Control
2 hours of heat
Mean Canopy Cover ±
1 s x, by year
Fire adaptations: Despite immediate adverse effects of fire on soapweed yucca [64], populations recover from fire [60,160]. Extensive rhizomatous mats 4 to 24 inches (10-60 cm) below the soil surface [160] are likely protected from fire damage. Vegetative reproduction (sprouting from the caudex and rhizomes) can be stimulated when soapweed yucca is top-killed [93]. Documented sprouting from the caudex after cutting [160] suggests that soapweed yucca can sprout following top-kill by low- to moderate-severity fire.
Recently disturbed sites provide an opportunity for soapweed to germinate; however, germination rates of soapweed yucca seed decreased after being exposed to high temperatures (180-250 ºF (80-120 ºC)) in a laboratory setting [73]. This suggests that on-site seeds require burial in the seed bank in order to germinate following fire. Wind and gravity dispersal [11] of off-site seed sources is also possible after fire. Further research is needed to explore fire adaptations of soapweed yucca.
FIRE REGIMES: Soapweed yucca is primarily associated with grassland environments. Historical fire return intervals within these vegetation types were probably dependant upon drought cycles, the prevalence of lightning strikes, and anthropogenic uses. Soapweed yucca is primarily found throughout ecosystems characterized by fire return intervals of less than 35 years [109]. Where fire has been excluded from sagebrush communities and desert grasslands, invasion of nonnative annual grasses such as red brome (Bromus madritensis ssp. rubens), lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.), and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) has often occurred, enhancing the potential for fires to start and spread, and increasing fire frequency [14,28,164,169]. Fire return intervals have also been reduced as a result of overgrazing which can lead to dense overstories forming closed canopies that carry fire more efficiently. Exotic annual grasses are likely to invade these sites if a seed source is available [112].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where soapweed yucca is important. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 78,109] Nebraska sandhills prairie Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium <10 bluestem-Sacahuista prairie Andropogon littoralis-Spartina spartinae 109] silver sagebrush steppe Artemisia cana 5-45 [63,118,167] sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [109] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [127] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [8,26,101] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (µ=40) [156,170] saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus <35 to <100 desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica <35 to <100 [109] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. 109,167] blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii 109,126,167] blue grama-buffalo grass Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides 109,167] grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii <35 to <100 blue grama-tobosa prairie Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica <35 to <100 juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana <35 Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei <35 western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum <35 [109] cedar glades Juniperus virginiana 3-22 [59,109] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii <5-47+ [109,118,167] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. <35 [109] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [50,56,72,109] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [7,10,84] galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea <35 to <100 [109] mesquite Prosopis glandulosa <35 to <100 [97,109] mesquite-buffalo grass Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides <35 Texas savanna Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa <10 [109] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (µ=10) [6,7] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. <35 to <200 [109] oak savanna Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [109,157] shinnery Quercus mohriana <35 [109] live oak Quercus virginiana 10 to<100 little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. <35 [109] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species reviewClimate/topography: Soapweed yucca is adapted to a wide range of environments. Average daily and annual variations in temperature can be great, such as in the deserts of New Mexico [33]. Air temperatures can drop to -44 ºF (-42 ºC) during winter months, and escalate to 106 ºF (41 ºC) in the summer. Yearly precipitation averages range from a low of 1.2 to 1.6 inches (300-400 mm) in Wyoming [48] to a high of 24.0 inches (610 mm) in Texas [136]. Humidity levels in Wyoming are at least 25% during July and August [48] while on the east slope of the Colorado Front Range, mean annual relative humidity is 69% [90]. Topography includes hills, plains [61,107], bluffs [69,83], rocky outcrops and ridges [134], and areas of shifting sands [96].
Soils: Soapweed yucca is most commonly found on sandy sites [27,32,65,134] or rocky areas with coarse-textured soils [43,146,161]. In the Great Plains it is associated with limestone soils [71,137] and alluvial terraces [105]. In New Mexico soapweed yucca is found in sandy soils underlain by caliche [33]. Soils in Texas are relatively deep clays or clay loams [98]. On the Colorado Front Range, soil pH is approximately 8.0 to 8.2 [105]. Soapweed yucca does best in well-drained soils with sunny exposures [135].
