Comments
provided by eFloras
Originally most races of Pinus taeda were in the lowlands. Following disturbance of the natural vegetation after settlement by Europeans, the species spread to fine-textured, fallow, upland soils, where it now occurs intermixed with P . echinata and P . virginiana . In the Southeast P . taeda is commonly used in plantation forestry, along with P . elliottii and P . echinata . Pinus taeda frequently forms hybrids with P . echinata and P . palustris ( P . ´ sondereggeri H.H. Chapman). Commercially, it is a valuable pulpwood and timber species.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
provided by eFloras
Trees to 45 m tall; trunk to 1.6 m d.b.h. in native range; bark red-brown, forming square or irregularly oblong, scaly plates; crown broadly conical or rounded; branchlets orangish or yellow-brown, aging darker brown, ca. 1 cm in diam., rough; winter buds pale red-brown, conical-cylindric, slightly resinous, scales white fringed at margin. Needles ascending or spreading, dark yellow-green, slightly twisted, (10-)12-18(-23) cm × 1-2 mm, pliant, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, base with persistent sheath 1-2.5 cm, margin finely serrulate. Seed cones nearly terminal, solitary or in small clusters, sessile or subsessile, mostly dull yellow-brown, narrowly ovoid when open, 6-12 cm, maturing in 2 years, then soon shedding seeds. Seed scales without dark border adaxially distally; apophyses dull, rhombic, slightly thickened, variously raised but more so toward base of cone, strongly cross keeled; umbo strongly pyramidal, recurved, tapering to a stoutly based, sharp prickle. Seeds red-brown, obdeltoid, 5-6 mm; wing to 2 cm.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
provided by eFloras
Trees to 46m; trunk to 1.6m diam., usually straight, without adventitious shoots; crown broadly conic to rounded. Bark red-brown, forming square or irregularly rectangular, scaly plates, resin pockets absent. Branches spreading-ascending; twigs moderately slender (to ca. 1cm thick), orangish to yellow-brown, aging darker brown, rough. Buds lance-cylindric, pale red-brown, 1--1.2(--2)cm, mostly less than 1cm broad, slightly resinous; scale margins white-fringed, apex acuminate. Leaves 2--3 per fascicle, ascending to spreading, persisting 3 years, (10--)12--18(--23)cm ´ 1--2mm, straight, slightly twisted, pliant, deep yellow-green, all surfaces with narrow stomatal lines, margins finely serrulate, apex acute to abruptly conic-subulate; sheath 1--2.5cm, base persistent. Pollen cones cylindric, 20--40mm, yellow to yellow-brown. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, shedding seeds soon thereafter, not persistent, solitary or in small clusters, nearly terminal, symmetric, lanceoloid before opening, narrowly ovoid when open, 6--12cm, mostly dull yellow-brown, sessile to nearly sessile, scales without dark border on adaxial surface distally; apophyses dull, slightly thickened, variously raised (more so toward cone base), rhombic, strongly transversely keeled; umbo central, recurved, stoutly pyramidal, tapering to stout-based, sharp prickle. Seeds obdeltoid; body 5--6mm, red-brown; wing to 20mm. 2 n =24.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
provided by eFloras
Cultivated. Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong (Guangzhou Shi), Guangxi, Henan, Hubei (Wuhan Shi), Hunan, Jiangsu (Nanjing Shi), Jiangxi (Lu Shan), Taiwan, Zhejiang [native to SE United States]
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
provided by eFloras
Mesic lowlands and swamp borders to dry uplands; 0--700m; Ala., Ark., Del., Fla, Ga., Ky., La., Md., Miss., N.J., N.C., Okla., S.C., Tenn., Tex., Va.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Broad-scale Impacts of Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
litterA low-severity, slow-moving fire in thick litter can cause severe basal
scorch. Such a fire in east Texas burned deep depressions in the bark
of merchantable-sized loblolly pine. Ten percent of the stand died
directly from the fire or from insect infestation of fire wounds [
24].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
prescribed fireContrary to other findings, growth after a prescribed fire in Louisiana
was greater in trees with one-third or less crown scorch than in trees
with no crown scorch [
54]. In effect, the fire pruned the lower
branches, which have low photosynthetic efficiency.
Loblolly pine growth may be more sensitive to the amount of soil
moisture available early in the growing season than it is to fire damage
[
41].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Common Names
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
loblolly pine
old field pine
North Carolina pine
Arkansas pine
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Description
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeLoblolly pine is a medium- to large-sized native, evergreen conifer with
platy bark and a long, straight, cylindrical bole. Cones have short,
stout, triangular spines. Loblolly pine grows rapidly, and is 90 to 110
feet (27-34 m) tall and 24 to 30 inches (61-76 cm) in diameter at
maturity. Loblolly pine is a medium-lived tree [
3]. It grows a 4 to 5
foot (1.2-1.5 m) taproot in deep, sandy or loamy soil, but the taproot
is much shorter and stouter in clayey soil. In large trees, the lateral
root spread is often greater than the crown spread [
59].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Distribution
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Loblolly pine is widely distributed in the southeastern United States
from southern New Jersey to central Florida and west through the Gulf
States to eastern Texas. It also occurs in southeastern Oklahoma,
central Arkansas, and southern Tennessee. It is found in the Piedmont
Plateau, the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the southern extent of the
Cumberland Plateau, and the Valley-and-Ridge Province of the Appalachian
Highlands [
3,
40].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Ecology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
fire regime,
low-severity fire,
treeLoblolly pine is considered fire resistant [
9,
56]. Mature loblolly pine
survives low- to moderate-severity fires because of relatively thick bark
and tall crowns. Loblolly pine's fire resistance increases with bark
thickness and tree diameter. Young pines become resistant to
low-severity fire by age 10 [
59]. Needles are low in resin and not
highly flammable [
36]. Loblolly pine can endure some fire defoliation
[
9]. It is not as fire resistant as longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) or
slash pine (P. elliottii) [
28]. Abundant regeneration occurs on soil
exposed by fire [
7]. Once loblolly pine is big enough to resist fire
damage, frequent summer fire will create and maintain a pine-grassland
community [
63].
FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Management Considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
backfire,
basal area,
competition,
fire management,
flame length,
forest,
fuel,
hardwood,
litter,
prescribed fire,
series,
successionPrescribed fire is used in loblolly pine stands for seedbed preparation,
hardwood control, fuel reduction, and thinning. Unless thinning of
seedlings is desired, stands should not be burned before they are large
enough to withstand injury. To avoid crown scorch, loblolly pine should
be 10 to 15 years old, 15 to 20 feet (4.6-6.1 m) tall, and have a bark
thickness of 0.3 to 0.4 inch (0.8-1.0 cm) before being burned for the
first time [
2,
7,
41,
37,
59,
65]. To avoid mortality but not crown scorch,
trees smaller than 8 feet (2.4 m) tall or less than 2 inches (5 cm) in
diameter at groundline should not be burned [
11]. The first fire is
difficult because of excess fuel build-up and danger to young pines. A
backfire should be used in cool weather and high moisture conditions.
Hardwood control: Hardwoods smaller than 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter
can usually be controlled by frequent fire [
62]. Hardwood recovery
takes 5 to 10 years, depending on the site quality. Using prescribed
fire every 5 years or when 25 percent of the largest hardwood stems are
approaching 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter is recommended [
41,
42].
A single winter fire is effective at controlling 1-inch-diameter (2.5
cm) hardwoods [
41]; periodic winter fires can control hardwoods up to 2
inches (5 cm) in diameter; and a summer fire can control hardwoods up to
4 inches (10 cm) in diameter [
59]. Although prescribed burns are
usually conducted during winter to avoid injury to loblolly pine, summer
burning is a more effective control of hardwood competition [
23].
Twenty years of annual summer burning completely eradicated hardwoods
from a loblolly pine forest in South Carolina [
62,
63]. However, a
series of annual winter fires will not eradicate hardwoods because root
stocks are not killed. Three annual summer fires at mid-rotation,
followed by periodic winter fires may be an effective means of hardwood
control [
42]. Infrequent low-severity surface fires may speed up
succession to hardwoods by increasing the number of hardwood sprouts
[
14].
Seedbed preparation: A low-severity summer prescribed fire,
approximately 1 month before seedfall, is the most effective seedbed
preparation [
19,
41,
42,
57]. If only a winter fire is used, hardwoods
have an entire growing season before loblolly pine seedfall [
41,
57]. A
winter fire 1 to 2 years prior to a summer fire is suggested to reduce
fuel buildup. A winter fire, followed by three annual summer fires just
before harvest, was very effective [
52]. Brown and burn treatments have
also proven effective [
6].
Thinning: Prescribed burning has been used successfully to thin young
loblolly pine stands. However, the forest manager risks damaging the
entire stand and reducing the growth rate. A prescribed fire in South
Carolina resulted in a 58 percent reduction in stems per acre and near 0
percent mortality in 1 inch (2.5 cm) diameter and larger saplings [
61].
Thinning with fire should only be done in stands with a wide range of
diameters [
45].
Disease and insects: In the Coastal Plain, prescribed burning before
and after thinning reduced infection by root rot (Heterobasidion
annosum). The fire destroyed litter which is associated with sporophore
development of H. annosum. A fungal competitor (Trichloderma spp.)
increased in the soil after burning and may have contributed to the
reduced infection [
25].
Fire wounds 4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm) wide and larger can result in cull
from fungi, insect action, or high amounts of resin [
26]. The black
turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans) attacked trees with fire
wounds in east Texas [
24].
Nutrients: It is unclear whether prescribed fire on loblolly pine sites
will increase or decrease the available nitrogen. Fire volatilizes
nitrogen in the soil, and repeated burning on infertile sites may limit
productivity [
33]. However, decomposition of burned material increases
the available nitrogen content of soil. Consequently, light prescribed
fire may be a low-cost alternative to fertilizer [
50,
64].
FIRE CASE STUDY
SPECIES: Pinus taeda
FIRE CASE STUDY CITATION : Carey, Jennifer H., compiler. 1992. Hardwood control for loblolly pine seedbed
preparation in Georgia. In: Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System,
[Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: https://www.fs.fed.us
/database/feis/ [
var months = new Array(12);
months[0] = "January";
months[1] = "February";
months[2] = "March";
months[3] = "April";
months[4] = "May";
months[5] = "June";
months[6] = "July";
months[7] = "August";
months[8] = "September";
months[9] = "October";
months[10] = "November";
months[11] = "December";
var date = new Date();
var year = date.getFullYear();
var month = date.getMonth();
var day = date.getDate();
document.write(year+", "+months[month]+" "+day);
].
REFERENCE : Brender, Ernst V.; Cooper, Robert W. 1968. Prescribed burning in
Georgia's Piedmont loblolly pine stands. Journal of Forestry. 66(1):
31-36. [
8].
SEASON/SEVERITY CLASSIFICATION : Summer strip head fire/low- to moderate-severity
Summer backfire/low-severity
Winter strip head fire/low- to moderate-severity
Winter backfire/low-severity
STUDY LOCATION : The study was conducted in the Hitchiti Experimental Forest near Macon,
Georgia, in the rolling hills of the lower Piedmont.
PREFIRE VEGETATIVE COMMUNITY : The overstory consisted of 100 square feet basal area per acre (23 sq
m/ha) of 40-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). Small understory
hardwoods included flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), sweetgum
(Liquidambar styraciflua), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), hawthorn
(Crataegus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), hickory (Carya spp.), and winged
elm (Ulmus alata). There were 750 small hardwoods per acre (1,850/ha)
from 0.6 to 6.5 inches (1.5-16.5 cm) in diameter and approximately 5,000
smaller stems per acre (12,000/ha). Hardwoods made up 22 square feet
basal area per acre (5 sq m/ha).
TARGET SPECIES PHENOLOGICAL STATE : NO-ENTRY
SITE DESCRIPTION : The terrain was gently rolling with 10 to 20 percent slope. Litter
accumulation was 4 to 8 tons per acre (9-18 metric tons/ha) of which
approximately 10 to 45 percent was hardwood litter. The humus type was
shallow duff-mull.
FIRE DESCRIPTION : Twenty plots of 1.5 acres (0.6 ha) each were randomly assigned to 5
different treatments: summer backfire, summer strip head fire, winter
backfire, winter strip head fire, and no fire. Backfires were run down
slope and head fires up slope. A complete stand inventory by species
and 1 inch (2.5 cm) diameter classes, a tally of stems less than 0.6
inches (1.5 cm) on 15 milacre quadrants, and litter fuel weights and
moisture were taken before and after the fire. The following
fire-weather measurements were taken: wind direction and speed, air
temperature, relative humidity, rate of flame spread, flame length,
depth of fire front, and time-temperature relationships at 1- and 4-foot
(0.3-1.2 m) heights. Soil erosion and seedling regeneration in milacre
quadrants were evaluated after the fire. Each plot was further
subdivided for repeat fires. The repeat fire data will not be discussed
here because of difficulties and inconsistencies encountered with the
fires.
The following tables present fire data:
fire rate of spread litter consumption energy release
ft/min percent Btu/min/ft
winter back 1.4 38 1232
summer back 1.2 46 1200
winter strip 8.8 40 8448
summer strip 10.0 53 11200
fire temperature duration
deg. C
winter strip-1 ft 255 24 seconds above 200 degrees
winter strip-4 ft 130 43 seconds above 100 degrees
summer strip-1 ft 480 22 seconds above 400 degrees
summer strip-4 ft 220 27 seconds above 200 degrees
FIRE EFFECTS ON TARGET SPECIES : Summer fires top-killed more hardwoods than winter fires. The following
table shows the percentage of hardwoods top-killed by summer and winter
fires:
d.b.h. class summer kill winter kill
inches percent percent
1 96 73
2 64 73
3 33 12
4 18 7
5 15 8
6 13 0
There was no significant difference in percent hardwoods top-killed
between backfires and strip head fires.
Fuel consumption was greater in the summer than in the winter.
Loblolly pine seedlings were more abundant and better distributed on burned
plots than unburned plots. Seedlings were also more abundant on plots burned in
the summer than in the winter. The percent milacre stocking of
seedlings was 57 percent on the control, 77 percent on the winter fire
plots, and 90 percent on the summer fire plots.
Soil erosion was minimal, and no difference was found between season or
method of burning.
FIRE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS : A single strip fire in the summer is the best method for removing
hardwoods and preparing an adequate seedbed. Although there were no
significant differences between head strip fires and backfires, head
strip fires were cheaper and easier to control. A summer strip fire
should only be conducted, however, if fuel accumulation is less than 10
tons per acre (22 metric tons/ha). Optimum summer fire conditions were
a litter moisture content of 10 to 20 percent, a relative humidity of 20
to 60 percent, and a steady wind speed of 1 to 5 miles per hour (1.6-8
km/h).
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Management Implications
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
fuel,
litterA single strip fire in the summer is the best method for removing
hardwoods and preparing an adequate seedbed. Although there were no
significant differences between head strip fires and backfires, head
strip fires were cheaper and easier to control. A summer strip fire
should only be conducted, however, if fuel accumulation is less than 10
tons per acre (22 metric tons/ha). Optimum summer fire conditions were
a litter moisture content of 10 to 20 percent, a relative humidity of 20
to 60 percent, and a steady wind speed of 1 to 5 miles per hour (1.6-8
km/h).
Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the term:
phanerophyte Phanerophyte
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat characteristics
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More info for the term:
imperfectLoblolly pine is predominantly found on Ultisols but can grow on a wide
variety of soils including Entisols, Spodosols, and Altisols. It grows
best on moderately acidic soil with imperfect to poor surface drainage,
thick medium-textured surface layers, and fine-textured subsoils.
Loblolly pine thrives in areas with 40 to 50 inches (1,020-1,270 mm) of
annual precipitation and 6 to 10 frost-free months. Low temperatures
limit its northern range and low rainfall limits its western range [
59].
Loblolly pine grows on flat to mountainous terrain from 500 to 1,200
feet (150-365 m) in elevation [
3].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Cover Types
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):
More info for the terms:
hardwood,
swamp 46 Eastern redcedar
70 Longleaf pine
74 Cabbage palmetto
75 Shortleaf pine
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
87 Sweetgum - yellow-poplar
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
98 Pond pine
104 Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Ecosystem
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Plant Associations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):
More info for the term:
forest K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K114 Pocosin
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Immediate Effect of Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
crown fire,
high-severity fire,
moderate-severity fire,
treeLoblolly pines less than 5 feet (1.5 m) tall are usually killed by light
fire [
37,
59]. Saplings up to 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter are usually
killed by moderate-severity fire, and trees up to 4 inches (10 cm) in
diameter are usually killed by high-severity fire. Trees greater than 4
inches d.b.h. are rarely killed by moderate-severity fire [
17].
