Pacific angel sharks are only preyed upon by some larger sharks, including white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) (Bester 2004; Ebert 2003, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004). Humans, through the booming trawl and gillnet fishery in the early 1980’s, also posed a threat to the survival of Pacific angel sharks. Many of these fisheries are now either regulated or closed in order for the depleted population of Pacific angel sharks to increase again.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
The Pacific angel shark is a dorsoventrally flattened ray-like shark, with broad, wing-like pectoral fins (which are separated from the head by deep notches) and slightly smaller, wing-like pelvic fins. A terminal mouth is located at the tip of the snout, the eyes and large spiracles are dorsal (on the top of the head), five pairs of gill slits are found from the side of the head to under the throat, and fleshy, nasal barbels and flaps are also located on the head. Pacific angel sharks have two, spineless dorsal fins, no anal fin, and a well-developed caudal fin with a decidedly longer lower lobe than upper lobe (as opposed to the “top-heavy” caudal fin with a longer upper lobe typical of most other sharks). It has been proposed that this tail shape characteristic of Pacific angel sharks is an evolutionary adaptation to the sudden, rapid lift off the bottom they need to ambush and capture unsuspecting prey (Martin 2003).
The ability of Pacific angel sharks to maintain a stationary position on the bottom of the ocean for a sustained period of time is attributed to specific muscles that pump water over the gills and through the spiracles. This feature allows these sharks to breath without having to move through the watery meduim (Monteray Bay Aquarium 2004).
The teeth of Pacific angel sharks are pointed and conical with broad bases, smooth edges, and large gaps at each symphysis. The upper jaw has 9-9 teeth and the lower jaw has 10-10 teeth (Bester 2004).
Pacific angel sharks are typically whitish with red, brown, and grey splotches but certain individuals have been recorded as dark brown to black with blotches of black and brown shades (Bester 2004). The particular coloration of Pacific angel sharks allows them to camouflage themselves with muddy and sandy bottoms.
These sharks do not exceed lengths of 60 in. (152 cm) and weights of 60 lbs. (27 kg) (Bester 2004). Males grow to a maximum length of 118 cm TL while females grow even larger to a maximum length of 152 cm TL (Natanson 1984, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004).
Range mass: 27 (high) kg.
Range length: 152 (high) cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
The maximum reported age of a Pacific angel shark is 35 years (Natanson 1984, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center 2004).
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 35 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 35 years.
Inhabiting marine temperate and tropical environments, Pacific angel sharks are generally found in shallow waters at depths of 10 to 328 ft (3 to 100 m) off the coast of California but they have also been found as deep as 610 ft (185 m) in the Sea of Cortez (Bester 2004). These bottom-dwelling (benthic) sharks partially bury themselves in sandy or muddy environments during the day (where they may reside camouflaged for weeks until a decent-sized desirable prey enters their domain), while at night they often take a more active approach and cruise over the bottom. This species of shark generally does not move far beyond its chosen territory. These sharks are often found on the continental shelves of western North and South America, in littoral zones, in shallow bays, in sand channels by rocky reefs and outcrops, at the edges of submarine canyons and in kelp forests.
Range depth: 3 to 185 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; coastal
Other Habitat Features: estuarine ; intertidal or littoral
Squatina californica, commonly known as the Pacific angel shark but also referred to as the "monk fish" or "sand devil" is found in a fairly limited geographical range. Pacific angel sharks inhabit the Eastern Pacific ocean, ranging from Costa Rica to Southern Chile and also from Southeast Alaska to the Gulf of California (Baja), though it is unusual to encounter these sharks north of California between Oregon and Southern Alaska (Smith 2004). The Pacific angel shark is absent along the southern part of Mexico and most of Central America (i.e. Squatina californica is not found south of the Gulf of California or north of Costa Rica) (Bester 2004).
Biogeographic Regions: pacific ocean (Native )
Squatina californica, commonly known as the Pacific angel shark, was described in 1859 by the first curator of Icthyology at the California Academy of Sciences: William O. Ayres.