Elevation: Soapweed yucca tolerates a wide range of elevations:
CO 2,500 to > 8,500 feet (760-2,600 m) [38,92] MT 3,000 to 4,400 feet (900-1,300 m) [25] NM 3,600 to 6,500 feet (1,100-2,000 m) [86,91] UT 4,000 to 7,000 feet (1,200-2,100 m) [144] Great Plains 660 to 7,200 feet (200-2200 m) [73]Soapweed yucca is utilized by a variety of mammals, primarily during drought years when more desirable forage is not available. Livestock and big game browse flower and seedlings when accessible [107,165]. Cattle prefer the fleshy parts of the plant and can decrease soapweed yucca populations if allowed access to a single site for multiple years [143]. Soapweed yucca is considered poor forage for cattle by some [51]. It can be used as a feed supplement during severe drought years and will return after extensive harvest [160]. On the shortgrass ranges of Colorado, cattle feces revealed that soapweed yucca consumption was highest in April and August [133].
Mule deer consume soapweed yucca throughout the year [80] with heaviest use in spring [35]. Rumen samples in prairie habitat indicate consumption in summer, winter, and spring months [42]. In New Mexico, soapweed yucca makes up 0% to 3% of mule deer diets [88], accounting for 0.5% of their overall diet [103]. Bighorn sheep consume soapweed yucca in North Dakota [47] and the Colorado Rockies, where soapweed yucca constitutes an average of 5.3% of their diet [148]. Soapweed yucca is also utilized by mule deer in South Dakota [168], white-tailed deer in Montana [4], pronghorn [117,142], and bison [110].
Soapweed yucca provides food, shade, and nesting sites for birds and small mammals [143]. Seeds are an important food source to small mammals [137], and leaves are consumed during times of drought and snow [122,142]. Black-tailed jackrabbits in Colorado and Kansas and white-tailed jackrabbits in Colorado utilize soapweed yucca as a food source [41]. Soapweed yucca is used by the southern plains woodrat as construction material for houses built to shelter nests and store food [145]. It is found in areas that support cotton rat populations in New Mexico [104].
Palatability/nutritional value: A plant composition analysis was conducted on soapweed yucca in South Dakota. Moisture content throughout the year varied with 4 samples, from 55.7%-64.7%. Carotene had ranges of 18.0-43.5 mg/g, ash ranged from 1.5%-1.9%, crude fat from 0.73%-1.3%, crude protein from 3.6%-4.8%, and crude fiber from 14.6%-16.0% [53]. The average percentage of crude fiber, ash, and protein as measured in leaves from soapweed yucca plants in New Mexico was 42.3%, 4.86%, and 5.57%, respectively [19].
The nutritional value (%) of soapweed yucca in the Black Hills of South Dakota was as follows [53]:
Moisture Carotene Ash Crude fat Crude protein Crude fiber N-free extract Ca P Fe Mn 18 January 60.10 27.60 1.59 1.13 4.78 14.81 17.59 0.33 0.100 40.76 23.20 16 May 55.68 22.10 1.57 1.28 3.79 15.97 21.53 0.43 0.070 67.31 16.54 27 June 64.71 18.04 1.87 0.73 3.93 14.62 14.14 0.31 0.117 32.82 7.84 22 October 61.42 43.48 1.49 1.24 3.56 14.67 17.62 0.28 0.077 47.11 13.34The chemical composition (%) of soapweed yucca from 3 sites in North Dakota was as follows [47]:
January February March April May June July August September October November DecemberPlateau
Ca 0.79 1.33 0.96 1.00 1.14 1.17 0.99 1.10 1.09 1.18 0.66 1.18 Mg 0.43 0.42 0.36 0.52 0.57 0.77 0.62 0.69 0.78 0.53 0.60 0.69 K 0.96 0.56 1.08 0.67 0.65 1.12 1.23 1.22 0.94 0.84 0.74 0.59Flat Top Ridge
Ca 1.56 2.12 1.90 1.18 1.45 1.66 1.11 1.18 1.18 1.39 1.31 1.24 Mg 0.32 0.23 0.33 0.47 0.26 0.38 0.35 0.48 0.43 0.46 0.40 0.67 K 0.39 0.37 0.44 0.55 0.61 1.23 1.63 1.04 0.94 0.77 0.68 0.57Side hill
Ca 1.13 1.20 1.40 1.10 0.87 1.75 0.80 1.25 1.38 0.82 1.05 1.24 Mg 0.23 0.19 0.35 0.42 0.33 0.58 0.51 0.47 0.49 0.77 0.45 0.60 K 0.50 0.48 0.42 0.59 0.80 1.26 0.99 1.04 0.80 0.93 0.60 0.42A study conducted in eastern Colorado to determine the effect of geologic refuges on the occurrence of species found that areas inaccessible to cattle supported 1.96% soapweed yucca cover as opposed to 1.45% in browsed areas. Soapweed yucca was listed as having relatively low palatability with the potential to become more palatable at different times in the season [100].