Shade-grown saplings are susceptible to mortality from light fire
because of retarded bark and height growth [
59]. In general, suppressed
small trees are more susceptible to fire damage and mortality than are
vigorous, large trees [
1,
39,
45,
54]. Summer fires kill more trees than
do winter fires [
22].
Crown damage: Crown damage generally results in more fatality than
basal damage does [
17,
22,
54,
61]. Following a low-severity winter fire
in a 4-year-old stand that averaged 7.3 feet (2.2 m) in height,
mortality was low for seedlings that had less than 80 percent crown
scorch [
61]. Older trees are not very susceptible to mortality from
crown scorch. Only a small percentage of severely crown-scorched trees
greater than 8 inches (20 cm) in d.b.h. were killed by a high-severity
hot spot in a prescribed summer fire in Virginia [
1].
Mortality is greatly increased if needles burn. If there is 25 percent
or more needle consumption in loblolly pine younger than 9 years old ,
75 percent mortality can be expected [
22]. If the buds are killed, the
tree will not recover [
59]. Crown scorch is more serious in a summer
fire because there are no dormant vegetative buds [
41].
Loblolly pine needles were killed instantly when immersed in water at
147 degrees Fahrenheit (64 deg C) but survived 13 minutes at 126 degrees
Fahrenheit (52 deg C) [
10].
Roots are normally insulated by mineral soil, but if they are exposed
and burned, the tree can die [
59]. Kayll [
32] reported that heat
tolerance of seedling roots varied, but exposure to 129 degrees
Fahrenheit (54 deg C) for 5 minutes, 122 degrees F (50 deg C) for 30
minutes, or 118 degrees F (48 deg C) for 2 hours was generally lethal.
If a crown fire occurs, seeds inside cones can be destroyed. In one
study [
59], only 16 percent of seeds were viable in top-killed trees
compared to 70 percent in uninjured trees.
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Importance to Livestock and Wildlife
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
coverLoblolly pine seeds are an important food source for birds and small
mammals. More than 20 songbirds feed on loblolly pine seeds, and the
seeds make up more than half the diet of the red crossbill. Deer and
rabbit browse seedlings [
59]. Loblolly pine stands provide cover and
habitat for white-tailed deer, northern bobwhite, wild turkey, and grey
and fox squirrels. Old-growth loblolly pine provides nesting habitat
for the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker [
3].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Key Plant Community Associations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
forest,
herbaceous,
natural,
shrubsPublished classifications listing loblolly pine as a dominant
species in community types are presented below.
Eastern deciduous forest, Vol. 1: Southeastern evergreen and
oak-pine region [
58]
Plant communities of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina and their
successional relations [
65]
The natural communities of South Carolina [
67]
Common overstory associates of loblolly pine include southern red oak
(Quercus falcata), white oak (Q. alba), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica),
post oak (Q. stellata), water oak (Q. nigra), willow oak (Q. phellos),
laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), persimmon
(Diospyros virginiana), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), spruce pine
(Pinus glabra), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum),
southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), American elm (Ulmus
americana), water hickory (Carya aquatica) and white and Carolina ash
(Fraxinus americana and F. caroliniana) [
3].
Common understory shrubs and trees include flowering dogwood (Cornus
florida), American holly (Ilex opaca), inkberry (I. glabra), yaupon (I.
vomitoria), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), southern bayberry (Myrica
cerifera), pepperbush (Clethra spp.), and sumac (Rhus spp.) [
3].
Common herbaceous species include bluestem (Andropogon spp.), panicum
(Panicum spp.), sedges (Carex spp. and Cyperus spp.), and fennel
(Eupatorium spp.) [
3].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Life Form
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeTree
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Management considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
basal area,
competition,
cone,
hardwood,
herbaceous,
litter,
natural,
scarification,
seed,
seed tree,
tree,
vineLoblolly pine is often grown in even-aged plantations. Natural
regeneration of even-aged stands can be accomplished using the seed
tree, shelterwood, or clearcut systems. Successful natural regeneration
depends on an adequate seed supply, a receptive seedbed, ample moisture,
and reduced competition. The seed tree system works well in the Coastal
Plain where loblolly seed crops are heavy and consistent [
38]. Seed
tree silviculture requires 6 to 12 loblolly pine seed trees per acre
with a basal area of 6 square feet per acre (1.4 sq m/ha) [
2]. Seed
trees should be 30 to 50 years old [
59]. The shelterwood silviculture
system works well in the Piedmont where seed production is more erratic.
This system requires 20 to 40 seed trees per acre with a basal area of
25 to 40 square feet per acre (5.7-9.2 sq m/ha) [
19]. Seed trees need
only be 30 years old in the shelterwood system [
7]. Seed trees in both
systems should be harvested 3 to 5 years after successful regeneration
[
19]. Cone production can be stimulated by releasing seed trees three
growing seasons before the seed is needed [
3,
38].
Seedbed preparation: Loblolly germinates best on exposed mineral soil.
Prescribed burning or mechanical scarification is used [
3]. Seedling
growth and survival rates increase with increased site preparation [
20,
30].
Hardwood control: Control of competing hardwood and herbaceous species
is generally considered necessary for loblolly pine regeneration [
3,
19].
Herbicides, fire, and mechanical chopping are used to remove hardwoods
before loblolly pine regeneration. Once established, seedlings tolerate
some shade and will overtop competitors within 5 years if growth begins
at the same time [
12,
60]. Intensive understory control throughout the
life of the stand increases the growth and yield of loblolly pine.
Herbaceous control is more important than hardwood control for
increasing loblolly pine growth [
12].
Insects: Loblolly pine is severely attacked by the southern pine beetle
(Dendroctonus frontalis). Infestations originate in stands stressed by
fire, drought, or logging. Other insects that damage loblolly pine
include pine engraver beetles (Ips spp.), pine tip moths (Rhyacionia
spp.), seedling debarking weevils (Hylobius spp. and Pachylobius spp.),
cone and seed feeders (Dioryctria spp. and Leptoglossus spp.), and
sawflies (Neodiprion spp.) [
3,
7,
59].
Disease: Fusiform rust (Cronartium quercuum) is a stem disease that
infects seedlings and saplings. If the stem is girdled, the tree dies
[
3,
7]. Removing trees with severe stem galls minimizes timber losses
and improves stand quality [
5]. The incidence of fusiform rust
increases with an increase in seedbed preparation [
30]. Planted stands
have less fusiform rust incidence and associated mortality than do
naturally regenerated stands [
46].
Root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) infects thinned stands. The fungus
colonizes on freshly cut stumps and then spreads by root to root contact
[
51]. Thick litter is associated with sporophore development [
25]. The
disease can be prevented by treating cut stumps with borax or with the
benign fungus, Peniphora gigantea [
7].
Other fungal diseases include black root rot (Fusarium spp. and
Macrophomina spp.), which affects seedlings, and heart rot (Phellinus
pini and Phaeolus schweinitzii), which causes bole and butt rot in old
trees [
3].
Weather: Loblolly pine is relatively windfirm where soils are deep, but
windthrow is common on shallow soils. Freezing temperatures cause
damage and seedling mortality, especially where southern seed sources
are used to establish northern stands [
3,
59].
Wildlife: The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker nests in living
loblolly pine with decayed heartwood. Trees older than 75 years are
most likely to develop the heart rot necessary for cavity excavation
[
29]. Death of old-growth loblolly pine is primarily from the southern
pine beetle. To minimize cavity tree mortality, site disturbances such
as fire and logging should be limited where southern pine beetle
populations are high [
16].
Pollution: Acid rain is suspected of causing an abnormal decrease in
growth of loblolly pine in the past 25 years in New Jersey [
31].
However, loblolly pine does not appear affected by aluminum
concentrations of 1.5 millimoles per liter or less [
48].
Other considerations: Kudzu vine (Pueraria lobata) will grow on,
engulf, and eventually smother even large loblolly pine [
47]. Survival
and growth rates of loblolly pine seedlings decrease if grown with
broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus). Broomsedge may have an allelopathic
effect on loblolly pine [
44].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Occurrence in North America
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
AL AR DE FL GA HI LA MD MS NJ
NC OK SC TN TX VA
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Other uses and values
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Loblolly pine is used for shade and as a wind and noise barrier [
3].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Phenology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the term:
seedFlowering is initiated in the summer, and staminate and pistillate buds
develop in the fall. Buds remain dormant until the following spring
when fertilization takes place. The time of pollen release is variable
and depends on springtime temperatures. Cones ripen in September and
October of the second season. Seed dispersal begins in October and
peaks in November. Eighty-five percent of the seeds fall by
mid-December [
3,
34,
38,
59].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Plant Response to Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The growth of young loblolly pine can be reduced by fire damage.
Lightly scorched 4-year-old seedlings showed a slight loss in height
growth but no loss in diameter growth [
61]. In another study [
39],
19-year-old loblolly pine showed no growth loss when lightly scorched,
and only completely scorched trees continued to have growth loss 3 years
after the fire [
39].
Loblolly pine seeds will germinate on soil exposed by fire [
3].
If crown scorch occurs in the winter, foliage is usually replaced by
surviving dormant vegetative buds [
41].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Post-fire Regeneration
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
crown residual colonizer,
root crown,
tree Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regeneration Processes
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
cone,
epigeal,
forest,
monoecious,
seed,
treeSeed production and dissemination: Loblolly pine is monoecious. It
produces some cones by age 12 to 18, and begins producing cone crops
with high seed viability by age 25 [
59]. Forty-year-old trees produce 3
to 5 times as many seeds as 25-year-old trees. Loblolly pine is a
prolific and consistent seed producer in the Coastal Plain and produces
large amounts of seed every 3 to 6 years in the Piedmont. Seed
viability ranges from 15 to 100 percent [
3] and averages 60 percent
[
59]. Cones contain an average of 45 seeds [
19] but may contain
anywhere from 20 to 200 seeds [
3]. In a good year, a mature tree
produces an average of 9,000 to 15,000 seeds [
59]. Early summer drought
or freezing weather at flowering time results in low cone production
[
38]. The winged seeds are dispersed 200 to 300 feet (61-91 m) by wind
[
3].
Germination and seedling development: Seeds lay dormant on the forest
floor for 4 to 8 months. Germination is epigeal and is enhanced by bare
mineral soil. Germination takes place in March or early April [
3]. No
viable ungerminated seeds carry over to the next growing season [
4].
Adequate soil moisture is critical to the survival of newly germinated
seedlings [
3,
38]. Young open-grown loblolly pine grow 2 to 3 feet
(0.6-0.9 m) in height annually [
13].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Season/Severity Classification
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Summer strip head fire/low- to moderate-severity
Summer backfire/low-severity
Winter strip head fire/low- to moderate-severity
Winter backfire/low-severity
Site Description
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
hardwood,
litterThe terrain was gently rolling with 10 to 20 percent slope. Litter
accumulation was 4 to 8 tons per acre (9-18 metric tons/ha) of which
approximately 10 to 45 percent was hardwood litter. The humus type was
shallow duff-mull.
Successional Status
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the terms:
climax,
fire frequency,
forest,
frequency,
hardwoodLoblolly pine is moderately tolerant of shade when young but becomes
intolerant with age. It invades oldfields, clearcuts, and other
disturbed sites. Loblolly pine's rapid growth allows it to dominate a
site early [
3]. In the absence of fire, loblolly pine is replaced by
climax hardwood forest. Where fire burns on average every 10 years,
loblolly pine is considered a fire subclimax [
59]. It will supplant
longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) where fire frequency is reduced.
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Taxonomy
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The currently accepted scientific name of loblolly pine is Pinus taeda
L. [
40]. There are no recognized subspecies, varieties, or forms.
Loblolly pine forms hybrids with shortleaf pine (P. echinata), longleaf
pine (P. palustris), pitch pine (P. rigida), slash pine (P. elliottii),
and pond pine (P. serotina) [
3,
40].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
competition,
cover,
herbaceous,
litter,
reclamation,
vinesBecause of its fast growth and good litter production, loblolly pine is
used for soil stabilization [
3]. Loblolly can be planted in small
gullies and washes and in deeper washes if they are first stabilized
with vines [
59].
Loblolly is adapted to a wide range of mine spoil sites. When used for
surface mine reclamation, it should not be planted above 2,500 feet (762
m) or in soil with a pH lower than 4.0. It does well when planted with
European alder (Alnus glutinosa) and with legumes. A loblolly pine X
pitch pine hybrid is used for mine reclamation in Kentucky and West
Virginia and grows faster than either parent [
55]. Because surface mine
reclamation regulations require herbaceous cover, ground pads can be
used to reduce nearby competition in order to increase seedling growth
[
18].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Wood Products Value
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Loblolly pine is the leading commercial timber species in the
southeastern United States [
3,
7]. Three-quarters of a million acres
(300,000 ha) are harvested each year for lumber and pulpwood [
38]. Most
harvested pines are under 50 years old [
7]. After 36 years, an
even-aged planted stand can yield 5,000 to 6,000 total cubic feet per
acre (350-415 cu m/ha) of merchantable timber [
2].
- bibliographic citation
- Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus taeda. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Derivation of specific name
provided by Flora of Zimbabwe
taeda: an ancient name for resinous pine trees
- license
- cc-by-nc
- copyright
- Mark Hyde, Bart Wursten and Petra Ballings
- bibliographic citation
- Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. and Ballings, P. (2002-2014). Pinus taeda L. Flora of Zimbabwe website. Accessed 28 August 2014 at http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=102990
- author
- Mark Hyde
- author
- Bart Wursten
- author
- Petra Ballings
Worldwide distribution
provided by Flora of Zimbabwe
SE USA from Texas to Delaware
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- Mark Hyde, Bart Wursten and Petra Ballings
- bibliographic citation
- Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. and Ballings, P. (2002-2014). Pinus taeda L. Flora of Zimbabwe website. Accessed 28 August 2014 at http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=102990
- author
- Mark Hyde
- author
- Bart Wursten
- author
- Petra Ballings
Distribution
(
Spanish; Castilian
)
provided by IABIN
Chile Central
Associated Forest Cover
provided by Silvics of North America
Loblolly pine is found in pure stands and in mixtures with other pines
or hardwoods, and in association with a great variety of lesser
vegetation. When loblolly pine predominates, it forms the forest cover
type Loblolly Pine (Society of American Foresters Type 81) (31). Within
their natural ranges, longleaf, shortleaf, and Virginia pine (Pinus
palustris, P. echinata, and P. virginiana), southern red,
white, post, and blackjack oak (Quercus falcata, Q. alba, Q. stellata,
and Q. marilandica), sassafras (Sassafras albidum), and
persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) are frequent associates on
well-drained sites. Pond pine (Pinus serotina), spruce pine (P.
glabra), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer
rubrum), and water oak (Quercus nigra), willow oak (Q.
phellos), and cherrybark oak (Q. falcata var. pagodifolia)
are common associates on moderately to poorly drained sites. In the
southern part of its range, loblolly frequently is found with slash pine
(Pinus elliottii) and laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia).
In east Texas, southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and the lower Piedmont,
loblolly and shortleaf pine are often found in mixed stands. In Loblolly
Pine-Shortleaf Pine (Type 80), loblolly predominates except on drier sites
and at higher elevations. When shortleaf pine predominates, the mixture
forms Shortleaf Pine (Type 75).
In fertile, well-drained coves and along stream bottoms, especially in
the eastern part of the range, yellow-poplar (Liriodendron
tulipifera), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and white and
Carolina ash (Fraxinus americana and F. caroliniana) are
often found in the Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine cover type.
Loblolly pine also grows in mixture with hardwoods throughout its range
in Loblolly Pine-Hardwood (Type 82). On moist to wet sites this type often
contains such broadleaf evergreens as sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana),
southern magnolia (M. grandiflora), and redbay (Persea
borbonia), along with swamp tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), red
maple, sweetgum, water oak, cherrybark oak, swamp chestnut oak (Quercus
michauxii), white ash, American elm (Ulmus americana), and
water hickory (Carya aquatica). Occasionally, slash, pond, and
spruce pine are present.
In the Piedmont and in the Atlantic Plain of northern Virginia and
Maryland, loblolly pine grows with Virginia Pine (Type 79). In northern
Mississippi, Alabama, and in Tennessee it is a minor associate in the
eastern redcedar-hardwood variant of Eastern Redcedar (Type 46). On moist
lower Atlantic Plain sites loblolly pine is found in Longleaf Pine (Type
70), Longleaf Pine-Slash Pine (Type 83), and Slash Pine-Hardwood (Type
85).
