–760. doi:10.1139/z77-098.
  16. ^ a b Escobar-Sanchez, O., Abitia-Cardenas, L.A. and Galvan-Magnan, F. (2007). “Food habits of the Pacific angel shark Squatina californica in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico”. Cybium 30 (4): 91–97.
  17. ^ a b c d Martin, R.A. Sandy Plains: Pacific Angel Shark. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on June 22, 2009.
  18. ^ a b c Natanson, L.J. and Cailliet, G.M. (December 23, 1986). “Reproduction and Development of the Pacific Angel Shark, Squatina californica, off Santa Barbara, California”. Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists) 1986 (4): 987–994. doi:10.2307/1445296. JSTOR 1445296.
  19. ^ a b c Cailliet, G.M., Mollet, H.F., Pittenger, G.G., Bedford, D. and Natanson, L.J. (1992). “Growth and demography of the Pacific Angel Shark (Squatina californica), based upon tag returns off California”. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 43 (5): 1313–1330. doi:10.1071/MF9921313.
  20. ^ a b c d e Fowler, S.L., Cavanagh, R.D., Camhi, M., Burgess, G.H., Cailliet, G.M., Fordham, S.V., Simpfendorfer, C.A. and Musick, J.A. (2005). Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. pp. 233–234. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.
  21. ^ a b Leet, W.S., Dewees, C.M., Klingbeil, R. and Larson, E.J., ed (2001). “Pacific Angel Shark”. California's Living Resources: A Status Report (fourth ed.). ANR Publications. pp. 248–251. ISBN 1-879906-57-0. http://www.dfg.ca.gov/marine/status/pacific_angel_shark.pdf.
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カリフォルニアカスザメ: Brief Summary ( Japanese )

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カリフォルニアカスザメ Squatina californica はカスザメ属に属するサメの一種。北東太平洋の沿岸の砂底に生息する。他のカスザメ類同様、平たい体と大きな胸鰭腹鰭を持つ。本種の特徴としては1対の円錐形のを持つこと、胸鰭の先端の角度が小さいこと、灰色から茶色の体色に、多数の小さな黒斑があることが挙げられる。最大で1.5mになる。

待ち伏せ型捕食者で、海底に隠れ硬骨魚イカを捕食する。捕食は視覚に頼って行われる。夜間には待ち伏せに適した場所を求めて定期的に移動を行う。胎生で、春に6匹程度の仔魚を産む。

刺激されなければ人は攻撃しない。カリフォルニア州で肉を目的とした商業漁業が行われていたが、現在はその中心はメキシコに移っている。IUCN保全状況準絶滅危惧としている。

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia 日本語