Cover value: Dittberner and Olson [37] report the cover value of soapweed yucca for wildlife species as follows:
MT ND WY Pronghorn poor fair Elk poor Mule deer poor fair poor White-tailed deer poor Small mammals fair poor Small nongame birds fair poor Upland game birds poor poor Waterfowl poorBirds, small mammals, and reptiles utilize soapweed yucca for shade and nesting sites [137]. Scaled quail in Texas utilize it for night roosting [141] and sharp-tailed grouse broods use it for cover [58]
Throughout its range in Colorado soapweed yucca can often be found
in plains grasslands in association with
blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) [32,96,105,121], needle-and-thread grass (Hesperostipa
comata) [32,105], and in a variety of sagebrush (Artemisia
spp.) communities including Bigelow sagebrush (Artemisia bigelovii) [130] and mountain big sagebrush
(A. tridentata var. vaseyana) [31]. In 1906 it was reported as one
of the most prominent plants in the region east of Pike's Peak and could be found alongside horned
spurge (Euphorbia brachycera),
mountain bladderpod (Lesquerella montana), nylon hedgehog cactus (Echinocereus
viridiflorus), and prairie bluebells (Mertensia lanceolata
var. lanceolata) in what was termed the "Yucca glauca society" [129]. It is often found among sandhill
communities with prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa
longifolia), sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), and sandhill muhly
(Muhlenbergia pungens) [96].
In the central Rocky Mountains of Colorado soapweed yucca is found in
areas dominated by interior ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var.
scopulorum). Other shrubs include fivepetal cliffbush (Jamesia americana),
common juniper (Juniperus communis), bearberry (Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi), wax currant (Ribes cereum), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasiphora
floribunda), and Wood's rose (Rosa woodsii) [120]. Along the Colorado Front Range it is associated with the New
Mexico feathergrass (Hesperostipa neomexicana) community, where it is
present with purple threeawn (Aristida
purpurea), foothill milkvetch (Astragalus
tridactylicus), Front Range twinpod (Physaria bellii), and
shortstem buckwheat (Eriogonum brevicaule) [105]. Soapweed yucca
is also found in tree cholla (Opuntia imbricata) associations with blue
grama, sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), and ring muhly (Muhlenbergia
torreyi) [77], and in Colorado pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus
spp.) dominated systems [31].
Throughout Kansas soapweed yucca can be found with prairie graminoids such as
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), blue grama, and
needle-and-thread grass. Shrub associates include sand sagebrush and
fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) [83]. Soapweed yucca is found with velvetweed (Gaura mollis),
nineanther prairie clover (Dalea
enneandra), and hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta) in
shortgrass prairie habitats [2] and with little bluestem, big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var.
gerardii), purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea), azure blue sage
(Salvia azurea), and western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya) in
tallgrass prairie habitats [114].
Soapweed yucca is associated with open, dry habitat types in Montana.
It occurs in interior ponderosa pine and limber pine (Pinus flexilis)
stands with blue grama, sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and plains
prickly-pear (Opuntia polyacantha) [5], and can be found with
skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata) and creeping juniper (Juniperus
horizontalis) in the interior ponderosa pine/bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria
spicata) vegetation type [45].
In the badlands of southeastern Montana, soapweed yucca is found with greatest
frequency in the
mountain big sagebrush-western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) community type and greatest
abundance in the skunkbush sumac-western wheatgrass community type [25].
Soapweed yucca is found throughout most of Nebraska and is important for the
ground coverage it provides in the Nebraska sandhill range [51].