In the flood plains and on terraces of major rivers (except the
Mississippi River) loblolly pine is a minor associate in Swamp Chestnut
Oak-Cherrybark Oak (Type 91). On moist, lower slopes in the Atlantic Plain
it is an important component in the Sweetgum-Yellow Poplar (Type 87). In
bays, ponds, swamps, and marshes of the Atlantic Plain it is a common
associate in Pond Pine (Type 98), the cabbage palmetto-slash pine variant
of Cabbage Palmetto (Type 74), and Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Red Bay (Type
104).
There is a great variety of lesser vegetation found in association with
loblolly pine. Some common understory trees and shrubs include flowering
dogwood (Cornus florida), American holly (Ilex opaca), inkberry
(I. glabra), yaupon (I. vomitoria), hawthorn (Crataegus
spp.), southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera), pepperbush
(Clethra spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), and a number of
ericaceous shrubs. Some common herbaceous species include bluestems (Andropogon
spp.), panicums (Panicum spp.), sedges (Carex
spp. and Cyperus spp.), and fennels (Eupatorium
spp.).
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Climate
provided by Silvics of North America
The climate over most of the loblolly pine range is humid,
warm-temperate with long, hot summers and mild winters. Average annual
rainfall varies from 1020 to 1520 mm (40 to 60 in). The frost-free period
varies from 5 months in the northern part of the range to 10 months along
the southern coastal States. Mean annual temperatures range from 13°
to 24° C (55° to 75° F); average July temperature is 27°
C (80° F) and frequently exceeds 38° C (100° F). January
temperature averages 4° to 16° C (40° to 60° F) and
occasionally drops to -23° C (-10° F) in the northern and
western parts of the range (69).
During both winter and summer, weather within the range of loblolly pine
differs from that immediately outside the range. There are a greater
number of days with rain, a greater frequency of effective amounts of
rain, that is, more than 13 mm (0.5 in), and higher average winter
temperatures. In spring and autumn, the weather within and outside the
range is more nearly the same (37).
The main factor limiting northern extension of the species is probably
low winter temperature with associated damage from ice, snow, and sleet
and cold damage during flowering. Lack of adequate growing-season
precipitation probably limits western extension of loblolly pine in
Oklahoma and Texas (37).
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Damaging Agents
provided by Silvics of North America
Agents that cause periodic damage to individual
trees or stands of loblolly pine include wind, lightning, temperature
extremes, ice, drought, flooding, insects, and diseases. Voluminous
literature about the effects of these agents in loblolly pine stands on a
range of sites, soils, and stand conditions is available; a brief summary
follows.
Large dominant trees usually are more vulnerable to high winds than
smaller trees, and trees with large cankers caused by rust disease break
more readily than sound trees. In general, damage resulting from severe
winds associated with hurricanes or thunderstorms is caused primarily by
windthrow or blowdown. Windthrow is most common on shallow soils with
coarse-textured profiles. Wind damage is also more likely to occur in
recently thinned stands (37,105).
Direct losses to lightning are small, averaging only about 5 trees per
100 hectares (2/100 acres) per year. Large, dominant, open-grown trees are
generally the most vulnerable to lightning strikes. Probably more
important than the direct damage caused by lightning is the possibility
that a lightning-struck tree will become a center for insect infestation
(37).
Damage or seedling mortality caused by low or freezing temperatures
occurs primarily in the northern extremities of the loblolly pine range.
Older, vigorous trees can usually withstand occasional low temperatures
(37,79). Greater damage frequently occurs from ice or glaze storms. This
damage is normally associated with branch and stem breakage, severe
bending and, in some cases, uprooting. Ice damage is usually more severe
in recently thinned (particularly row thinned) plantations and in heavily
stocked stands made up of slender, small-crowned trees (37,91). Extremely
high summer temperatures and drought often cause mortality of seedlings
and, in some cases, of larger trees. Heat and drought more often cause
stress and a resultant loss of vigor and growth in larger trees, which can
lead to more serious problems with insect infestations.
Loblolly pine seedlings or saplings cannot withstand prolonged flooding.
Complete inundation for more than 2 weeks during the growing season often
results in significant mortality. Larger trees are classed as moderately
tolerant of flooding; typically they can survive one season but usually
succumb during the second growing season if continuously in 0.3 m (1 ft)
or more of water (37,113).
A comprehensive review of insects associated with loblolly pine is
provided by Baker (7). Loblolly pine serves as host to a multitude of
insect pests; however, insect outbreaks vary greatly in frequency, area,
and duration. The majority of outbreaks are small and short-lived and
usually consist of only one or a few spots in a stand, but some may expand
until they encompass hundreds of hectares and last for several years
before subsiding. With only a few exceptions, the majority of the insects
that attack loblolly pine are insignificant in terms of damage or
mortality.
The most serious insect pests to loblolly pine are bark beetles,
particularly the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), whose
attack may result in extensive mortality, and pine engraver beetles (Ips
spp.), that can cause death of isolated or small groups of trees; pine tip
moths (Rhyacionia spp.), that often infest young trees;
seedling debarking weevils (Hylobius spp.and Pachylobius
spp.), that sometimes result in girdling and death of young
seedlings up to 13 mm (0.5 in) in d.b.h.; and cone and seed feeders (Dioryctria
spp.and Leptoglossus spp.), that can
seriously reduce seed crops. Loblolly pine is generally the preferred host
of the southern pine beetle, which is the most destructive insect for this
species (102). Most infestations originate in stands that are under stress
because of poor site, adverse weather, overstocking, or overmaturity. Once
a buildup of southern pine beetle occurs, adjacent well-managed stands may
also be attacked. Preventive measures include avoidance of planting
offsite and maintenance of vigorous stands through silvicultural practices
such as controlling density through thinning and harvesting trees at or
before maturity (6,102).
A general account of diseases associated with loblolly pine is provided
by Hepting (54). The most common disease problems in loblolly pine are
related to seedling susceptibility to black root rot (Fusarium spp.,
Macrophomina spp., and possibly others) and fusiform rust (Cronartium
quercuum f. sp. fusiforme); sapling susceptibility to fusiform
rust; root rot by Heterobasidion annosum in thinned stands; and
heart rot in old stands with Phellinus pini in the bole and Phaeolus
schweinitzii primarily in the butt.
Nursery seedlings are subject to root rot in soils with pH above 6.0
under moist conditions; however, root rot becomes severe only if soil
temperatures remain above 32° C (90° F) for long periods.
Fusiform rust is also a major nursery disease in many parts of the South,
requiring rigid spray programs to keep infections low.
The most serious stem disease is fusiform rust, which kills and
disfigures young trees from Virginia to Texas. Saplings and older trees,
especially if planted, are subject to attacks by Heterobasidion
annosum in stands where some cutting has taken place. It is considered
a disease problem in plantation management second only to fusiform rust.
Losses in natural stands or in the absence of some cutting are generally
negligible.
Phaeolus schweinitzii causes a root and butt rot, usually after
basal or root injuries, and in the Deep South it has caused more loss in
some areas than Heterobasidion annosum. Red heart (Phellinus
pini), entering almost entirely through dead branch stubs, is rarely a
factor under the age of 60 years. However, when large branches that have
heartwood begin to die, red heart can set in and destroy much of a tree.
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Flowering and Fruiting
provided by Silvics of North America
Loblolly pine is monoecious; male
flowers form in clusters at the tip of the preceding year's growth and
female flowers form on the new year's growth. The pollen-bearing staminate
flowers are catkin-like in appearance; they range from 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1.0
to 1.5 in) in length and vary from light green to red and yellow depending
on stage of development. The pistillate flowers are generally ovoid and
range from 1.0 to 1.5 cm (0.4 to 0.6 in) in length. They vary from light
green through shades of pink to red depending on stage of development.
Flowering of loblolly pine is initiated in July and August in a
quiescent bud that is set from middle June to early July. The male
strobili form in this bud in late July and the female in August, but they
are not differentiated into recognizable structures until late September
or October. In October the staminate buds develop at the base of a
vegetative bud and the pistillate buds develop at the apex of a vegetative
bud a few weeks later; both remain dormant until early February (37,41).
The date of peak pollen shed depends on the accumulation of 353° C
(636° F) day-heat units above 13° C (55° F) after February
1 (16). Flowering is also related to latitude, beginning earlier at lower
latitudes than at higher ones, and it can occur between February 15 and
April 10. Staminate flowers on a given tree tend to mature before the
pistillate flowers, which helps to reduce self-pollination. Fertilization
of the pistillate strobili takes place in the spring of the following year
(37).
Loblolly pine does not normally flower at an early age, although
flowering has been induced on young grafts with scion age of only 3 years.
The phenomenon of inducing such early flowering in seedlings is dependent
on reducing vegetative shoot growth so that quiescent buds are formed in
the latter part of the growing season to allow for the initiation and
differentiation of reproductive structures. The formation of quiescent
buds in seedlings and saplings does not usually occur during that period
because four to five growth flushes are common for trees of this age. As a
loblolly pine tree ages, the number of growth flushes decreases, which
accounts in part for increased flowering of trees at older ages. Flowering
is also genetically controlled and is influenced by moisture (May-July
rainfall) and nutrient stresses.
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Growth and Yield
provided by Silvics of North America
Growth of loblolly pine stands is inherently
good when compared to most hardwood competitors and on many sites doubles
or triples the production of common associates (108). Growth is influenced
by the physical and chemical properties of soils (texture, compaction,
aeration, moisture, pH, nutrients), light, temperature, photoperiod,
allelopathy, precipitation and its seasonal pattern, and intra- and
inter-species competition for space and essential elements. Because many
of these factors interact, it is difficult to specify the most limiting
one. Consequently, these biotic and environmental effects are commonly
expressed as the average height of dominant trees at age 50 years, that
is, site index.
Yield estimates for natural, even-aged loblolly pine in fully stocked
stands were first made more than 50 years ago (3,106). Additional
estimates have been made in more recent years for stands of various
stocking levels (18,81,90,99).
Normal yields of natural, even-aged loblolly pine stands on average
sites, such as those with a site index of 27 m (90 ft), have ranged from
133.0 m³/ha (1,900 ft³/acre) in trees 9 cm (3.6 in) and larger
in d.b.h. including 29.4 m³/ha (2,100 fbm/acre) in trees 24 cm (9.6
in) and larger d.b.h. at age 20 to 427.7 m³/ha (6,110 ft³ or
40,000 fbm/acre) at age 60 (all board-foot volumes reported in
International quarter-inch rule). Mean annual cubic volume growth
generally culminates at about age 40 on these sites with approximately 8.0
m³/ha (115 ft³/acre). As a result of larger sawtimber
merchantability limits, mean annual board-foot growth culminates at about
age 50 at a rate of 9.5 m³/ha (680 fbm/acre).
Growth of loblolly pine may be affected adversely by drought, excess
moisture (flooding), and nutrient deficiencies. Growth of this species is
highly correlated with departure from the normal rainfall of April through
October. Extreme negative and positive departures (-117 vs. 229 mm or -4.6
vs. 9.0 in) in seasonal rainfall over 21 years resulted in differences of
nearly 2.1 m³ (74 ft³) of annual growth (12,39,65). Drainage
(including bedding) and fertilization have been shown to increase dominant
height and basal-area growth, resulting in dramatic increases in volume
growth (45,63,76,101).
Growth of planted loblolly pine is affected by the same factors
affecting natural stands. Sites are usually prepared before planting on
cutover lands, and some are fertilized to correct nutrient deficiencies.
Such practices are applied to control competition and to supply nutrients
at optimum levels to establish vigorous, uniform stands at spacings that
will fully utilize site potentials.
Yields of planted loblolly pine vary with plantation age, site quality,
number of trees planted, and interactions of these variables. Yields
generally increase with increasing age and site quality. Yields also
increase with higher planting density or closer spacing; however, on some
sites, moderately wide spacing of 2.4 by 2.4 m (8 by 8 ft) or 3.0 by 3.0 m
(10 by 10 ft) outproduce both wider and closer spacing. Mean annual
increment culminates at younger ages on better sites than on poorer ones.
Better sites can carry more stocking than poor sites; consequently,
initial spacing can be closer (9,77,93).
Closer spacing tends to produce higher total cubic volumes at younger
ages than does wider spacing; however, average tree sizes are larger on
wider spacings than on closer ones. If sawtimber is a primary management
objective, then wider spacing or lower density would be advantageous.
Although thinning seldom increases cubic volume yield of loblolly pine,
light thinnings that salvage suppressed and moribund trees have increased
net yields by as much as 20 percent in 50 years. Thinnings usually result
in increased diameter growth of residual trees and allow the growth to be
put on the better trees in the stand. Another benefit is that thinnings
provide intermediate returns on investment (2,17).
Average total solid-wood yields of unthinned loblolly pine planted at
1,730 seedlings per hectare (700/acre) on non-old-field sites at various
locations within its range were predicted to increase from approximately
155 m³/ha (2,200 ft³/acre) at age 15 to 300 m³/ha (4,200 ft³/acre)
at age 30. Mean annual increment at age 30 was about 10 m³/ha (145 ft³/acre)
(1,4,27,33,67). Estimates are also available for a variety of site and
stand conditions and geographic areas (8,21,22,23,25,44,68,71).
Growth and yield in natural uneven-aged loblolly pine stands is
dependent on stand structure, stocking, and site quality. To optimize
average annual growth on average sites with a site index of 27 m (90 ft),
stand structure should be manipulated so that approximately 70 percent of
the merchantable cubic volume is in the saw-log portion of the stand, that
is, trees 25 cm (10 in) in d.b.h. and larger. On average sites, stands
with approximately 17 m²/ha (75 ft²/acre) of basal area, or 140
m³/ha (2,000 ft³/acre) total merchantable volume, or 10,000 fbm
saw-log volume at the end of the cutting cycle would be considered well
stocked (5,84,86).
On good sites in southern Arkansas, with a site index of 27 m (90 ft)
managed uneven-aged loblolly pine stands that are well stocked have
averaged 0.7 m²/ha (3 ft²/acre) of basal-area growth, 5.6 m³/ha
(80 ft³/acre) of merchantable volume growth, or 432 fbm/acre of
saw-log volume growth per year for a 29-year period. On somewhat poorer
sites in the Georgia Piedmont with a site index of 23 m (75 ft), annual
growth has averaged 5.3 m³/ha (76 ft³/acre) or 319 fbm/acre over
a 21-year period (5,17,82,85,86).
In sapling stands, differences in growth rate of individual loblolly
pines are evident at early ages when competition between trees begins. The
growth differentiation process begins at earlier ages on better sites or
at higher levels of stocking; it begins later on poor sites or at low
levels of stocking (51). The result is separation of trees into crown
classes. Growth in height is a critical factor in the occupation of
available space. Loblolly pine is a species in which individual trees tend
to express dominance at an early age, and the most vigorous individuals
that are best adapted to the microsite environment become dominants as the
stand ages.
Faster growing trees develop larger live-crown ratios than do slower
growing trees. Diameter growth of individual trees generally increases as
crown surface area and crown ratio increase, with optimal diameter growth
occurring when trees have at least a 40 percent live-crown ratio. Diameter
increment does not occur uniformly on portions of the bole. Annual
diameter growth is greatest within the crown and decreases with increased
distance below the crown. This phenomenon causes the bole of loblolly pine
trees to become cylindrical with increasing age. Height growth is not as
sensitive as diameter growth to differences in crown size. Height growth
of codominants is significantly less, however, in dense stands of trees
with small crowns than in low-density stands of trees with larger crowns
(37,38,51).
Loblolly pine is a medium-lived tree. Maximum recorded age of one tree
in a small stand of 20 trees in North Carolina was 245 years, with the
group averaging 240 years. The largest tree in this stand was 135 cm (53
in) in d.b.h. and 45.7 m (150 ft) tall. Currently, the champion for the
species in the "National Register of Big Trees" is located near
Urania, LA, and is 143 cm (56.3 in) in d.b.h. and 49.7 m (163 ft) tall
(52).
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Reaction to Competition
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Loblolly pine is moderately tolerant
when young but becomes intolerant of shade with age. Its shade tolerance
is similar to that of shortleaf and Virginia pines, less than that of most
hardwoods, and more than that of slash and longleaf pines (31,37,108).
Loblolly pine is most accurately classed as intolerant of shade.
Succession in loblolly pine stands that originate in old fields and
cutover lands exhibit a rather predictable pattern. The more tolerant
hardwoods (including various species of oaks and hickories, sweetgum,
blackgum, beech, magnolia, holly, and dogwood) invade the understory of
loblolly pine stands and, with time, gradually increase in numbers and in
basal area. The hardwoods finally share dominance with each other and with
loblolly pine (37,83,100).