There is little known about communication and perception among Pacific angel sharks. Squatina californica principally utilizes its eyes (on the top of the head) and sense of feel while it camly lies in wait at the bottom of the sea floor for prey. These sharks are known to be electroreceptive, utilizing electric fields to locate prey. While many species of sharks must move/swim in order to breath, Pacific angel sharks have muscles that pump water over the gills and through the spiracles so that it is not necessary for them to move, an adaptation crucial to their ambush style of feeding.
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; electric
Due to the large regulated trawl and gillnet fishery off the California coast, which was primarily instituted by Santa Barbara fish processor Michael Wagner in 1978, the number of Pacific angel sharks significantly decreased (Martin 2003). Landings for Pacific angel sharks jumped from 366 lbs. in 1977 to more than 700,000 lbs. in 1984. It became the leading shark food from 1985 to 1986 until size limits were imposed and near shore fishing (i.e. gillnetting inshore of 3 miles) was banned by a voter initiative (Smith 2004). The gillnet fisheries of California are now closed because of the severely depleted populations of Pacific angel sharks. Renewal of gillnetting could potentially threaten the future survival of Pacific angel sharks off of the U.S. coast. The IUCN red list currently indicates that Squatina californica is tagged as “Near Threatened” (LR/nt).
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
Though there is little known about the development and life cycle of Squatina californica, it has been observed that males grow and reach maturity at a length of 30 to 31 in. (75 to 80 cm) and an age of 8 years whereas females develop and reach maturity at a length of 35 to 39 in. (90 to 100 cm) and the age of 13 years.
Since Pacific angel sharks spend most of their time buried in sand or mud at the bottom of estuaries, bays or the ocean where they reside, these sharks are considered relatively peaceful if left alone. But if these sharks are provoked (by being trodden on, pulled by the tail, approached head on, captured, etc.) their extremely sharp teeth and aggressive bite can inflict severe and painful lacerations. Consequently, close encounters with these sharks can often adversely affect human health and safety.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings)
Until the late 1970’s Pacific angel sharks were not marketed. In 1978, the trawl and gillnet fisheries off the California coast expanded and Pacific angel sharks, caught both commercially by the fisheries and recreationally by divers and sportfishers, became an important shark food for human consumption. Primarily during the early and mid 1980’s, the abundant Pacific angel shark flesh was both frozen and marketed fresh for humans to enjoy.
Positive Impacts: food
Pacific angel sharks are predators that eat a variety of other smaller marine predators. They are, in return, preyed upon by bigger sharks. Parasites associated with Squatina californica include tapeworms (1 family, 1 species), flukes (1 family, 1 sp.), marine leeches (1 family, 1 sp.), and protozoans (1 family, 1 sp.) (Love and Moser 1983, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004).
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Pacific angel sharks are carnivores that primarily feed on bony fish and cephalopods (squid and octopus) but are known to consume crustaceans and other types of mollusks as well. Of the bony fish, Pacific angel sharks attack croakers (Scianidae, Atractoscion nobilis and Seriphus politus); flatfish (Pleuronectiformes); corbina (Menticirrhus undulatus); sea basses (Serranidae, Paralabrax clathratus); blacksmith (Pomacentridae, Chromis punctipinnis); mackerels, tunas, and bonitos (Scombridae); hake and halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis); Pacific sardines (Clupeidae, Sardinops sagax) and also peppered shark (Galeus piperatus)(Fouts and Nelson 1999 and Ebert 2003, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004; Martin 2003).
Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )
We have no information about the mating systems of the Pacific angel shark.
The reproductive cycle of the Pacific angel shark is typically annual (the fecundity ranges from approximately 1 to 10 ovarian eggs produced with an average of 7) with a gestation period of approximately 10 months and the births occurring primarily between March and June in the northern part of the species' range (Natanson and Cailliet 1986, cited in Pacific Shark Research Center, 2004). Pacific angel sharks reproduce by aplacental vivipary (ovovivipary), which means that the eggs hatch inside of the mother’s body and there is no nourishing placenta to sustain the young. Instead, nutrition is provided by an external yolk which shrinks as the pups grow and shifts into an internal sac when the embryo reaches 150 mm TL. The stored yolk is then transferred from the internal sac to the intestine of the embryo where is it absorbed (Bester 2004). Though the litter size can range from 1 to 13, the number of pups per pregnancy is generally between 8 and 13. At birth, the pups are on average, 9 in. (23 cm) long. Males tend to reach sexual maturity earlier than females at the age of 8 years, while females reach sexual maturity around the age of 13 years (Bester 2004).