It is commonly associated with sandy substrates, occurring on blowouts with sand
bluestem (Andropogon gerardii var.
paucipilus) and little bluestem [116], and on dune ridges and upper slopes with
stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus),
leadplant (Amorpha canescens), prairie rose (Rosa arkansana) [13],
western sandcherry (Prunus pumila var. besseyi), and manystem pea (Lathyrus
polymorphus) [12]. Soapweed yucca is found with western
snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) and skunkbush sumac [149] on scattered
and open woodlands and with blue grama, threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia),
and western wheatgrass in mixed-prairie habitat types [163].
In the high plains of Nebraska, soapweed yucca was found on 8 out of 9
surveyed plots. Relative abundance of soapweed yucca was highest on isolated canyon slopes, where
it could be found with Rocky Mountain
juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), eastern redcedar (Juniperus
virginiana), and little bluestem. Soapweed yucca was also found on sand talus with big
bluestem, little bluestem, needle-and-thread grass, and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) [71].
In the middle Rio Grande valley of New Mexico, soapweed yucca occurs
with soaptree yucca, tree cholla,
and broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae). Grasses in these desert
grassland plant communities include black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda), big galleta (Pleuraphis
rigida), burrograss (Scleropogon brevifolius),
and threeawns (Aristida spp.) [86].
In the shrub-grassland areas, soapweed yucca occurs with velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina),
broom snakeweed, and sand shinnery oak (Quercus
havardii). In the desert grasslands of northeastern New Mexico it is found primarily with blue grama,
sideoats grama, and galleta
(Pleuraphis jamesii) [44].
Soapweed yucca in the Dakotas can be found at the easternmost edge of
interior ponderosa pine habitat with skunkbush sumac,
western poison-ivy (Toxicodendron rydbergii), and chokecherry (Prunus
virginiana) [66]. It occurs with prairie sandreed
on less than 3 acres (1 ha) in Badlands National Park [36], and
is associated with the sand bluestem-prairie sandreed habitat type in southwestern North Dakota
[65]
Throughout its distribution in Texas, soapweed yucca is broadly associated with sand
sagebrush and prickly-pear (Opuntia spp.) [9,154,155] and can also be found with
redberry juniper (Juniperus
erythrocarpa), Ashe juniper (J. ashei), sideoats grama, hairy
grama, and blue grama [136]. It occurs with honey
mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa), catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii), wait-a-minute (Mimosa
aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera), and lotebush (Ziziphus obtusifolia)
[98], and can reach densities exceeding 2,000 plants per
acre on the panhandle of northern Texas [93].
Its occurrence in western Texas is not significantly (P<0.05) affected by the
occurrence of Pinchot juniper (Juniperus
pinchotii) [99].
In western Missouri soapweed yucca is found in prairie habitats with
hairy grama, blue grama, large beardtongue (Penstemon grandiflorus), and downy
paintbrush (Castilleja sessiliflora) [147]. In western
Iowa it occurs with little bluestem, big bluestem, and purple coneflower
(Echinacea angustifolia) [128].
Soapweed yucca can be found on east-facing slopes of the Big Horn mountains
of Wyoming with little bluestem and bluebunch wheatgrass [34]. It
can be found in the Powder River Basin with Wyoming big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis), western
wheatgrass, blue grama, and birdfoot sagebrush (Artemisia
pedatifida) [48]. Soapweed yucca is often found
with blue grama and sagebrush, with highest coverage and
constancy percentages in shrub-steppe vegetation types [146]. At the Great
Sand Dunes National Monument, it was found on 21% of research plots located on
active and stabilized dunes [94].
Soapweed yucca is found with Rocky Mountain juniper and Colorado pinyon in juniper-pinyon woodlands
that occur throughout the Great Basin. Other associates include
Stansbury cliffrose (Purshia mexicana var. stansburiana),
Apache-plume (Fallugia paradoxa), green ephedra (Ephedra viridis),
Fremont's mahonia (Mahonia fremontii), fourwing saltbush, and
banana yucca (Yucca baccata) [23]. In the Great Basin grasslands soapweed
yucca is found with sacahuista (Nolina microcarpa), skunkbush sumac,
wait-a-minute, and fourwing saltbush [123].