The climax forest for the loblolly pine type has been described as
oak-hickory, beech-maple, magnolia-beech, and oak-hickory-pine in various
parts of its range (28,37). Others view the climax forest as several
possible combinations of hardwood species and loblolly pine. There is
evidence that within the range of loblolly pine several different tree
species could potentially occupy a given area for an indefinite period of
time and that disturbance is a naturally occurring phenomenon. If this is
so, then the climax for this southern forest might best be termed the
southern mixed hardwood-pine forest (83).
Competition affects the growth of loblolly pine in varying degrees
depending on the site, the amount and size of competing vegetation, and
age of the loblolly pine stand. Across the southern region, average loss
of volume production resulting from hardwood competition has been
estimated at 25 percent in natural stands and 14 percent in plantations
(35). In a North Carolina study, residual hardwoods after logging reduced
cubic-volume growth of a new stand of loblolly pine by 50 percent at 20
years, and where additional small hardwoods of sprout and seedling origin
were present, growth was reduced by another 20 percent by age 20 (10,64).
Similar growth responses in young seedling and sapling stands have been
observed in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas (24,26,39). Although several
short-term studies (5 years or less) of the effects of understory
hardwoods on growth of older loblolly pine did not show measurable effects
(58), a long-term study (11 to 14 years) showed growth increases of 20 to
43 percent in cubic volume and 21 to 54 percent in board-foot volume after
removal of understory vegetation (39). Control of both residual overstory
and understory hardwoods is a financially attractive silvicultural
treatment for loblolly pine management (10).
Silvicultural practices such as prescribed burns, the use of herbicides,
and mechanical treatments arrest natural succession in loblolly pine
stands by retarding the growth and development of hardwood understories.
Prescribed fire is effective for manipulating understory vegetation,
reducing excessive fuel (hazard reduction), disposing of logging slash,
preparing planting sites and seedbeds, and improving wildlife habitat.
Responses of the understory to prescribed fire varies with frequency and
season of burning. Periodic winter burns keep hardwood understories in
check, while a series of annual summer burns usually reduces vigor and
increases mortality of hardwood rootstocks (62). In the Atlantic Coastal
Plain, a series of prescribed bums, such as a winter bum followed by three
annual summer bums before a harvest cut, has been more effective than
disking for control of competing hardwood vegetation and improvement of
pine seedling growth after establishment of natural regeneration
(103,104).
Loblolly pine expresses dominance early, and various crown classes
develop rapidly under competition on good sites; but in dense stands on
poor sites, expression of dominance and crown differentiation are slower
(37).
Dense natural stands of loblolly pine usually respond well to
precommercial thinning. To ensure, the best volume gains, stocking should
be reduced to 1,235 to 1,730 stems per hectare (500 to 700/acre) by age 5.
When managing for sawtimber, thinnings increase diameter growth of
residual trees and allow growth to be put on the better trees in the
stand, thus maximizing saw-log volume growth and profitability (56,78).
Loblolly pines that have developed in a suppressed condition respond in
varying degrees to release. Increases in diameter growth after release are
related to live-crown ratio and crown growing space, but trees of large
diameter generally respond less than trees of small diameter. Trees with
well-developed crowns usually respond best to release. Trees long
suppressed may also grow much faster in both height and diameter after
release but may never attain the growth rate of trees that were never
suppressed (37,75).
Loblolly pine can be regenerated and managed with any of the four
recognized reproduction cutting methods and silvicultural systems.
Even-aged management is most commonly used on large acreages; however,
uneven-aged management with selection cutting has proved to be a
successful alternative.
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Rooting Habit
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The rooting habit of loblolly pine is strongly
influenced by tree age, soil, and the soil environment. A young tree
develops a short taproot but in most cases it ceases growth in favor of an
extensive lateral-root system. A taproot 1.5 to 2.0 m (5.0 to 6.5 ft) long
is often produced on deep, sandy or loamy soils. On heavy clay soils, the
taproot tends to be stout and short. Taproots of loblolly pines are much
smaller and shorter than those of shortleaf and longleaf pines. On
excessively wet sites or when a water table or an impenetrable hardpan
confines the roots to surface layers of soil, lateral roots are prominent
in a superficial system (3,50,108).
In a 6-year-old loblolly pine plantation in southeast Louisiana, 83
percent of total root weight was in the upper 46 cm (18 in) of soil. In a
31-year-old natural stand in North Carolina, the majority of the feeder
roots less than 2.5 mm (0.1 in) in diameter were concentrated in the 15-cm
(6-in) deep A horizon; practically no lateral roots were found below the
15- to 53-cm (6- to 21-in) depth of the B horizon (14,59).
Roots of loblolly generally spread laterally farther than their crowns.
As a result, root grafting is a common occurrence both in natural stands
and closely spaced plantations. Roots grow at all times of the year, but
most root growth occurs in April and May, and in late summer and early
fall (37,80,89,108).
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Seed production of loblolly
pine varies according to physiographic region, climatic factors, and tree
or stand condition. In the southern coastal portions of the Atlantic
Plain, loblolly is generally a prolific and consistent seed producer, but
in some of the inland portions of the Atlantic Plain, the Piedmont, and in
the western extremities of its range, seed production is often lower and
more erratic. Year-to-year variations in seed crops can range from failure
to bumper crops. For example, in 27 years of seedfall records in the
Atlantic Plain of South Carolina, there was one seed-crop failure but
there were three seed crops of more than 2.5 million sound seeds per
hectare (1 million/acre) with the other crops falling between these
extremes. At most locations where seed-crop records have been kept,
however, such wide annual variations have not been observed.
Despite fluctuations in seed production, loblolly usually produces some
seeds every year and good seed crops normally occur at intervals of 3 to 6
years. More than 198,000 sound seeds per hectare (80,000/acre) is
considered a good seed crop; 74,000 to 198,000/ha (30,000 to 80,000/acre)
is an average crop, and less than 74,000/ha (30,000/acre) is considered
marginal, depending on seedbed characteristics and weather conditions.
Throughout the range of loblolly pine, usually cones mature and seeds
ripen by the second October after flowering or about 26 months after the
strobili are initiated. The mature cones are light reddish brown and range
from 7.5 to 15.0 cm (3 to 6 in) in length. They are narrowly conical to
ovoid-cylindrical. Each cone scale is tipped with a stout triangular
spine. Mature cones have a specific gravity of 0.89 or less (they float in
SAE 20 oil). Individual cones may contain from less than 20 to more than
200 seeds, and the percentage of sound seeds may vary from about 15
percent to nearly 100 percent. Loblolly seeds vary in size from 27,100/kg
(12,300/lb) to 58,200/kg (26,400/lb) and average 40,100/kg (18,200/lb)
(37,88).
Seed production of individual trees increases with tree age, size, and
freedom from crown competition. By age 25, enough seeds may be produced in
widely spaced trees to regenerate a stand; however, trees at 40 years
generally produce three to five times more. Rotations shorter than 30
years usually do not lend themselves to natural regeneration.
In well-stocked and overstocked stands, cone production of loblolly pine
can be stimulated threefold to tenfold by releasing the seed trees from
competitors at least three growing seasons before the seed is needed. If
seed-tree release is delayed later than May 1, seed-crop stimulation will
be delayed 1 year. In overstocked stands, if seed trees are not released
before a harvest cutting, then seed-crop stimulation will be delayed 2 or
3 years, depending on the season of the harvest cut (37,61,95).
Seedfall usually begins in October, and the bulk of the seeds are
released in November and early December. Seedfall is hastened by dry,
warm, windy weather and retarded by cool, wet weather. Seed dispersal in
or adjacent to a stand varies with height and stocking level of the
seed-source trees, magnitude of the seed crop, terrain, and weather
conditions at the time of seedfall. The effective seeding distance ranges
from 61 to 91 m (200 to 300 ft) in a downwind direction from the seed
source and 23 to 30 m (75 to 100 ft) in other directions. Viability of
seeds varies with seed-crop size and the month that the seed is dispersed.
Seed viability is often lower in years of poor seed crops and in seeds
dispersed late in the season (37).
Loblolly pine seeds generally go through a stage of dormancy after
seedfall, which lasts longer than that of any other southern pine. Seed
dormancy is related to the impermeable properties of the seedcoat that
constrain water imbibition and oxygen uptake; chemical germination
inhibitors do not play a significant role (11,73). Dormancy is broken
naturally as the seeds overwinter on the forest floor. Germination is
epigeal (88). Natural seed germination usually begins in March when
daytime temperatures range between 18° and 27° C (65° and
80° F). Few seeds remain viable (not more than 0.1 percent) on the
forest floor for germination in the second year after seedfall (70).
Secondary seed dormancy can be induced during seed handling procedures.
Cold, moist stratification of the seed for 30 to 90 days at temperatures 3°
to 5° C (37° to 41° F) are generally recommended to
artificially break dormancy for direct seeding or for nursery sowing (74).
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Seedling Development
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Moisture is a critical factor in seed
germination and seedling establishment; the amount of rainfall in the
spring is related directly to seedling catches. Scarifying the seedbed
exposes mineral soil and increases contact of the seeds with moist soil
surfaces. Failure of the root radicle to penetrate compacted or puddled
soil surfaces reduces seedling establishment, especially on major skid
trails and log decks. Soil compaction and puddling also reduce root
growth, seedling survival, and shoot growth (36,37,40,61).
Seedbed preparation by scarification or burning greatly increases seed
germination and seedling survival, which reduces the number of seeds
required to produce one seedling. For example, undisturbed seedbeds with a
litter depth of 8 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 in) require 5 to 6 times more seeds to
produce the number of seedlings produced in disturbed seedbeds.
Seed germination decreases with age of seedbed and increases with clay
content of the soil. Two-year-old seedbeds require 3 to 4 times more seed
for successful establishment than do 1-year-old seedbeds, and 3-year-old
seedbeds require 9 to 14 times more seed than is needed in the first year.
Thus, favorable seedbeds usually exist for only 1 year after disturbance,
after which they rapidly deteriorate. Heavier textured soils provide
better seedbeds which results in higher seedling survival than do lighter
textured soils (37,104).
Drought is a major cause of mortality for planted loblolly pine
seedlings, especially in areas with low rainfall during the growing
season. Improper care, handling, and planting of nursery stock and
inadequate site preparation for control of competing vegetation also
contribute to poor survival by indirectly increasing moisture stress
(34,57).
Height growth of loblolly pine seedlings occurs annually in a series of
two to five growth flushes and is dependent on variables such as
temperature, day length, soil moisture, nutrients, competition, and
genetics. Temperature has a dominant influence on the initiation of height
growth in the spring. High day temperatures increase height growth, but
high night temperatures decrease it. When day and night temperatures
differ by 12° to 13° C (54° to 55° F), the best height
growth occurs (15,43).
Soil moisture influences growth of loblolly pine by its effect on
internal water relations and vital physiological processes. Growth is
reduced with increasing water deficits. For example, at a soil moisture
tension of 1520 mm of mercury (2 atm), height growth of loblolly pine
seedlings is greatly reduced and at 2660 mm of mercury (3.5 atm), height
growth ceases. Height and diameter growth are significantly reduced by a
late spring and summer drought, which also reduces early height growth the
following year (37,98,116).
Growth of loblolly pine seedlings in a natural stand is inversely
related to overstory stocking of pine and hardwoods. As the proportion of
hardwoods increases for a given pine stocking, loblolly pine seedling
growth decreases. Size and shape of openings affect seedling growth up to
9 m (30 ft) from edges of openings. Seedlings growing beneath overstory
hardwoods are not likely to survive more than a few years and if they do
survive their growth will be slow. Growth and survival of loblolly pine
seedlings during the first 7 years after a stand is regenerated may be
reduced by 80 percent because of the faster growth of competing hardwood
sprouts and shrubs. Pine seedlings not overtopped by hardwoods at age 3 or
older have an excellent chance to outgrow the hardwood competition (37).
Photosynthesis in loblolly pine seedlings is related to light and soil
moisture conditions, which in turn are affected by competing hardwoods.
Photosynthetic rates of many hardwoods are inherently higher than those of
loblolly pine at relatively low light intensities and with low soil
moisture (37).
Fertilization often increases seedling growth in waterlogged soils. In
some instances where specific nutrients are limiting growth, fertilization
results in growth equal to or greater than that with drainage. Loblolly
pine grows well on wet, fertile sites because of the effects of moisture
on nutrient availability (63,101).
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Soils and Topography
provided by Silvics of North America
Soils within the native range of loblolly pine are predominantly
Ultisols. Small areas of Entisols and Spodosols are found in the
Southeastern States and there are some Alfisols throughout the region.
Loblolly pine grows on a wide variety of these soils, ranging from the
flat, poorly drained Aquults and Aquods of the coastal portion of the
Atlantic Plain to the relatively dry Psamments, Udults, and Udalfs of the
inland portion of the Atlantic Plain, Piedmont, and upland Provinces
(107). Best growth is on moderately acid soils with imperfect to poor
surface drainage, a thick medium-textured surface layer, and a
fine-textured subsoil. These soils are common in the uplands of the
Atlantic Plain and on the flood plains and terraces of rivers and streams.
Poorest performance is on shallow soils, eroded soils, and very wet or
waterlogged sites (37).
Some typical examples of Ultisols on which loblolly pine grows include
the Coxville, Bladen, Beauregard, Wahee, Dunbar, Ruston, Norfolk,
Orangeburg, and Smithdale series found in the Atlantic Plain; the Cecil,
Davidson, and Appling series in the Piedmont; and the Hartsells and Linker
series in the upland Provinces. Ultisols have a site index measured at
base age 50 years for loblolly pine of 23 to 30 m (75 to 100 ft) in the
Coastal Plain, 20 to 29 m (65 to 95 ft) in the Piedmont, and 18 to 24 m
(60 to 80 ft) in the upland Provinces. Typical Entisols on which loblolly
pine is found include deep sands (Chipley, Eustis, and Lakeland series)
and alluvial soils (Alpin and Osier series), with a site index ranging
from 20 to 30 m (65 to 100 ft). Representative Spodosols include the Leon
and Lynn Haven series, with a site index of 18 to 26 m (60 to 85 ft).
Within the Atlantic Plain but confined to a strip on each side of the
Mississippi River are loessial soils represented by the Memphis, Grenada,
Providence, Calhoun, and Henry series. These loessial soils, as well as
Caddo, Wrightsville, Meggett, and Bude series, all having a site index
ranging from 23 to 34 m (75 to 110 ft), are some representative Alfisols
on which loblolly pine grows.
In the Atlantic Plain, the productivity of mineral soils generally
decreases with improvement in surface drainage. Productivity is sensitive
to soil fertility, however, and if fertility is low on poorly drained
sites, productivity decreases (63). The presence of a spodic horizon
within the rooting zone, as in the Leon series, frequently is associated
with low productivity. Deep, excessively drained sands are also very low
in site quality unless a water table or a clay lens which holds moisture
lies within reach of the tree roots (37).
In the Piedmont Plateau, where surface drainage is well developed,
physical characteristics of the soil, rather than surface drainage,
determine the availability of moisture, nutrients, and aeration. Here
uneroded soils with a thick surface layer and a friable subsoil have a
site index of 24 to 27 m (80 to 90 ft). Common series in this category are
Appling, Durham, Davidson, Georgeville, and Cecil. The least productive
sites are eroded soils with a very plastic subsoil such as the Orange and
Iredell series. When the A horizon is gone, site index is less than 12 m
(40 ft) (37).
In the Ridge and Valley Provinces loblolly pine site index of 18 to 26 m
(60 to 85 ft) generally increases from ridge tops to bottoms. This
variation is related to landform, slope position and aspect, and geology.
Soil features that determine site quality, such as soil temperatures,
surface soil thickness, subsoil consistency, and soil moisture, are
correlated with topography. However, past land use, differences in soil
parent material, and other factors also affect soil profile development
and cause variations in site quality independent of topography (92).
Perhaps as significant as the soils on which loblolly pine grows are
those soils in the region where loblolly pine does not grow. These are
principally Mollisols of the Blackbelt, Entisols of calcareous river
bottoms and terraces (that is, soils in the Louisa, Miller, and Precris
series characterized by high base saturation and high pH) and Alfisols of
the Coastal Prairie of Louisiana and Texas with moderately high base
saturation. These soils may also have other unidentified properties which
exclude pine (72).
The topography throughout the loblolly pine range varies from flat near
the coast to mountainous in the interior highlands. The topography can
best be related to the physiographic regions within the loblolly pine
range.