Breeding interval: Pacific angel sharks breed once per year
Breeding season: S. californica breeds from May to August in the northern portion of its range
Range number of offspring: 1 to 13.
Average number of offspring: 6.
Average gestation period: 10 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 13 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 8 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); ovoviviparous
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 3650 days.
Little has been recorded regarding parental investment in Pacific angel sharks but the long gestation period (approx. 10 months) and the development of the embryo inside the mother’s body indicate that a significant amount of time and energy is invested in ensuring the growth and immediate survival of the young pups. There is no known dependence of the pups on their parents: once the pups are born they are on their own.
Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
The Pacific angelshark (Squatina californica) is a species of angelshark, family Squatinidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to the Gulf of California, and from Ecuador to Chile, although those in the Gulf of California and southeastern Pacific may in fact be separate species. The Pacific angelshark inhabits shallow, coastal waters on sandy flats, usually near rocky reefs, kelp forests, or other underwater features. This species resembles other angel sharks in appearance, with a flattened body and greatly enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins. Characteristic features of this shark include a pair of cone-shaped barbels on its snout, angular pectoral fins, and a brown or gray dorsal coloration with many small dark markings. It attains a maximum length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).
An ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark conceals itself on the sea floor and waits for approaching prey, primarily bony fishes and squid. Prey are targeted visually and, with a quick upward thrust of the head, snatched in protrusible jaws. Individual sharks actively choose ideal ambush sites, where they stay for several days before moving on to a new one. This species is more active at night than during the day, when it stays buried in sediment and seldom moves. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with the embryos hatching inside the mother's uterus and being sustained by a yolk sac until birth. Females give birth to an average of six young every spring.
Pacific angelsharks are not dangerous to humans unless provoked, in which case their bite can cause a painful injury. They are valued for their meat and are captured by commercial and recreational fishers across their range. A targeted gillnet fishery for this species began off Santa Barbara, California in 1976 and ended in 1994, after overfishing and new regulations led to its near-collapse. This species is now mainly fished in Mexican waters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened, as the Californian population is largely protected and recovering, while the impact of Mexican fisheries is unknown.
The Pacific angelshark was first scientifically described in 1859 by William Orville Ayres, the first Curator of Ichthyology at the California Academy of Sciences.[2] He gave it the specific epithet californica, as the originally-described specimen was caught off San Francisco. Locally, this species may also be referred to as angel shark, California angel shark, or monkfish.[3]
The Chilean angelshark (Squatina armata) of the southeastern Pacific was synonymized with this species by Kato, Springer and Wagner in 1967, but was later tentatively recognized as a separate species again by Leonard Compagno.[4][5] The taxonomic status of angel sharks in the southeastern Pacific – whether they are S. californica, S. armata, or if there is more than one Squatina species in the region – remains unresolved. The angel sharks inhabiting the Gulf of California may also represent a different species, as they mature at a much smaller size than those from the rest of their range.[4]
Squatina californica
Phylogenetic relationships of the Pacific angelshark.[6]A phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA, published by Björn Stelbrink and colleagues in 2010, reported that the sister species of the Pacific angelshark is the sand devil (S. dumeril) of the western North Atlantic. The two species are estimated to have diverged approximately 6.1 Ma, close to when the Isthmus of Panama first began to form. The authors also found that Pacific angelsharks from the Gulf of California differed genetically from those elsewhere, though they were equivocal as to whether this represented a species-level distinction.[6]