The response of soapweed yucca to browsing is variable. Reports have been made
of its increases [27,81,143] and decreases [21,71,85] following grazing
practices. The amount of soapweed yucca consumed by cows in eastern Montana was
influenced by pregnancy [113].
Eradication of soapweed yucca from rangelands
in favor of more palatable species has been achieved through various methods.
One study found repeated aerial applications of the herbicide silvex controlled
soapweed yucca [20], while another achieved control through the burning or
cutting of plant tops in combination with the use of tebuthiuron, picloram, and
2,4,5-T [93] (2,4,5-T is now banned by the E.P.A. [152]). Grazing forage was increased by 37% and
soil water content significantly reduced (P=0.05) on a site where chemical
control of soapweed yucca was achieved [136].
Soapweed yucca populations increased significantly (P<0.05) after
aboveground portions were crushed by off-road vehicles, and the plants
sprouted from belowground portions [131]. Fluoride and sulfur from
coal-fired plant emissions could have adverse effects on soapweed yucca, but
damage to plants would likely not be detected prior to overstory effects such as
reduced needle length and tissue necrosis [55].
Wright and Bailey [167] report that Yucca spp. are weak sprouters after fire, but are able to hold their position in plant communities due to sprouting ability. As a result of burning with a propane plant burner, soapweed yucca suffered an 85% reduction in total biomass and sent out an average of 1.5 new shoots per plant at postfire month 18 [93]. Observations suggest that when damage from a burn is too great or rodent populations too high, soapweed yucca is not able to recover [160]. Populations in the Nebraska sandhills prairie declined as a result of wildfires in late spring [21].
Soapweed yucca seeds gathered from the Texas-Oklahoma border were exposed to heat treatments in a laboratory setting. Results indicate that soapweed yucca seeds are susceptible to heat and may not provide a viable regeneration source if exposed to temperatures over 250 ºF (120 ºC) [73].
Soapweed yucca reproduces by seed [142] and rhizomes [165]. The rates at which soapweed yucca can reproduce through rhizomes is likely dependant upon mechanisms such as rates of branching, rhizome length, and the number of rhizomes. Soapweed yucca rhizomes form from the seedling rhizome in a rebranching pattern, spreading horizontally. After 4 to 6 years, buds grow above the rhizomes and produce leaves after reaching the soil surface. Connections with the mother plant eventually become dormant and decay [160]. In a study conducted on cloned soapweed yucca plants, total number of flowering days was not an indication of reproductive success and was less important than the time at which flowering occurs. It was also beneficial for the plant to have branched flower stalks for reproductive success [106].
Pollination: Pollination of soapweed yucca is dependent upon the yucca moth (Pronuba yuccasella) [165] or other pollinating insects such as small flies (Pseudocalliope spp.) [38]. The yucca moth transfers pollen from the anther, depositing it deep into the style and leading to the production of many seeds, some of which are fed upon by the larvae [38]. The number of yucca moths available for pollination is related to the abundance of open flowers [106].
Soapweed yucca benefits from wood ants (Formica spp.). They are natural predators of the nonpollinating yucca moth (Tegeticula corruptrix), which feeds on soapweed yucca seeds while in the larval stage [111].
Breeding system: Moth pollination [165] assures that soapweed yucca is mostly outcrossing. Anthers are remote from the cavity encapsulated stigma and sticky pollen [11], assuring that autogamous pollination of soapweed yucca is rare. Pollen is viable for a minimum of 4 days, as are the flowers. Autogamous pollination occurs as the flower begins to wilt and stamens come into direct contact with the stigma [38].
Seed production: The number of viable soapweed yucca seeds is dependant upon the transfer of high quality pollen, sufficient resources for development, and ovules that are not damaged by the insertion of the yucca moth's ovipositor during the transfer of pollen [1]. It can take several years for rosettes to bloom [79]. Despite the high number of seeds consumed by moth larvae, large numbers are left unharmed for dispersal [11].
In a study to determine the relationship between soapweed yucca and the yucca moth, 124 plants with a mean of 291 ovules per plant had 138 viable seeds after consumption by adult and larval yucca moths. The maximum number of larvae per fruit was 19 [1]. In Colorado, the number of surviving seeds increased with elevation despite fewer fruits. This was likely due to decreased predation by the yucca moth, which prefers the warmer temperatures of the Great Plains over those experienced at higher elevations [38].