The Atlantic Plain is generally flat near the coast but becomes rolling
and hilly inland with elevations ranging up to 150 m (500 ft). The
Piedmont Plateau is more rolling, with highly developed drainage patterns
and generally finer textured soils. Elevations range up to 305 m (1,000
ft) in Georgia. The Ridge and Valley Province is about 64 km (40 mi) wide
and extends into the loblolly pine range from southeastern Tennessee into
northern Georgia and Alabama. The topography is characterized by a group
of valley floors separated by long, narrow, zigzagging ridges; elevations
range from about 185 m (600 ft) to about 365 m (1,200 ft). The Cumberland
Plateau, which lies just west of the Ridge and Valley Province, is
underlaid by massive sandstone and its topography is characterized by
winding narrow-crested ridges and narrow valleys. In some places the
sandstone has given rise to local upland flats and mesa-like forms or
knobs. Elevations range from 150 m (500 ft) in the southern part of the
region and in the valley floors to 305 m (1,000 ft) at the northern end of
the region and on ridge tops. The topography of the Highland Rim that
extends into south-central Tennessee and northern Alabama is undulating
with depressions and low domes where elevations range from 150 to 245 m
(500 to 800 ft).
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Special Uses
provided by Silvics of North America
Natural loblolly pine stands as well as intensively managed plantations
provide habitat for a variety of game and nongame wildlife species. The
primary game species that inhabit pine and pine-hardwood forests include
white-tailed deer, gray and fox squirrel, bobwhite quail, wild turkey,
mourning doves, and rabbits (94). Some of these species utilize the
habitat through all stages of stand development, while others are
attracted for only a short time during a particular stage of development.
For example, a loblolly pine plantation can provide forage for deer only
from the time of planting to crown closure. Without modifying management
practices, this usually occurs in 8 to 10 years (13). Bobwhite tend to use
the plantation until a decline in favored food species occurs (20). As the
habitat deteriorates, deer and quail usually move to mature pine or
pine-hardwood forests (47) or to other newly established plantations.
Management modifications such as wider planting spacing and early and
frequent thinnings will delay crown closure, and periodic prescribed bums
will stimulate wildlife food production.
Wild turkeys inhabit upland pine and pine-hardwood forests and do
particularly well on large tracts of mature timber with frequent openings
and where prescribed burning is conducted (96,97).
Pine lands are the chief habitat for some birds such as the pine
warbler, brown-headed nuthatch, and Bachman's warbler. Old-growth stands
are very important to the existence of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Large
loblolly pine trees are favorite roosting places for many birds and
provide an important nesting site for ospreys and the bald eagle (46).
In urban forestry, loblolly pines often are used as shade trees and for
wind and noise barriers throughout the South. They also have been used
extensively for soil stabilization and control of areas subject to severe
surface erosion and gullying. Loblolly pine provides rapid growth and site
occupancy and good litter production for these purposes (114,115).
Biomass for energy is currently being obtained from precommercial
thinnings and from logging residue in loblolly pine stands. Utilization of
these energy sources will undoubtedly increase, and loblolly pine energy
plantations may become a reality.
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Vegetative Reproduction
provided by Silvics of North America
Young loblolly pine seedlings up to 3
years of age may sprout from buds in axils of primary needles if tops are
clipped off, but older trees will not produce basal sprouts at root
collars if stems are cut or top-killed by fire, nor do they produce root
sprouts. Rooting is related to tree age and is more successful with
cuttings from younger trees. Techniques and materials used to root
cuttings are of critical importance. For example, a fine mist over the
rooting bench is better than a heavy mist, and Hare's powder is a better
compound to use than indolebutyric acid when rooting loblolly pine
cuttings. Although needle bundles and buds of loblolly pine have been
rooted, the success rate has been low. Air layering, a modification of
rooting cuttings, has been the more successful method of the two. Success
rates have been high for young trees but older trees are more difficult to
air layer (29,42,48,110).
Grafting is the most common method of vegetative propagation used to
produce genetically uniform trees, especially in seed orchards. Grafting
success is usually high but varies with scion material because problems
may develop from incompatibility of scion and root stock (29,37,66).
Producing genetically uniform plantlets from tissue cultures is a
promising technique, and research is underway to develop procedures for
the commercial production of loblolly pine clones (19,94).
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Distribution
provided by Silvics of North America
The native range of loblolly pine extends through 14 States from
southern New Jersey south to central Florida and west to eastern Texas. It
includes the Atlantic Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and the southern
extremities of the Cumberland Plateau, the Highland Rim, and the Valley
and Ridge Provinces of the Appalachian Highlands. Loblolly pine does not
grow naturally in the Mississippi River flood plain and is scarce in the
deep, coarse sands of the lower Atlantic Plain and sandhills of North and
South Carolina; it is important only in localized areas in southeastern
Georgia and northern Florida (37,55,69).
Loblolly pine is an adaptable species that has been successfully planted
along the periphery of its natural range and has been introduced on other
continents with varying degrees of success.
- The native range of loblolly pine.
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Brief Summary
provided by Silvics of North America
Pinaceae -- Pine family
James B. Baker and 0. Gordon Langdon
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), also called Arkansas pine, North
Carolina pine, and oldfield pine, is the most commercially important
forest species in the southern United States, where it is dominant on
about 11.7 million ha (29 million acres) and makes up over one-half of the
standing pine volume. It is a medium-lived, intolerant to moderately
tolerant tree with rapid juvenile growth. The species responds well to
silvicultural treatments and can be managed as either even-aged or
uneven-aged natural stands, or can be regenerated artificially and managed
in plantations.
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Physical Description
provided by USDA PLANTS text
Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves > 10 cm long, Leaves yellow-green above, Leaves yellow-green below, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves somewhat rounded, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 2, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 3, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds red, Seeds brown, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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- Stephen C. Meyers
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- Aaron Liston
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- Steffi Ickert-Bond
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- Damon Little
Pinus taeda
(
Azerbaijani
)
provided by wikipedia AZ
Pinus taeda (lat. Pinus taeda) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.
Mənbə
İynəyarpaqlılar ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin. Etdiyiniz redaktələri mənbə və istinadlarla əsaslandırmağı unutmayın.
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Azerbaijani
)
provided by wikipedia AZ
Pinus taeda (lat. Pinus taeda) - şamkimilər fəsiləsinin şam ağacı cinsinə aid bitki növü.
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Pinus taeda
(
Catalan; Valencian
)
provided by wikipedia CA
Pinus taeda (en anglès: Loblolly Pine) és un dels diversos pins originaris del sud-est dels Estats Units, va des del centre de Texas a Florida, arribant cap al nord a Delaware i el sud de Nova Jersey.[1] Domina a la meitat est de Carolina del Nord. La indústria de la fusta classifica aquesta espècie com southern yellow pine.[2]
Descripció
![src=]()
Cons masculins en desenvolupament
Arriba a fer 35 m d'alt. Les seves fulles aciculars formen grups de tres i fan de 12 a 22 cm de llargada. Les pinyes madures són de color marró pàl·lid i fan de 7 a 13 cm de llargada.[1][3]
Nom
![src=]()
Pinyes femenins madurs i sense obrir
La paraula del nom comú en anglès, loblolly, significa "lloc baix humit",[4] però aquests pins no estan limitats a aquest hàbitat específic. L'epítet del nom científic taeda es refereix a la seva fusta resinosa.[5]
Ecologia
Amb la vinguda de la supressió dels focs forestals (wildfire suppression), aquest pi ha agafat prevalència en algunes parts del sud dels Estats Units i especialment al nord de Florida.[6]
És un pi amb una alta taxa de creixement i se'n fan moltes plantacions als Estats Units, ja que se n'aprecia la fusta i també per a fer polpa de paper.[2]
Referències
En altres projectes de
Wikimedia:
Commons 
Viquiespècies -
↑ 1,0 1,1 Flora of North America: Pinus taeda
-
↑ 2,0 2,1 USDA FS: Silvics of Trees of North America: Pinus taeda
-
↑ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines. Drawings and descriptions of the genus Pinus, ed.2. Brill, Leiden ISBN 90-04-13916-8
-
↑ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Loblolly.
-
↑ Oklahoma Biological Survey: Pinus taeda L.
-
↑ Richardson, D. M., & Rundel, P. W. (1998). Ecology and biogeography of Pinus: an introduction. Pages 3–46 in Richardson, D. M., ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-55176-5
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Catalan; Valencian
)
provided by wikipedia CA
Pinus taeda (en anglès: Loblolly Pine) és un dels diversos pins originaris del sud-est dels Estats Units, va des del centre de Texas a Florida, arribant cap al nord a Delaware i el sud de Nova Jersey. Domina a la meitat est de Carolina del Nord. La indústria de la fusta classifica aquesta espècie com southern yellow pine.
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Weihrauch-Kiefer
(
German
)
provided by wikipedia DE
Die Weihrauch-Kiefer (Pinus taeda), auch Amerikanische Terpentin-Kiefer genannt (Hinweis auf die Nutzung), ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) innerhalb der Unterfamilie der Pinoideae aus der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Sie ist der offizielle Staatsbaum des US-Bundesstaates Arkansas.
Beschreibung
Die Weihrauch-Kiefer ist ein immergrüner Baum, der Wuchshöhen von 30 bis 35 Meter bei einem Stammdurchmesser von 50 bis 100 Zentimeter, selten auch darüber erreicht. Einzelne Exemplare an besonders geeigneten Standorten können sogar eine Wuchshöhe von 45 Meter erreichen, diese Exemplare sind die größten Kiefern aus der Gruppe der US-Südstaaten-Kiefern. Die Borke ist bei ausgewachsenen Bäumen rotbraun und bricht in schuppige Platten auf. Die etwa 12 bis 22 cm langen Nadeln sind zu je drei in Kurztrieben zusammengefasst. Dies ist eine mittlere Länge für die Gruppe der US-Südstaaten-Kiefern, kürzer als bei der Sumpfkiefer (Pinus palustris) oder Pinus elliottii einerseits, aber länger als bei Pinus echinata und Pinus glabra andererseits.
![src=]()
Zweig der Weihrauch-Kiefer mit vielen männlichen Zapfen
![src=]()
Samenzapfen der Weihrauch-Kiefer
Sie sind einhäusig getrenntgeschlechtig (monözisch). Die zylindrischen, männlichen Zapfen sind 20 bis 40 mm lang und gelb bis gelb-braun. Die anfangs grünlichen Zapfen sind zur Reifezeit hell- bis dunkelbraun. Ihre Länge beträgt etwa 7 bis 13 cm. Ihr Durchmesser beträgt 2 bis 3 cm im geschlossenen Zustand, vergrößert sich nach der Öffnung auf 4 bis 6 cm. Jede Zapfenschuppe trägt einen scharfen Stachel, der etwa 3 bis 6 mm groß ist. Der 5 bis 6 mm große, rot-braune Same besitzt einen bis zu 20 mm langen Flügel.
Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.[1]
Verbreitung
Die Weihrauch-Kiefer ist in den südöstlichen USA beheimatet. Ihre Vorkommen reichen entlang der Atlantikküste nach Norden bis nach Delaware, südlich bis ins nördliche Florida. Nordwestlich ins Landesinnere erstreckt sich das Vorkommen bis nach Tennessee; in westlicher Richtung reicht das Verbreitungsgebiet in etwa bis zum Fluss Mississippi; daneben gibt es noch isolierte Vorkommen in Zentral-Texas; die berühmten „Lost Pines“ im Gebiet um Bastrop (Texas) sowie Vorkommen entlang des Colorado River (Texas) in Texas gehören dazu.
Systematik
Pinus taeda wurde 1753 von Carl von Linné in seinem Werk "Species plantarum", Seite 1000 erstbeschrieben. Synonyme sind Pinus lutea Walter und Pinus mughoides E.H.L.Krause.[2]
"Eisenhower Tree"
Das wohl berühmteste Exemplar einer Weihrauch-Kiefer stand auf dem Golfplatz Augusta National in Georgia; da der ehemalige US-Präsident Dwight D. Eisenhower seine Golfbälle häufig in diesen Baum schlug, wurde dieses Exemplar auch Eisenhower Tree genannt. Im Februar 2014 musste er aufgrund der durch eine anhaltende Kältewelle verursachten starken Beschädigung gefällt werden.[3]
Quellen
Einzelnachweise
-
↑ Tropicos. [1]
-
↑ Rafaël Govaerts (Hrsg.): Pinus. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) – The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, abgerufen am 22. April 2019.
-
↑ Augusta ice storm puts an end to Eisenhower Tree. 17. Februar 2014, abgerufen am 8. August 2021 (englisch).
Weblinks
– Album mit Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
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Weihrauch-Kiefer: Brief Summary
(
German
)
provided by wikipedia DE
Die Weihrauch-Kiefer (Pinus taeda), auch Amerikanische Terpentin-Kiefer genannt (Hinweis auf die Nutzung), ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Kiefern (Pinus) innerhalb der Unterfamilie der Pinoideae aus der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Sie ist der offizielle Staatsbaum des US-Bundesstaates Arkansas.
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Pinus taeda
(
Udmurt
)
provided by wikipedia emerging languages
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Pinus taeda
(
Komi
)
provided by wikipedia emerging languages
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Pinus taeda
provided by wikipedia EN
Pinus taeda, commonly known as loblolly pine, is one of several subtropical pines native to the Southeastern United States, from East Texas to Florida, and north to southern New Jersey.[2] The wood industry classifies the species as a southern yellow pine.[3] U.S. Forest Service surveys found that loblolly pine is the second-most common species of tree in the United States, after red maple.[4] For its timber, the pine species is regarded as the most commercially important tree in the Southeastern U.S.[5][6][7] The common name loblolly is given because the pine species is found mostly in lowlands and swampy areas.[8]
Loblolly pine is the first among over 100 species of Pinus to have its complete genome sequenced. As of March 2014, it was the organism having the largest sequenced genome size. Its genome, with 22 billion base pairs, is seven times larger than that of humans.[9][10] As of 2018, assembly of the axolotl genome (32Gb) displaced loblolly pine as the largest assembled genome.[11] The loblolly pine was selected as the official state tree of Arkansas in 1939.[12]
Description
Loblolly pine can reach a height of 30–35 meters (98–115 feet) with a diameter of 0.4–1.5 m (1.3–4.9 ft). Exceptional specimens may reach 50 m (160 ft) tall, the largest of the southern pines. Its needles are in bundles of three, sometimes twisted, and measure 12–22 centimeters (4+3⁄4–8+3⁄4 inches) long, an intermediate length for southern pines, shorter than those of the longleaf pine or slash pine, but longer than those of the shortleaf pine and spruce pine. The needles usually last up to two years before they fall, which gives the species its evergreen character.
Mature unopened female cones
Although some needles fall throughout the year due to severe weather, insect damage, and drought, most needles fall during the autumn and winter of their second year. The seed cones are green, ripening pale buff-brown, 7–13 cm (2+3⁄4–5 in) in length, 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) broad when closed, opening to 4–6 cm (1+1⁄2–2+1⁄4 in) wide, each scale bearing a sharp spine 3 to 6 millimeters (1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in) long.[2][13]
The tallest loblolly pine currently known, which is 51.4 m (169 ft) tall, and the largest, which measures 42 cubic meters (1,500 cubic feet) in volume, are in Congaree National Park.[14]
Etymology and taxonomy
The word "loblolly" is a combination of "lob", referring to thick, heavy bubbling of cooking porridge, and "lolly", an old British dialect word for broth, soup, or any other food boiled in a pot. In the southern United States, the word is used to mean "a mudhole; a mire," a sense derived from an allusion to the consistency of porridge. Hence, the pine is named as it is generally found in lowlands and swampy areas.[8] Loblolly pines grow well in acidic clay soil, which is common throughout the South, thus are often found in large stands in rural places.
Other old names, now rarely used, include oldfield pine due to its status as an early colonizer of abandoned fields; bull pine due to its size (several other yellow pines are also often so named, especially large isolated specimens); rosemary pine due to loblolly's distinctive fragrance compared to the other southern pines; and North Carolina pine.[15]
For the scientific name, Pinus is the Latin name for the pines and taeda refers to the resinous wood.[16]
A gigantic old-growth loblolly pine, note human for scale
Ecology
With the advent of wildfire suppression, loblolly pine has become prevalent in some parts of the Deep South that were once dominated by longleaf pine and, especially in northern Florida, slash pine.[17]
Its rate of growth is rapid, even among the generally fast-growing southern pines. The yellowish, resinous wood is prized for lumber, but is also used for wood pulp. This tree is commercially grown in extensive plantations.[3]
Loblolly pine is the pine of the Lost Pines Forest around Bastrop, Texas, and in McKinney Roughs along the Texas Colorado River. These are isolated populations on areas of acidic sandy soil, surrounded by alkaline clays that are poor for pine growth.