Pacific angelsharks are found in cold to warm-temperate waters from the southeastern corner of Alaska to the Gulf of California, including the entire Baja peninsula, and are most common off central and southern California. It may also occur from Ecuador to the southern tip of Chile (see taxonomic uncertainty above). This bottom-dwelling shark prefers habitats with soft, flat bottoms close to shore, such as estuaries and bays, and are often found near rocky reefs, submarine canyons, and kelp forests. On occasion, they have been seen swimming 15–91 m (49–299 ft) above the sea floor.[3] Off California, the Pacific angelshark is most common at a depth of 3–45 m (9.8–147.6 ft), but has been reported from as deep as 205 m (673 ft).[7]
A number of genetically discrete subpopulations have been identified across the northern range of the Pacific angelshark. Several subpopulations exist along the coast from Point Conception northward to Alaska. In the Southern California Bight, there are at least three separate subpopulations off the mainland and northern and southern Channel Islands. The subpopulation along the Pacific coast of Baja California are distinct from those in the Gulf of California.[3] These subpopulations have diverged from one another over time because Pacific angelsharks do not undertake long migratory movements outside of their preferred home areas, and deep waters serve as effective geographical barriers to population mixing. Heterozygosity, a measure of genetic diversity, is higher in the Pacific angelshark than in other shark species that have been examined.[8]
With its flattened body and wing-like pectoral fins, the Pacific angelshark superficially resembles a ray. Unlike in rays, its five pairs of gill slits are located on the sides of the head rather than underneath, and the expanded anterior lobes of its pectoral fins are separate rather than fused to the head. The eyes are located on top of the head, with the spiracles behind. There are folds of skin without triangular lobes on the sides of head. The mouth is very wide and placed terminally (at the front of the snout); a pair of cone-shaped barbels with spoon-like tips are located above.[3][4] There are 9 tooth rows on either side of the upper jaw and 10 tooth rows on either side of the lower jaw, with toothless gaps at the middle of both jaws. Each tooth has a broad base and a single narrow, smooth-edged cusp.[2] Pacific angelsharks are founded in Clover Point, Vancouver Island to southern Baja California and Gulf of California and Peru. Although, there are unverifiable records from southeastern Alaska and Chile. Common from Tomales Bay, northern California southward. Pacific angelsharks grow to be 175 cm (68.9 in) long, and at birth about 25 cm (9.8 in). Depth: surf zone to 205 m (672 ft).
The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and angular with pointed tips. The two dorsal fins are located far back on the body, and there is no anal fin. The lower lobe of the caudal fin is larger than the upper. A row of small thorns runs down the middle of the back and tail; thorns are also present on the snout and over the eyes.[4] As the shark ages, the thorns decrease in size and may disappear. The dorsal coloration is gray, brown, or reddish brown with scattered dark markings: large blotches surrounded by a ring of tiny spots in adults, and pairs of ocelli in juveniles. The underside is white, extending to the margins of the pectoral and pelvic fins.[9] This species measures up to 1.5 m (59 in) long and weighs up to 27 kg (60 lb).[2]
During the day, Pacific angelsharks are almost never seen in the open, instead resting motionless on the sea floor buried under a thin layer of sediment that disguises their outlines. At night some individuals remain motionless, waiting for prey, while others may be encountered on the bottom unburied or actively swimming.[10] Large sharks, including the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and the broadnose sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus), and the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) are known to consume Pacific angelsharks.[3][11] Known parasites of this species include the copepod Trebius latifurcatus, which infests the skin, the myxosporidian Chloromyxum levigatum, which infests the gall bladder, and the tapeworm Paraberrapex manifestus, which infests the spiral valve intestine.[12][13][14] The leech Branchellion lobata may be attached around this shark's cloaca, inside the intestine, and even inside the uterus and on developing embryos.[15]
A sedentary ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark feeds mainly on bony fishes, including kelp bass, croakers, flatfishes, damselfishes, mackerels, and sardines. During the winter and early spring, spawning squid are abundant and become the primary source of food.[3] In the southern Gulf of California, the most important prey species are, in descending order, the mackerel Decapterus macrosoma, the toadfish Porichthys analis, the lizardfish Synodus evermann, the soldierfish Myripristis leiognathus, and the shrimp Sicyonia penicillata.[16] At Catalina Island, this species feeds mainly on the blacksmith (Chromis punctipinnis) and the queenfish (Seriphus politus).[10] Adults and juveniles have similar diets.[16]