Seed dispersal: Seed pods become erect and split longitudinally, exposing seeds to dispersal by wind and gravity [11].
Seed banking: Laboratory studies exploring germination rates of soapweed yucca suggest that seed banking is likely [38,149,160]. Further research is needed to determine longevity and viability of soapweed yucca seeds in a field setting.
Germination: Soapweed yucca experiences higher rates of germination when stratified. In a laboratory setting soapweed yucca successfully germinated under a variety of stratification treatments. Following 1 to 3 months of stratification, germination occurred after exposing seed to a constant 70 ºF (20 ºC) or alternating temperatures between 70 ºF (20 ºC) and 40 ºF (5 ºC). Germination also occurred after seed was stored at 40 ºF (4 ºC) and then exposed to 70 ºF (20 ºC) temperatures. A maximum of 27% of seeds germinated after being exposed to 90 ºF (30 ºC) or by alternating 90 ºF (30 ºC) and 70 ºF (20 ºC). Sixty-seven percent germination was achieved at 50 ºF (10 ºC) with 3 months stratification. The highest germination rates (91%) were experienced when 4-month-old seed was dry stored at 70 ºF (20 ºC) and then wet treated for 3 months at 70 ºF (20 ºC). Six days were required for 50% germination. See Emerson [43] for further seed germination information.
A study on the germination of Nebraska sandhill plants revealed 67.1% germination rates for soapweed yucca seed that had been dry stored, 44% germination for seeds vernalized for 1 month, and 86.6% germination for seeds vernalized for 2 months. Seed vernalized for 3 months sprouted while in storage under winter temperatures [149]. Soapweed yucca germinated in 4 days after being soaked in water for 24 hours and kept at temperatures between 80 ºF and 90 ºF (28 ºC and 32 ºC) in moist cotton [160]. Seeds from low-elevation soapweed yucca plants are thought to have stronger tendencies towards dormancy than those found at high elevations [38].
Seedling establishment/growth: Reproduction of soapweed yucca by seed is limited to the percentage of viable seeds remaining after seed predation by larvae. Soapweed yucca had the highest number of seedlings of 19 observed yucca species over a 4-year period, with 72 seedlings observed [160]. Soapweed yucca seedlings have reduced growth rates compared to ramets. Seedlings are important for colonizing new sites, after which clones take over as primary reproducers. As the carrying capacity is reached, seed production increases in order that new populations may emerge outside the range of vegetative reproduction. The ratio of seedlings produced vegetatively versus those produced by seed varies across populations [76].
Asexual regeneration: Soapweed yucca reproduces vegetatively through sprouting from the caudex and from horizontal rhizomes [38,160], which yield rosette-baring offshoots [11]. Projecting from the upper portion of one or two large diameter rhizomes are horizontal branches forming a netlike pattern from which sprouts emerge. Depriving the plant of shoots through fire or mechanical means results in regeneration rates that equal or exceed previous regeneration rates within a year or 2. In a study to confirm successful vegetative propagation, sprouts were separated from the mother plant by removing 2- to 4-inch (5-10 cm) sections of rhizome while in the field. Normal growth of the sprouts continued during the following year [160]. Vegetative reproduction can be stimulated after top-kill of soapweed yucca [93].
Soapweed yucca occurs in all stages of succession [76,125]. In a blowout that occurred in eastern Colorado, vegetational succession data revealed that soapweed yucca returns during stage 4 of a 6-stage process. Sandhill muhly was the primary species to return before soapweed yucca. Once it became established, soapweed yucca persisted on the site [96].
Soapweed yucca can be found on undisturbed sites [32] and sites affected by land management activities [160] such as plowing [96]. It is a late-seral species on sandy range sites and in grassland associations (50% cover) in Montana [125]. In southeastern Montana, soapweed yucca is considered an understory species in the interior ponderosa pine/skunkbush sumac vegetation type [55], indicating possible shade tolerance. It also occurs on open sites [135].