A study using loblolly pines showed that higher atmospheric carbon dioxide levels may help the trees to endure ice storms better.[18]
Notable trees
The famous "Eisenhower Tree" on the 17th hole of Augusta National Golf Club was a loblolly pine. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, an Augusta National member, hit the tree so many times that at a 1956 club meeting, he proposed that it be cut down. Not wanting to offend the President, the club's chairman, Clifford Roberts, immediately adjourned the meeting rather than reject the request outright. In February 2014, an ice storm severely damaged the Eisenhower Tree. The opinion of arborists was that the tree could not be saved and should be removed, which it subsequently was.[19]
The "Morris Pine" is located in southeastern Arkansas; it is over 300 years old with a diameter of 142 cm (56 in) and a height of 35.7 m (117 ft).[20]
Loblolly pine seeds were carried aboard the Apollo 14 flight. On its return, the seeds were planted in several locations in the US, including the grounds of the White House. As of 2016, a number of these moon trees remain alive.[21]
Genome
Pines are the most common conifers and the genus Pinus consists of more than 100 species. Sequencing of their genomes remained a huge challenge because of the high complexity and size.[22] Loblolly pine became the first species with its complete genome sequenced.[9][23] This was the largest genome assembled until 2018, when the axolotl genome (32Gb) was assembled.[11]
The loblolly pine genome is made up of 22.18 billion base pairs, which is more than seven times that of humans.[10] Conifer genomes are known to be full of repetitive DNA, which make up 82% of the genome in loblolly pine (compared to only 50% in humans). The number of genes is estimated at about 50,172, of which 15,653 are already confirmed. Most of the genes are duplicates. Some genes have the longest introns observed among fully sequenced plant genomes.[24]
Inbreeding depression
Gymnosperms are predominantly outcrossing, but lack genetic self-incompatibility. Loblolly pine, like most gymnosperms, exhibits high levels of inbreeding depression, especially in the embryonic stage. The loblolly pine harbors an average load of at least eight lethal equivalents.[25] A lethal equivalent is the number of deleterious genes per haploid genome whose cumulative effect is the equivalent of one lethal gene. The presence of at least eight lethal equivalents implies substantial inbreeding depression upon self-fertilization.
See also
References
-
^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Pinus taeda". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42420A2978958. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42420A2978958.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
-
^ a b Kral, Robert (1993). "Pinus taeda". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
-
^ a b Baker, James B.; Langdon, 0. Gordon (1990). "Pinus taeda". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 1 – via Southern Research Station.
-
^ Nix, Steve. "Ten Most Common Trees in the United States". About.com Forestry. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
-
^ "Loblolly Pine". Plant Information Center. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
-
^ "Loblolly pine". Virginia Tech Forestry Department. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
-
^ "Loblolly Pine". Tree Improvement Programme. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
-
^ a b The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
-
^ a b Zimin, Aleksey; Stevens, Kristian; et al. (Mar 2014). "Sequencing and Assembly of the 22-Gb Loblolly Pine Genome". Genetics. 196 (3): 875–890. doi:10.1534/genetics.113.159715. PMC 3948813. PMID 24653210.
-
^ a b Main, Douglas (20 March 2014). "Scientists Sequence The Largest Genome To Date". Popular Science. A Bonnier Corporation Company. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
-
^ a b Eugene W. Myers, Sergej Nowoshilow (2018). "The axolotl genome and the evolution of key tissue formation regulators". Nature. 554 (7690): 50–55. Bibcode:2018Natur.554...50N. doi:10.1038/nature25458. PMID 29364872.
-
^ "47 Arkansas Facts". Meet The USA. 2022.
-
^ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines: Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus, ed.2. Brill, Leiden ISBN 90-04-13916-8.
-
^ Earle, Christopher J., ed. (2018). "Pinus taeda". The Gymnosperm Database.
-
^ Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Tufts, Craig; Mathews, Daniel; Nelson, Gil; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Purinton, Terry; Block, Andrew (2008). National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-4027-3875-3.
-
^ "Oklahoma Biological Survey: Pinus taeda L." Archived from the original on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
-
^ Richardson, D. M., & Rundel, P. W. (1998). Ecology and biogeography of Pinus: an introduction. Pages 3–46 in Richardson, D. M., ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-55176-5.
-
^ Greenhouse Gas Good for Some Trees - LiveScience.com
-
^ Boyette, John (February 16, 2014). "Masters landmark Ike's Tree suffers major damage, removed". The Augusta Chronicle. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
-
^ Bragg, Don C. "The Morris Pine" (PDF). Bulletin of the Eastern Native Tree Society. Volume 1 (Summer 2006): 20. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
-
^ Williams, David R. (28 July 2009). "The "Moon Trees"". Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
-
^ Neves, Leandro G.; Davis, John M.; Barbazuk, William B.; Kirst, Matias (2013). "Whole-exome targeted sequencing of the uncharacterized pine genome". The Plant Journal. 75 (1): 146–156. doi:10.1111/tpj.12193. PMID 23551702.
-
^ Neale, David B; et al. (Mar 2014). "Decoding the massive genome of loblolly pine using haploid DNA and novel assembly strategies". Genome Biology. 15 (3): R59. doi:10.1186/gb-2014-15-3-r59. PMC 4053751. PMID 24647006.
-
^ Wegrzyn, J. L.; Liechty, J. D.; Stevens, K. A.; Wu, L.-S.; Loopstra, C. A.; Vasquez-Gross, H. A.; Dougherty, W. M.; Lin, B. Y.; Zieve, J. J.; Martinez-Garcia, P. J.; Holt, C.; Yandell, M.; Zimin, A. V.; Yorke, J. A.; Crepeau, M. W.; Puiu, D.; Salzberg, S. L.; de Jong, P. J.; Mockaitis, K.; Main, D.; Langley, C. H.; Neale, D. B. (2014). "Unique Features of the Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda L.) Megagenome Revealed Through Sequence Annotation". Genetics. 196 (3): 891–909. doi:10.1534/genetics.113.159996. PMC 3948814. PMID 24653211.
-
^ Remington DL, O'Malley DM (2000). "Whole-genome characterization of embryonic stage inbreeding depression in a selfed loblolly pine family". Genetics. 155 (1): 337–48. doi:10.1093/genetics/155.1.337. PMC 1461072. PMID 10790407.
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
provided by wikipedia EN
Pinus taeda, commonly known as loblolly pine, is one of several subtropical pines native to the Southeastern United States, from East Texas to Florida, and north to southern New Jersey. The wood industry classifies the species as a southern yellow pine. U.S. Forest Service surveys found that loblolly pine is the second-most common species of tree in the United States, after red maple. For its timber, the pine species is regarded as the most commercially important tree in the Southeastern U.S. The common name loblolly is given because the pine species is found mostly in lowlands and swampy areas.
Loblolly pine is the first among over 100 species of Pinus to have its complete genome sequenced. As of March 2014, it was the organism having the largest sequenced genome size. Its genome, with 22 billion base pairs, is seven times larger than that of humans. As of 2018, assembly of the axolotl genome (32Gb) displaced loblolly pine as the largest assembled genome. The loblolly pine was selected as the official state tree of Arkansas in 1939.
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Torĉpino
(
Esperanto
)
provided by wikipedia EO
La torĉpino (Pinus taeda; angle loblolly pine) estas unu el la pluraj pinospecioj indiĝenaj en Sudorienta Usono, ekde centra Teksaso oriente al Florido, kaj norde al Delavaro kaj suda Nov-Ĵerzejo [1]. La lignindustrio klasifikas la specion kiel southern yellow pine (suda flava pino). Laŭ la Usona Arbara Administracio torĉpino estas la dua plej komuna arbospecio en la lando, post la ruĝa acero (Acer rubrum) [2].
Nomo
La scienca kaj la Esperanta nomoj referencas al la tre rezina ligno [3]. La branĉoj estas facile uzeblaj kiel torĉoj (taeda = torĉo). Ankaŭ en la franca lingvo la arbospecio havas tian nomon : pin à torches.
La vorto loblolly signifas "malaltaĵa, humida ejo" [4] sed la specio ne troviĝas ekskluzive en tiaj vivejoj. La torĉpino prosperas en acidaj argilaj grundoj, kiuj estas komunaj tra la usona Sudo, kaj tial la torĉpino estas ofte trovebla en grandaj arbareoj en kamparaj lokoj [5].
Priskribo
![src=]()
Disvolviĝantaj pingloj kaj masklaj strobiloj.
La arboj atingas altecon de 30-35 m kun diametro de 0,4-1,5 m . Esceptaj specimenoj povas havi altecon de 50 m, kaj la specio estas la plej granda el la sudaj pinoj. Ĝiaj pingloj, foje torditaj, estas faske arigitaj po tri pingloj; ili havas longon de 12-22 cm; tiu ĉi estas meza longo por sudaj pinoj, pli mallonga ol tiu por la longfolia pino aŭ por la Eliot-pino, sed pli longa ol tiu por la mallongfolia pino (Pinus echinata) kaj por la glata pino (Pinus glabra).
La pingloj kutime vivas ĝis du jarojn antaŭ ol ili defalas, kio donas al la specio sian ĉiamverdan karakteron. Kvankam iuj pingloj defalas tra tuta la jaro pro severa vetero, insektodifekto, kaj arida periodo, la plej multaj pingloj defalas dum la aŭtuno kaj la vintro de sia dua jaro.
La semokonusoj estas verdaj, maturiĝante pale flavete-brune; ili estas 7-13 cm longaj, 2-3 cm larĝaj kiam fermite, malfermante ĝis 4-6 cm larĝe, ĉiun skamon portante akran 3-6 mm dornon [1][6].
La plej alta torĉpino nuntempe konata, en Nacia Parko Kongari, mezuras 51,4 m kaj la plej dika, ankaŭ en la sama nacia parko, havas volumon de 42 kubmetroj [7].
Ekologio
![src=]()
Maturaj ne malfermitaj femalaj strobiloj.
Kun la alveno de la arbarincendia subpremado, la torĉpino estas estinta dominanta en iuj partoj de la Ekstrema Sudo kie iam la longfolia pino estas estinta superreganta kaj, speciale en norda Florido, Eliot-pino [8].
La kreskadrapideco estas granda, eĉ por la ĝenerale rapidkreskantaj sudaj pinoj. La flaveca rezina ligno estas alte aprezata por konstruado, sed ankaŭ estas uzata por fibroligno. Tiu arbospecio estas komerce kreskigata en vastaj plantejoj[9].
La torĉpino estas la pino de la Arbaro Perditaj Pinoj (Lost Pines Forest) apud Bastrop (Teksaso), kaj en McKinney Roughs laŭlonge de la teksasa Kolorado-Rivero. Tiuj estas izolataj populacioj en areoj de acidaj sablaj grundoj, ĉirkauataj de alkalaj argiloj kiuj ne estas taŭgaj por pinokreskado.
Studo pri tiu nearktisa specio estas montrinta ke pli altaj niveloj de karbondioksido povas doni al arboj pli bonan rezistadon al glacioŝtormoj [10].
Rimarkindaj arboj
La fama "Arbo Eisenhower" ĉe la 17-a truo de Augusta National Golf Club estas torĉpino. La Prezidanto de Usono Dwight D. Eisenhower, membro de Augusta National, estis ĝin tuŝanta tiom da fojoj, ke dum kluba renkonto en 1956, li estis proponanta ĝian hakadon. Ne dezirante ofendi la Prezidanton, la kluba prezidanto, Clifford Roberts, tuj estis prokrastanta la renkonton prefere ol senpere rifuzi la peton.
La "Pino Morris" estas situanta en sudorienta Arkansaso; ĝi havas aĝon de pli ol 300 jaroj kun diametron de 142 cm je alteco de 35,7 m[11].
Vidu ankaŭ
- Sudorient-usonaj koniferaroj
Referencoj
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 angle Flora of North America: Pinus taeda
-
↑ angle . Ten Most Common Trees in the United States. About.com Forestry. Alirita 11 January 2013.
-
↑ angle Oklahoma Biological Survey: Pinus taeda L.
-
↑ angle The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Loblolly.
-
↑ angle Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews; Gil Nelson; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew. (2008) National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. ISBN 1-4027-3875-7.
-
↑ angle Farjon, A. 2005 : Pines. Drawings and descriptions of the genus Pinus, ed.2. Brill, Leiden ISBN 90-04-13916-8
-
↑ angle Gymnosperm Database: Pinus taeda
-
↑ angle Richardson, D. M., & Rundel, P. W. 1998 : Ecology and biogeography of Pinus: an introduction. Pages 3–46 in Richardson, D. M., ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-55176-5.
-
↑ angle USDA FS: Silvics of Trees of North America: Pinus taeda
-
↑ angle Greenhouse Gas Good for Some Trees - LiveScience.com
-
↑ angle Bragg, Don CThe Morris Pine. Bulletin of the Eastern Native Tree Society. Volume 1 (Summer 2006): 20. Alirita 2012-11-13.
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Torĉpino: Brief Summary
(
Esperanto
)
provided by wikipedia EO
La torĉpino (Pinus taeda; angle loblolly pine) estas unu el la pluraj pinospecioj indiĝenaj en Sudorienta Usono, ekde centra Teksaso oriente al Florido, kaj norde al Delavaro kaj suda Nov-Ĵerzejo . La lignindustrio klasifikas la specion kiel southern yellow pine (suda flava pino). Laŭ la Usona Arbara Administracio torĉpino estas la dua plej komuna arbospecio en la lando, post la ruĝa acero (Acer rubrum) .
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Pinus taeda
(
Spanish; Castilian
)
provided by wikipedia ES
Pinus taeda, el pino taeda, es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, género Pinus, originaria del sudeste estadounidense.
Descripción
Los árboles llegan a una altura de 30-35 m con un diámetro de 4-15 dm. Ejemplares excepcionales pueden llegar a 45 m de altura, el más alto de los pinos del sur. Sus agujas se reúnen de a tres, a veces retorcidos, de 12-22 cm de longitud, una longitud intermedia para pinos del sur, y más corta que aquellas de los Pinus palustris o Pinus elliottii, pero más largas que las de Pinus echinata y Pinus glabra. Los conos son verdes, y maduran a pardo pálido, de 7-13 cm de largo, 2-3 cm de ancho cuando cerrados, abiertos 4-6 cm de ancho, cada escama con una espina roma de 3-6 mm.
Tienen tendencia útil a autopodarse por desrame, de manera que queda el tronco despejado y largo, produciendo madera blanda, beige cremosa, resinosa, con aplicaciones similares a las del pino rígido, pero de una cantidad menor.
Estos pinos viven en ambientes de baja humedad, pero no se limitan a ese hábitat específico.
![src=]()
Corte de sección con los anillos anuales. Cheraw, South Carolina.
Otros nombres comunes: pino amarillo; pino grande, por su talla, especialmente ejemplares aislados; pino de Rosemary, por su distintiva fragancia en comparación de otros pinos del sur; pino de Cuba.[2]
Dasonomía
Con el perfeccionamiento del control de fuego forestal, esta especie ha comenzado a dominar áreas del sur estadounidense, debido a su rápido crecimiento. La madera amarilla, resinosa es altamente comercializada, en especial para pulpa de fibras.
Extensas plantaciones hay en el sur, pero actualmente se reforesta el norte: Nueva Jersey, Tennessee, Oklahoma y Texas central. Bastrop Texas, a lo largo del río Colorado. Hay poblaciones aisladas en áreas de suelos arenosos ácidos.
El "árbol de Eisenhower" es de esta especie.
Esta especie está ampliamente difundida en las reforestaciones de Argentina, en las provincias de Misiones, Corrientes y en menor medida, Córdoba. En Misiones prepondera, en cuanto a áreas anuales reforestadas, desde 1975, participa del 50% de las 270.000 ha de pinares [1]
Taxonomía
Pinus taeda fue descrita por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Species Plantarum 2: 1000. 1753.[3]
- Etimología
Pinus: nombre genérico dado en latín al pino.[4]
taeda: epíteto latino que significa "con resina".[5]
- Sinonimia
-
Pinus lutea Walter
-
Pinus mughoides E.H.L.Krause
-
Pinus taeda var. mughoides E.H.L.Krause[6][7]
Referencias
Bibliografía
- Flora of North America Editorial Committee, e. 1993. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Fl. N. Amer. 2: i–xvi, 1–475.
- Forzza, R. C. 2010. Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil https://web.archive.org/web/20150906080403/http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2010. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Río de Janeiro.
- Molina Rosito, A. 1975. Enumeración de las plantas de Honduras. Ceiba 19(1): 1–118.
- Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles & C. R. Bell. 1968. Man. Vasc. Fl. Carolinas i–lxi, 1–1183. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
- Small, J. K. 1933. Man. S.E. Fl. i–xxii, 1–1554. Published by the Author, New York.