Individual sharks choose sites giving them the best ambush success. They prefer junctions of sandy and rocky substrates near reefs (used by many fishes for shelter) usually orienting themselves either toward or parallel to nearby vertical structures. They tend to face upslope, which may facilitate burying via falling sediment, bring more fish swimming downstream from the reef, or ease targeting by silhouetting prey against the sunlight.[10]
Once settled at a successful site, an angelshark may remain there for ten days, re-burying itself on or near the same spot after every strike. As the local prey eventually learn to avoid the stationary predator, the shark periodically shifts at night to a new site several kilometers away. One study off Santa Catalina Island found that over 13–25 hours, nine sharks together used only 1.5 km2 (0.6 mi2). A later, longer-term study found that the sharks' sporadic position changes covered as much as 75 km (47 mi) over three months, almost circling the island. Single individuals swam up to 7.3 km (4.5 mi) in a night.[10][17]
The Pacific angelshark is primarily a visual hunter; experiments in nature show that they strike at fish-shaped targets without any electrical, chemical, vibrational, or behavioral cues. At night, they are guided by the bioluminescence of planktonic dinoflagellates and ostracods disturbed by moving prey.[17] This species' visual system is attuned to the wavelengths of light emitted by these planktonic organisms, showing the importance of night hunting. Pacific angelsharks are more likely to strike at prey approaching from the front.[10] It usually waits until the prey approaches to 15 cm (5.9 in), as its attack is less accurate beyond this distance.[3] The strike is a stereotyped behavior in which the shark presses the forward lobes of its pectoral fins against the bottom and thrusts its head upwards at up to a 90° angle. Its mouth forms a tube when opened, creating a suction force, while its jaws protrude forward to secure the prey between sharp teeth. During the strike, the eyes roll backward into the head for protection. The strike is often completed in under a tenth of a second.[10]
The Pacific angelshark is aplacental viviparous with the unborn young nourished by a yolk sac; reproduction occurs on an annual cycle. Most females have a single functional ovary (on the left side), though some have two; the oviducts are often filled with yolk, which is speculated to be from the resorption of unfertilized eggs. At 35 mm (1.4 in) long, the young embryos have translucent skin, protruding eyes, and exposed gill filaments. Spots of pigment have developed when the embryo is 70 mm (2.8 in) long, and the first row of teeth has appeared when the embryo is 110 mm (4.3 in) long. By the time the embryo is 150 mm (5.9 in) long, the mouth has migrated to a terminal position and the color pattern has fully developed; the external yolk sac begins to shrink as the yolk is transferred to an internal yolk sac, where it is held until it can be transferred to the intestine for digestion. The internal yolk sac is fully resorbed before birth; if the pup is released prematurely, it does not feed until this process is complete.[18]
Off Santa Barbara, birthing takes place from March to June after a gestation period of ten months, and the females mate again shortly afterward. The average litter size is six, with a range of 1–11 (rarely 13); there is no correlation between female size and number of offspring.[18] The young are born in water 55–90 m (180–295 ft) deep, probably to protect them from predators.[17] Pacific angelshark embryos grow at 45 mm (1.8 in) per month when young, slowing down to 10 mm (0.39 in) per month just before birth, and are born at a length of 25–26 cm (9.8–10.2 in). Newborn pups in captivity grow at a rate of around 14 cm (5.5 in) per year, while adults in the wild grow at around 2 cm (0.79 in) per year. Both sexes mature at 90–100 cm (3.0–3.3 ft) long, corresponding to an age of 8–13 years.[18][19] Gulf of California sharks, which may be another species, mature at 78 cm (2.56 ft) long for males and 85 cm (2.79 ft) long for females.[3] About 20% of newborns survive to maturity.[20] The maximum lifespan has been estimated at 25–35 years.[19] Unlike other sharks, the growth rings on the vertebrae of this species are deposited in proportion to the shark's size rather than yearly, making age determination difficult.[17]