The currently accepted scientific name for soapweed yucca is Yucca glauca
Nutt. (Agavaceae) [39,40,49,57,70,91,137,161]. Varieties accepted by some authorities
include:
Y. g. var. glauca, narrowleaf yucca
Y. g. var.gurneyi McKelvey [70], Gurney's yucca
Throughout this review, soapweed yucca refers to all varieties of Y. glauca.
A distinction between the varieties will only be made in the Distribution and
occurrence section. The Flora of North America [49] does not recognize soapweed
yucca varieties.
Hybrids: Soapweed yucca hybridizes with soaptree yucca (Y. elata)
in eastern Colorado, central New Mexico, and Arizona [160,161]. Soapweed yucca
is also believed to hybridize with Buckley's yucca (Y. constricta),
Navajo yucca (Y. baileyi), and narrowleaf yucca (Y. angustissima) [160].
The use of soapweed yucca for disturbed site rehabilitation has yielded varying results. Soapweed yucca is considered a "common plant" by the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service and can be purchased from suppliers for conservation purposes [150]. It responds favorably to propagation, experiencing shoot proliferation and rooting from explants of the shoot tip, flower bud, and rhizome [16]. Instructions on producing soapweed yucca as container seedlings can be found in [82].
Soapweed yucca seeds obtained from mid-October through early spring were used for reclamation in southeastern Montana. Seeds were harvested from dehiscent capsules while they were still intact or after being dried. Best results were obtained from seed stored at 40 ºF (4 ºC) over winter and planted in spring and seed planted immediately after being collected in the fall [43]. On previously mined land in southeastern Montana, reseeding occurred with either 4-species or 16-species mixtures to determine rates of perennial plant regeneration under various treatments. Soapweed yucca returned to plots seeded with the 4-species mixture at a density of 0.3 plant/m² 5 years after seeding, and did not return on plots seeded with the 16-species mixture. For additional information on methods utilized in this project see [67].
Of 28 soapweed yucca plants planted in 1988 on a prairie reconstruction site in Kansas, 79% survived the 1st year and 64% survived the 2nd year. None of the plants flowered within that 2-year period. Of 19 plants planted in 1985, 100% survived the 1st year. No record was made beyond 1986 [115].
Viable soapweed yucca seeds are black. Seeds with a white seed coat lack an endosperm and are not viable [1].
Yucca glauca (syn. Yucca angustifolia) is a species of perennial evergreen plant, adapted to xeric (dry) growth conditions. It is also known as small soapweed,[3] soapweed yucca, Spanish bayonet,[4] and Great Plains yucca.
Yucca glauca forms colonies of rosettes. Leaves are long and narrow, up to 60 cm long but rarely more than 12 mm across. Inflorescence is up to 100 cm tall, sometimes branched sometimes not. Flowers are pendent (drooping, hanging downward), white to very pale green. Fruit is a dry capsule with shiny black seeds.[5][6]
Yucca glauca is native to central North America: occurring from the Canadian Prairies of Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada; south through the Great Plains to Texas and New Mexico in the United States.[7][8]
The "honey ant" (Myrmecocystus mexicanus), among other species, has been observed collecting nectar from Y. glauca.[9]
Soapweed yucca was a traditional Native American medical plant, used by the Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Lakota, and other tribes.[3]
Among the Zuni people, the seed pods are boiled and used for food.[10] Leaves are made into brushes and used for decorating pottery, ceremonial masks, altars and other objects.[11] Leaves are also soaked in water to soften them and made into rope by knotting them together.[12] Dried leaves are split, plaited and made into water-carrying head pads.[13] Leaves are also used for making mats, cincture pads and other articles.[12] The peeled roots are pounded, made into suds and used for washing the head, wool garments and blankets.[14]
The young flower stalks and unripe fruits can be cooked and eaten.[15]
Yucca glauca flowers
Inflorescence
Yucca glauca (syn. Yucca angustifolia) is a species of perennial evergreen plant, adapted to xeric (dry) growth conditions. It is also known as small soapweed, soapweed yucca, Spanish bayonet, and Great Plains yucca.
Yucca glauca forms colonies of rosettes. Leaves are long and narrow, up to 60 cm long but rarely more than 12 mm across. Inflorescence is up to 100 cm tall, sometimes branched sometimes not. Flowers are pendent (drooping, hanging downward), white to very pale green. Fruit is a dry capsule with shiny black seeds.