- Wunderlin, R. P. 1998. Guide Vasc. Pl. Florida i–x, 1–806. University Press of Florida, Gainseville.
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Spanish; Castilian
)
provided by wikipedia ES
Pinus taeda, el pino taeda, es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, género Pinus, originaria del sudeste estadounidense.
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Pinus taeda
(
French
)
provided by wikipedia FR
Pinus taeda est une espèce d'arbre de la famille des Pinaceae. C'est une des nombreuses espèces de pin originaire du Sud-Est des États-Unis.
Elle est appelée pin taeda, pin à l’encens, pin à torches (« taeda » signifie « torche » en latin) car les Romains se servaient des branches de résineux pour faire des torches.
Description
![src=]()
Écorce d'un
Pinus taeda. Dans le jardin botanique de
Norfolk.
C'est un arbre à croissance très rapide qui peut atteindre 40 à 45 m de haut (en général de 30 à 35 m), qui arrive à maturité vers 40 ou 50 ans, et qui peut vivre 200 ans environ.
Il pousse plus droit que le pin maritime.
L'écorce, d’abord écailleuse, est ensuite profondément crevassée.
Les aiguilles fines et molles sont groupées par trois. Elles mesurent de 8 à 15 cm de long, sont persistantes, de couleur verte, jaunissant en hiver.
Les cônes, sans pédoncule, sont verts et virent au brun à maturité.
Culture
Pinus taeda, comme le pin maritime, pousse sur la roche, dans les sables arides et dans les terres crayeuses et calcaires[Information douteuse] qui ne conviendraient à aucun autre végétal. Il pousse toutefois de façon optimale en terres acides et a besoin d'un sol un peu plus fertile que le pin maritime auquel on réservera les parcelles les plus pauvres[1].
Ce pin est une essence de pleine lumière, qui demande au moins 800 mm d’eau par an.
Le pin à l'encens se caractérise par l'absence d'attaques de la rouille courbeuse et de la pyrale du tronc (deux problèmes importants chez le pin maritime) mais il est très sensible au stress hydrique, aux hylobes, scolytes et à la chenille processionnaire du pin. Il a également l'inconvénient d'être très apprécié des chevreuils, bien qu'en général cela n'ait pas de conséquence irrémédiable[2].
Exploitation industrielle
Pinus taeda est l'une des plus importantes espèces commerciales aux États-Unis d'Amérique. Son bois jaunâtre est très prisé pour le bois d'œuvre, mais est aussi utilisé pour la fabrication de lambris ou de palettes. Sa fibre permet son utilisation en pâte à papier.
En Europe, c'est à partir des années 1950 que commencent les premiers essais en sylviculture[1].
En France, on trouve plus de 2 000 ha de plantations de Pin taeda principalement en Aquitaine où les surfaces sont en forte expansion depuis la tempête de 1999. Il peut offrir une alternative au Pin maritime sur les landes les plus riches du massif landais, sur les terrains favorables hors massif ainsi que pour boiser des terres agricoles délaissées. Un très bon suivi sylvicole est nécessaire à l’obtention d’un bois de qualité.
Références
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
French
)
provided by wikipedia FR
Pinus taeda est une espèce d'arbre de la famille des Pinaceae. C'est une des nombreuses espèces de pin originaire du Sud-Est des États-Unis.
Elle est appelée pin taeda, pin à l’encens, pin à torches (« taeda » signifie « torche » en latin) car les Romains se servaient des branches de résineux pour faire des torches.
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Pinus taeda
(
Icelandic
)
provided by wikipedia IS
Pinus taeda er furutegund sem er ættuð frá Suðaustur-Bandaríkjunum, frá mið Texas austur til Flórída, og norður til Delaware og suður-New Jersey.[2][3] Vegna timbursins er hún talin eitt efnahagslega mikilvægasta trjátegundin í suðaustur-Bandaríkjunum.[4][5][6]
Lýsing
Pinus taeda getur orðið 30 til 35 m há með þvermál um 0,4 til 1,5 m. Einstaka tré geta orðið 50 m há. Barrnálarnar eru 3 saman í búnti, stundum undnar, og eru 12 til 22 sm langar. Þær haldast yfirleitt í tvö ár áður en þær falla, flestar að hausti og vetri á öðru ári. Óþroskaðir könglarnir eru grænir, og verða fölbrúnir við þroska, 7 til 13 sm langir og 2,3 sm breiðir lokaðir, en 4,6 sm breiðir við opnun, hver köngulskel með hvössum gaddi (3-6mm langur).[2][7] Börkurinn er rauðbrúnn og hreistraður.
Hæsta þekkta furan er 51,4 m há, og sú stærsta að rúmmáli er 42m3, eru í Congaree National Park.[8]
Sjá einnig
Tilvísanir
-
↑ Farjon, A. (2013). „Pinus taeda“. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2013: e.T42420A2978958. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42420A2978958.en. Sótt 27. desember 2017.
-
↑ 2,0 2,1 Kral, Robert (1993). "Pinus taeda". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee. Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
-
↑ Baker, James B.; Langdon, 0. Gordon (1990). "Pinus taeda". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H.
-
↑ „Loblolly Pine“. Plant Information Center. Sótt 27. mars 2014.
-
↑ „Loblolly pine“. Virginia Tech Forestry Department. Sótt 27. mars 2014.
-
↑ „Loblolly Pine“. Tree Improvement Programme. Sótt 27. mars 2014.
-
↑ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines. Drawings and descriptions of the genus Pinus, ed.2. Brill, Leiden ISBN 90-04-13916-8 .
-
↑ Earle, Christopher J., ed. (2018). "Pinus taeda". The Gymnosperm Database.
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Icelandic
)
provided by wikipedia IS
Pinus taeda er furutegund sem er ættuð frá Suðaustur-Bandaríkjunum, frá mið Texas austur til Flórída, og norður til Delaware og suður-New Jersey. Vegna timbursins er hún talin eitt efnahagslega mikilvægasta trjátegundin í suðaustur-Bandaríkjunum.
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Pinus taeda
(
Italian
)
provided by wikipedia IT
Il Pinus taeda è una specie di pino nativa degli Stati Uniti d'America sud-orientali, precisamente dal Texas centrale ad est verso la Florida, e da nord nel Delaware e nel New Jersey meridionale.[1] I sondaggi del Servizio Forestale degli Stati Uniti hanno scoperto che il Pinus taeda è la seconda specie di albero più comune negli Stati Uniti, dopo l'acero rosso.[2]
Note
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Italian
)
provided by wikipedia IT
Il Pinus taeda è una specie di pino nativa degli Stati Uniti d'America sud-orientali, precisamente dal Texas centrale ad est verso la Florida, e da nord nel Delaware e nel New Jersey meridionale. I sondaggi del Servizio Forestale degli Stati Uniti hanno scoperto che il Pinus taeda è la seconda specie di albero più comune negli Stati Uniti, dopo l'acero rosso.
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Terpentininė pušis
(
Lithuanian
)
provided by wikipedia LT
Terpentininė pušis (Pinus taeda) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi Šiaurės Amerikoje, pietrytinėje JAV dalyje (Šiaurės Karolinoje, Virdžinijoje, Tenesyje, Džordžijoje, Floridoje ir kt.).
Aukštis iki 46 m, kamieno skersmuo iki 160 cm. Kamienas status, be šalutinių šakų. Laja plačiai kūgiška arba apskrita. Žievė rausvai ruda, netaisyklingai sueižėjusi. Spygliai 12-18 cm ilgio, 1,2 mm storio, susitelkę po 2-3. Kankorėžiai lancelotiški, gelsvai rudi, 6-12 cm ilgio, rombiškais, tamsiakraščiais žvyneliais. Sėklos 5-6 mm ilgio, su 2 cm ilgio skristuku.
Gali išgyventi iki 150–200 metų. Auga iki 700 m aukštyje, žemumose, pelkių pakraščiuose. Mediena naudojama medienos ir celiuliozės pramonėje[1].
Šaltiniai
Jauni vyriški kankorėžiai
Terpentininių pušų giraitė Teksase
Vikiteka
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Terpentininė pušis: Brief Summary
(
Lithuanian
)
provided by wikipedia LT
Terpentininė pušis (Pinus taeda) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi Šiaurės Amerikoje, pietrytinėje JAV dalyje (Šiaurės Karolinoje, Virdžinijoje, Tenesyje, Džordžijoje, Floridoje ir kt.).
Aukštis iki 46 m, kamieno skersmuo iki 160 cm. Kamienas status, be šalutinių šakų. Laja plačiai kūgiška arba apskrita. Žievė rausvai ruda, netaisyklingai sueižėjusi. Spygliai 12-18 cm ilgio, 1,2 mm storio, susitelkę po 2-3. Kankorėžiai lancelotiški, gelsvai rudi, 6-12 cm ilgio, rombiškais, tamsiakraščiais žvyneliais. Sėklos 5-6 mm ilgio, su 2 cm ilgio skristuku.
Gali išgyventi iki 150–200 metų. Auga iki 700 m aukštyje, žemumose, pelkių pakraščiuose. Mediena naudojama medienos ir celiuliozės pramonėje.
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Virakfuru
(
Norwegian
)
provided by wikipedia NO
Virakfuru (Pinus taeda) er en art i furufamilien. Virakfurua vokser vilt i sørøstre deler av USA.
Litteratur
- «Pinus taeda». Flora of North America. Besøkt 29. desember 2015.
- J.B. Baker og G. Langdon. «Loblolly Pine». Silvics of North America. Besøkt 29. desember 2015.
- «Pinus taeda». The Gymnosperm Database. Besøkt 29. desember 2015.
Eksterne lenker
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Virakfuru: Brief Summary
(
Norwegian
)
provided by wikipedia NO
Virakfuru (Pinus taeda) er en art i furufamilien. Virakfurua vokser vilt i sørøstre deler av USA.
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Sosna taeda
(
Polish
)
provided by wikipedia POL
Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons Sosna taeda (Pinus taeda L.) – gatunek drzewa iglastego należącego do rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). Sosna taeda występuje w Ameryce Północnej na terenie USA (stany: New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Wirginia, Karolina Północna i Południowa, Tennessee, Georgia, Floryda, Alabama, Missisipi, Luizjana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Teksas).
Morfologia
- Pokrój
- Średnie lub duże drzewo iglaste. Korona owalna lub zaokrąglona, dosyć zbita i osadzona wysoko, bez przypadkowych gałęzi bocznych.
- Pień
- Pień prosty, osiąga wysokość 18–45 m (średnio 30–35 m) i szerokość 0,4–1,5 m. Kora czerwono-brązowa, z pęknięciami tworzącymi kwadratowe lub prostokątne płaty.
- Liście
- Igły zebrane w pęczki po 2 lub 3, żółto-zielone, długości 12–20 cm, szerokości 1–2 mm, proste, lekko skręcone.
- Szyszki
- Szyszki męskie długie, cylindryczne, czerwono-żółte, zebrane w wiązki na końcach ubiegłorocznych gałązek. Szyszki żeńskie wyrastają na tegorocznych pędach, początkowo żółte do purpurowych. Dojrzałe owalne, długości 6–12 cm, czerwono-brązowe, zgrupowane po 2 do 5. Zamknięte szyszki są u podstawy szerokie na 2–3 cm, po otwarciu do 4–6 cm. Łuski wyposażone w ostre kolce długości 3–6 mm. Dojrzewają w ciągu dwóch lat, od września do października. Nasiona wielkości 5–6 mm, o skrzydełku długości 20 mm.
Biologia i ekologia
Drzewo wiecznie zielone. Rośnie szybko. Igły pozostają na drzewie przez 3 lata.
Drzewo jednopienne. Pylenie szyszek męskich następuje między 15 lutego a 10 kwietnia, zależnie od temperatur i wysokości n.p.m. Szyszki męskie zazwyczaj pylą wcześniej zanim w pełni wykształcą się szyszki żeńskie i są zdolne do zapylenia. Dzięki temu w dużej mierze udaje się zapobiec samozapyleniu. Do zapłodnienia dochodzi na wiosnę następnego roku po zapyleniu. Szyszki nasienne dojrzewają w ciągu dwóch lat, od września do października. Nasiona uwalniane są wkrótce potem. Sosny taeda wytwarzają nasiona co roku, co 3–6 lat obficie.
Sosna ta rośnie na terenach nizinnych, na granicach mokradeł ale także na suchych wyżynach (wysokości 0–700 m n.p.m.). Lubi stanowiska nasłonecznione i półcień. Toleruje ubogie gleby. Tworzy stanowiska jednogatunkowe lub mieszane z sosnami i innymi gatunkami drzew. Na glebach dobrze przepuszczalnych często występuje razem z Pinus palustris, P. echinata i P. virginiana w obrębie ich zasięgów, oraz z dębami (Quercus falcata, Q. alba, Q. stellata, Q. marilandica), sasafrasem lekarskim (Sassafras albidum), persymoną (Diospyros virginiana). Na glebach średnio i słabo przepuszczalnych towarzyszą jej Pinus serotina, P. glabra, Nyssa sylvatica, Acer rubrum, Quercus nigra, Q. phellos, Q. falcata var. pagodifolia. Na południu zasięgu sosna taeda licznie występuje z Pinus eliottii i Quercus laurifolia.
Systematyka i zmienność
Pozycja gatunku w obrębie rodzaju Pinus[3]:
Sosna taeda krzyżuje się z Pinus echinata i Pinus palustris (Pinus ×sondereggeri H.H. Chapman)[4].
Zastosowanie
Sosna taeda jest jedną z najbardziej znaczących sosen w południowych stanach USA. Stanowi około 50% drzewostanu sosnowego tamtych obszarów. Łatwo adaptuje się do nowych warunków, dzięki czemu wprowadzona została do uprawy także na innych kontynentach[5].
Przypisy
Bibliografia
-
R. Kral. Pinus serotina. „Flora of North America North of Mexico”. Vol. 2, 1993. Flora of North America Editorial Committee (red.). Oxford University Press (ang.). [dostęp 2009-09-26].
-
Russell M. Burns, Barbara H. Honkala. Silvics of North America / v.1, Pinus taeda. „Agriculture Handbook”. 654, 1990. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service (ang.). [dostęp 2009-10-03].
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Sosna taeda: Brief Summary
(
Polish
)
provided by wikipedia POL
Sosna taeda (Pinus taeda L.) – gatunek drzewa iglastego należącego do rodziny sosnowatych (Pinaceae). Sosna taeda występuje w Ameryce Północnej na terenie USA (stany: New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Wirginia, Karolina Północna i Południowa, Tennessee, Georgia, Floryda, Alabama, Missisipi, Luizjana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Teksas).
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Pinus taeda
(
Portuguese
)
provided by wikipedia PT
Pinus taeda é uma espécie de pinheiro originária do Novo Mundo. Faz parte do grupo de espécies de pinheiros com área de distribuição no Canadá e Estados Unidos (com excepção das àreas adjacentes à fronteira com o México). No Brasil, é uma das espécies mais utilizadas para a produção junto com o pinus elliottii.[1]
Ver também
Referências
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Portuguese
)
provided by wikipedia PT
Pinus taeda é uma espécie de pinheiro originária do Novo Mundo. Faz parte do grupo de espécies de pinheiros com área de distribuição no Canadá e Estados Unidos (com excepção das àreas adjacentes à fronteira com o México). No Brasil, é uma das espécies mais utilizadas para a produção junto com o pinus elliottii.
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Loblollytall
(
Swedish
)
provided by wikipedia SV
Loblollytall (Pinus taeda) är en av flera tallar hemmahörande i sydöstra USA, från Texas österut till Florida, och norrut till Delaware.[1] Den är särskilt dominerande i den östra delen av North Carolina, där det finns stora skogsområden som nästan enbart består av loblollytall, i motsats till resten av sydstaterna, där skogen innehåller loblollytall, men också många andra arter av träd. Det är en av de arter som inom träindustrin räknas till gruppen sydlig gul tall.
Utseende
Loblollytallar når en höjd av 30–35 meter med en diameter på 0,4–1,5 meter. Vissa exemplar kan uppnå en höjd av 50 meter, högst av alla tallar i södra USA. Dess barr växer i buntar om tre, ibland vridna, och mäter 12–22 centimeter, en medellängd för söderns tallar (kortare än barren hos Pinus palustris eller Pinus elliottii, men längre än hos Pinus echinata och Pinus glabra). Barren finns vanligtvis kvar i upp till två år innan de faller av, vilket ger arten dess vintergröna karaktär. Även om vissa barr faller under hela året på grund av hårt väder, insektsangrepp och torka, faller de flesta barren av under hösten och vintern under sitt andra år. Nybildade kottar är gröna och mogna kottar är ljusbruna. Kottarnas längd är 7–13 centimeter. Bredden är 2–3 centimeter när de är stängda och 4–6 centimeter när de öppnas.[1][2] Den högsta kända loblollytallen finns i Congaree nationalpark och har en höjd av 51,4 meter (169 fot). I Congaree nationalpark finns även den största loblollytallen, med en volym av 42 kubikmeter.[3]
Ekologi
Ordet loblolly betyder "låg, fuktig plats"[4], men dessa träd är inte begränsade till den specifika livsmiljön. Loblollytall växer bra i sur lerjord som är vanlig i hela södern, och tallen är vanlig i stora bestånd på landsbygden.