Although usually sedate and approachable underwater, Pacific angelsharks are quick to bite if touched, captured, or otherwise provoked, and can inflict severe lacerations.[3] Commercial fisheries for this species exist off Baja California and to a lesser extent off California (see below); the meat is considered excellent and is sold fresh or frozen. This species is captured in limited numbers by recreational fishers using hook-and-line, spears, or even by hand, particularly off southern California. It is also taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls operating in the Gulf of California, and processed into fishmeal.[4] The capacity of this species to withstand a focused fishing effort is limited, due to its low rates of reproduction and movement.[20]
In 1976, the commercial gillnet fishery for the California halibut (Paralichthys californicus), operating off Santa Barbara, expanded to include the Pacific angelshark as well. The sharks had become valuable due to their promotion as a substitute for the seasonally available common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus), and the development of new processing techniques. Around 50% of the shark was used, while the skin, cartilage, and offal were discarded. In the 1980s, rising demand led to the introduction of gillnets with a medium-sized mesh, designed specifically for this species. Fishery landings increased from a dressed (post-processing) weight of 148 kg (326 lb) in 1977, to 117,000 kg (258,000 lb) in 1983, to 277,000 kg (611,000 lb) in 1984. The fishery peaked in 1985 and 1986, when 550,000 kg (1.2 million lbs) were taken annually, making this species the number one shark fished off California. This level of exploitation was unsustainable, and despite a minimum size limit imposed in 1986, catches fell to 112,000 kg (247,000 lb) in 1990.[20][21]
In 1991, the use of gillnets in nearshore Californian waters was banned by a voter initiative (Proposition 132); the restricted area included much of the Pacific angelshark's habitat and reduced fishing pressure on the species. As a result, Pacific angelshark landings dropped further to 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) dressed in 1994, when the central Californian halibut/angel shark fishery was closed completely, and have remained low since. The decline of the Californian fishery led to the industry shifting to Mexico, where gillnet pangas (artisanal fishing vessels) targeting this species now meet most of the angel shark demand in California.[20][21] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened; Pacific angelshark numbers off California appear to be increasing and demographic modeling suggests the stock is healthy.[19] However, the impact of the intense, unregulated Mexican fishery on the global population is yet undetermined. There is continuing interest in California for a resumption of the commercial fishery, though conservation concerns have thus far taken precedence.[20]
The Pacific angelshark (Squatina californica) is a species of angelshark, family Squatinidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to the Gulf of California, and from Ecuador to Chile, although those in the Gulf of California and southeastern Pacific may in fact be separate species. The Pacific angelshark inhabits shallow, coastal waters on sandy flats, usually near rocky reefs, kelp forests, or other underwater features. This species resembles other angel sharks in appearance, with a flattened body and greatly enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins. Characteristic features of this shark include a pair of cone-shaped barbels on its snout, angular pectoral fins, and a brown or gray dorsal coloration with many small dark markings. It attains a maximum length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft).
An ambush predator, the Pacific angelshark conceals itself on the sea floor and waits for approaching prey, primarily bony fishes and squid. Prey are targeted visually and, with a quick upward thrust of the head, snatched in protrusible jaws. Individual sharks actively choose ideal ambush sites, where they stay for several days before moving on to a new one. This species is more active at night than during the day, when it stays buried in sediment and seldom moves. Reproduction is ovoviviparous, with the embryos hatching inside the mother's uterus and being sustained by a yolk sac until birth. Females give birth to an average of six young every spring.
Pacific angelsharks are not dangerous to humans unless provoked, in which case their bite can cause a painful injury. They are valued for their meat and are captured by commercial and recreational fishers across their range. A targeted gillnet fishery for this species began off Santa Barbara, California in 1976 and ended in 1994, after overfishing and new regulations led to its near-collapse. This species is now mainly fished in Mexican waters. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened, as the Californian population is largely protected and recovering, while the impact of Mexican fisheries is unknown.