Etymologi
Andra äldre namn på loblollytallen i USA är "oldfield pine" (på grund av sin ställning som en tidig kolonisatör av övergivna områden) och "bull pine" (på grund av dess storlek, men flera andra gula tallar kallas också så, i synnerhet stora enstaka exemplar), samt "rosemary pine" (på grund av dess speciella doft jämfört med de andra arterna) och "North Carolina pine".[5] Dess vetenskapliga artepitet taeda hänvisar till dess hartsartade trä.[6]
Referenser
- ^ [a b] Flora of North America: Pinus taeda
-
^ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines. Drawings and descriptions of the genus Pinus, ed.2. Brill, Leiden ISBN 90-04-13916-8.
-
^ Gymnosperm Database: Pinus taeda
-
^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Loblolly.
-
^ Moore, Gerry; Kershner, Bruce; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews; Gil Nelson; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew (2008). National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America. New York: Sterling. sid. 73. ISBN 1-4027-3875-7
-
^ ”Oklahoma Biological Survey: Pinus taeda L.”. Arkiverad från originalet den 22 juni 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100622042503/http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/pita.htm#. Läst 21 juni 2010.
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Loblollytall: Brief Summary
(
Swedish
)
provided by wikipedia SV
Loblollytall (Pinus taeda) är en av flera tallar hemmahörande i sydöstra USA, från Texas österut till Florida, och norrut till Delaware. Den är särskilt dominerande i den östra delen av North Carolina, där det finns stora skogsområden som nästan enbart består av loblollytall, i motsats till resten av sydstaterna, där skogen innehåller loblollytall, men också många andra arter av träd. Det är en av de arter som inom träindustrin räknas till gruppen sydlig gul tall.
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Pinus taeda
(
Ukrainian
)
provided by wikipedia UK
Поширення
Ендемік південно-східного США: росте від штату Делавер і Нью-Джерсі до центральної Флориди і східного Техасу.
Опис
Середня висота рослини 30.5 м, загалом, до 50 м. Щільність деревини: 0,47 гр/см3. Стовбур 40—160 см діаметром. Кора червоно-коричнева. Гілля від оранжево до жовто-коричневого кольору, при старінні стає темно-коричневим. Бруньки циліндричні, блідо-червоно-коричневі. Насіннєві зрілі шишки блідо-бурого кольору, 7-13 см у довжину, 2-3 см вшир, коли закриті, відкриті ж 4-6 см.
Найстаріше, 241-річне дерево росте в Південній Кароліні (Pederson, 2006).
Використання
Зазвичай використовується в лісонасадженнях, а також комерційно, як цінна порода дерев.
Загрози та охорона
Ніяких конкретних загроз не було визначено для цього виду. Відомий з численних охоронних територій у своєму діапазоні зростання.
Посилання
Галерея
Це незавершена стаття про родину Соснові.
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Pinus taeda
(
Vietnamese
)
provided by wikipedia VI
Pinus taeda là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.[1]
Chú thích
-
^ The Plant List (2010). “Pinus taeda”. Truy cập ngày 9 tháng 8 năm 2013.
Liên kết ngoài
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Pinus taeda: Brief Summary
(
Vietnamese
)
provided by wikipedia VI
Pinus taeda là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được L. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1753.
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Сосна ладанная
(
Russian
)
provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Вид: Сосна ладанная
Международное научное название
Pinus taeda L. (1753)
Охранный статус 
Систематика
на Викивидах
Изображения
на Викискладе ITIS 18037NCBI 3352EOL 1033636IPNI 263357-1TPL kew-2562300 Сосна ладанная (лат. Pinus taeda) — вид вечнозелёных деревьев рода Сосна семейства Сосновые.
Распространение и экология
В естественных условиях растёт в Северной Америке. Встречается на юго-востоке США вдоль Атлантического побережья от Нью-Джерси до Северной Флориды и Теннесси до высоты 450 м над уровнем моря. В пределах естественного ареала этот вид встречается, как правило, в низменностях, на сырых, болотистых почвах по долинам рек.
Ботаническое описание
Сосна ладанная — быстрорастущее дерево, способное к 30—40 годам достичь высоты 35 метров с диаметром ствола 1,4—1,5 метра. Хвоя тонкая, светло-зелёная, длиной 20-30 см (до 40 см) в пучках по 5 штук.
Шишки продолговатые, с толстыми шипами.
Значение и применение
Древесина устойчива против гниения, имеет хорошие механические свойства.
Акклиматизирована во многих странах, в том числе в Колхиде.
Ссылки
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Сосна ладанная: Brief Summary
(
Russian
)
provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Сосна ладанная (лат. Pinus taeda) — вид вечнозелёных деревьев рода Сосна семейства Сосновые.
火炬松
(
Chinese
)
provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Pinus taedaLinn. 火炬松（学名：Pinus taeda）为松科松属的植物。
形态
常绿乔木，高可达30多米；黄褐色小枝粗壮；叶子三针一束，长12－29厘米，较湿地松略粗，树脂管2或4个中生；淡褐色卵状椭圆形的球果，长7－12厘米，近于无柄，鳞脊隆起，鳞脐有粗肥的尖刺。
分布
原产于美国东南部[1] ，目前已由人工引种栽培，包括中国大陆。
参考文献
- 昆明植物研究所. 火炬松. 《中国高等植物数据库全库》. 中国科学院微生物研究所. [2009-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-05）.
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火炬松: Brief Summary
(
Chinese
)
provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科
火炬松（学名：Pinus taeda）为松科松属的植物。
テーダマツ
(
Japanese
)
provided by wikipedia 日本語
テーダマツ
保全状況評価 LOWER RISK - Least Concern (IUCN Red List Ver.2.3 (1994)) 
分類 界 :
植物界 Plantae 門 :
裸子植物門 Pinophyta 亜門 :
マツ亜門 Pinophytina 綱 :
マツ綱 Pinopsida 亜綱 :
マツ亜綱 Pinidae 目 : マツ目
Pinales 科 :
マツ科 Pinaceae 属 :
マツ属 Pinus 亜属 :
Pinus 節 :
Australes 種 :
テーダマツ P.taeda 学名 Pinus taeda L.
和名 テーダマツ, タエダマツ 英名
Loblolly Pine 
Pinus taedaの分布図
テーダマツ（Pinus taeda）はマツ科マツ属の樹木である。タエダマツ、タエダ松などとも表記される。
名前と分類[編集]
マツ科マツ属に属するいわゆるマツ (松、英語: Pine) の一種。マツ属の中では複維管束亜属に分類。亜種や変種は知られていない。
何種類かのマツとは雑種を形成し、比較的近縁であると考えられている。このうち、以下に挙げるマツとの雑種個体は天然でも確認されている。
※ ヌママツはリギダマツの亜種や変種にあたると考える学者もいる。
学名Pinus taedaの種小名 taedaは「樹脂に富む木材」を表している。和名はこの種小名に由来するテーダマツの呼び名が一般的である。原産地のアメリカでの代表的呼称は Loblolly Pine。Loblollyは「低湿地」という意味で本種の代表的な生育地を指す。他にもいくつかの古い名前を持つが、これらは現在ほとんど使われることはない。"Oldfield Pine"は先駆的な種（パイオニア的な種）であり、やせた土地に生えることに由来している。"Bull Pine"という名前は"bull"は「雄牛」を意味し、本種の大きさに由来している。"Rosemary Pine"という名前は本種がアメリカ南部に生える他の二・三葉マツ類と比べて独特の香りを持つために付けられた。
アパラチア山脈以南のアメリカ合衆国南東部に広く分布。生育地の気候は多湿であり夏は暑く、冬はあまり寒くない。年間平均降水量は1000 mmから1500 mm程度。森林の生長期間は分布域北部では5カ月から、同南部の海岸付近では10カ月ほど。年間気温の変動は13-24℃で7月の気温は27℃で頻繁に38℃を上回る。1月の平均気温は4℃から16℃で分布域の北部や西部では-20℃以下になることもある[1]。
生育地の北への拡大を制限するものは冬の低温と、開花時期の氷雪や低温が原因だと考えられている。テキサス州やオクラホマ州以西への拡大を拒むのは十分な量の成長期を欠くことが原因とみられる[2]。
山火事が起きにくくなっていることで、本種はアメリカ深南部（ディープサウス、Deep South）のいくつかの地域で分布を拡大している。これらの地域はかつてはダイオウマツ（Pinus palustris）やスラッシュマツ（P. elliotti）など極陽性のマツが優勢であった。
アメリカ南部を代表する有用林業樹種の一つ。オーストラリアなどを含む原産地以外でも木材やパルプを目的とする植林がなされて分布している。
日本国内の観察においてもアカマツを大幅に上回る成長を見せ、特に10年生以後がアカマツに比べて著しく早く成長するという[3]、また、マツ材線虫病 (マツ枯れ、マツ食い虫とも) に対する高い抵抗性などから一時期林業用樹種として大いに期待された。風で損傷しやすいこと[4]、外来種問題などから新規で植えられることはほぼないものの、比較的温暖な地域の公園や植物園では目にすることの多い外国産マツである。
雑種の分布[編集]
前述のようにいくつかのマツと天然条件下で雑種を形成する。ダイオウマツとテーダマツの雑種はSonderegger pineと呼ばれ、ルイジアナ州(Louisiana)やテキサス州東部で良く見ることができる。ヌママツ（Pinus serotina）とテーダマツの雑種はノースカロライナ州で観察されている。他にもリギダマツ（P. rigida）などとの雑種がニュージャージー州などの分布域北部などで発見され、研究が進んでいる[2][5]。 エキナタマツ（P. echinata）との雑種がオクラホマ州などの分布域西部に分布しており[2][6][7]、他にもルイジアナ州などの分布域南部で互いに分布が重なる地域には生息している可能性がある。この雑種はテーダマツで問題になるfusiform rust（意訳：紡錘さび病?）に対して耐性を持つ。
人工的な雑種が生産されている。テーダマツとエキナタマツとリギダマツを掛け合わせたものはかなり期待されている。これはテーダマツとエキナタマツの雑種個体が重大な病害fusiform rustに耐性を持ち、テーダマツとリギダマツとの雑種個体は低温への耐性が上がるためで、この両方の形質を持ち合わせることで植林地の適地をさらに北へと広げることが出来ると考えられている[7]。
-
-
ダイオウマツとの雑種sonderegger pineの苗
成木は樹高は30-35 m、胸高直径は0.4 m-1.5 mに達し、アメリカ南部のマツとしてはダイオウマツとならび最大級の種類である。樹皮はかなり黒っぽい褐色で荒く鱗状に裂ける。個体によってはダイオウマツ以上に大きくなることがあり、サウスカロライナ州のコンガリー国立公園（Congaree National Park）に生えている個体は樹高51.4 m、材積は42立方メートルに達する。
日本では見られない三針葉マツの一種。針葉は3枚が束生し、しばしば湾曲する。長さは12 cm-22 cmほどと日本のマツよりもかなり長く特徴的であるが、アメリカ南部のマツとしては中ぐらいの長さであり、ダイオウマツ（Pinus palustris）やスラッシュマツ（P. elliotti）よりは短いが、エキナタマツ（P. echinata）やモミハダマツ（P. glabra）よりは長い。針葉の寿命は多くの場合2年であり、このために「常緑」である。針葉の一部は乾燥などの厳しい気象条件・虫による食害などで傷付き、早く落としてしまうことがある。多くの針葉は2年目の秋から冬にかけて寿命となりって落ちる。
本種は雌雄同株であり、雄花は当年生の枝の先端に形成される。雌花は当年生の枝に形成される。雄花は見た目は尾状花序のようである。長さは2.5 cm〜4 cmほどで色は成長具合によって明るい緑色から赤色まで変動する。雌花は一般的に卵型で長さは1.0 cm-1.5 cm、色は成長具合によって明るい緑色から暗いピンクから赤色になる。
球果 (松かさ)は細長く、若い球果（松かさ）は緑色をしており、熟すと淡い黄褐色になる。長さは7 cm-13 cmで鱗片が閉じている時の幅は2-3 cm、開くと4 cm-6 cmになる。鱗片には鋭い刺が発達し、熟しても脱落しない。スラッシュマツの球果とは大きさも含めよく似ているが、本種の球果はスラッシュマツのそれよりも艶がなく、棘が発達している。
生活環[編集]
蕾の形成は6月中旬から7月上旬に行われる。雄花は7月下旬につぼみの中に、雌花は8月に形成されるが、秋に芽の根元に雄花が、少し遅れて芽の頂点に雌花が作られるまで区別できない。雄花雌花ともに翌年の春まで休眠状態で過ごす[2][8]。花粉を飛ばすピークは2月1日以後の積算温度350℃、日平均気温13℃を超えたときであり、地域により違いがあるが2月中旬から4月中旬である[9]。開花はその地域の緯度にも関係しており、低緯度の地域では高緯度の地域よりも早い。1本の木で見た場合には雄花は雌花よりも早く成熟する傾向があり、これは自家受粉を防ぐためと見られる。受精した雌花は翌年の春に球果を熟す。球果は乾燥によって開閉を繰り返し種子を散布する。
テーダマツは若いうちはほどほどに耐陰性を持つが、生長するにつれて耐陰性は低くなる。本種の耐陰性の度合いはエキナタマツ(P. echinata)やバージニアマツ(P. virginiana)に似ており、多くの広葉樹よりも劣るが、極めて耐陰性の低いダイオウマツやスラッシュマツには勝るとされている[10][2][11]。一般的には耐陰性の低い「陽樹」とみなされている。
苗木は他のマツ類と同じく発芽後数年で生殖可能になり、花を付け始める。アカマツを台木に接ぎ木したものでは8年目に雌花が、翌年には雄花を付けた[12]。
他の植物との関係[編集]
本種の生育する場所は遷移の進んでいない場所や伐採跡地などであるため、遷移の進み方はかなり予測できるものである。時間の経過とともに本種よりも耐陰性の高い広葉樹が侵入して、本種を上層に広葉樹の幼樹を下層に持つ複層林へと移行していく。具体的にはたくさんあるが、ナラ類、ヒッコリー、ブナ属、ヌマミズキ(Nyssa sylvatica、英名:Black gum)、モクレン属やミズキ属、モチノキ属など。やがて広葉樹が生長して林冠に達し、本種とともに高木層を形成する[2][13]。
森林は遷移が進むにつれて徐々に安定的な森林である「極相林」に達する。本種の生えている地域では、地域の違いによってナラ - ヒッコリー林、ブナ - カエデ林、モクレン-ブナ林、ナラ- ヒッコリー - マツ林のどれかの形態の落ち着くとされている[14][2]。
気象との関係[編集]
風害は小さなものよりも大きな個体で起こりやすく、サビキンの感染によって大きな腫瘍を持つ個体は健康な個体よりも容易に破壊される。風倒木は土壌が浅い所で起きやすく、形状比（樹高を胸高直径で割ったもので、ヒョロヒョロの個体ほど値が高くなる）が高い個体で被害が大きい[2][15]。
分布北限周辺では低温による損傷が多く、若い実生苗では大量死につながっている。樹齢の高い元気な個体はたまにあるかないかの低温にも耐える[2][16]。最も多い現象は雪氷が枝葉に付着し、その重みによって生じる冠雪害である。枝の曲がりで済めばいい方で、重度の冠雪害は幹を真っ二つにしたり、樹木を根元からひっくり返して（根返り）しまい樹木にとって致命的なダメージになる。これも形状比が高い個体ほど激害となりやすい[2][17]。前述のように、リギダマツとの雑種個体は低温への耐性が上昇するという報告がある。
夏の極端な高温と乾燥は実生苗の大量死の原因となることがある。大きな個体でも高温と乾燥によってストレスを受けた結果、抵抗力が弱まり、害虫の攻撃を受けて気象害以上に深刻な問題を誘発することがある。
実生苗や若い個体は洪水によって冠水した状態では長く生存できないという研究がある。春から秋の成長期に2週間以上完全に浸水した状態では死んでしまう。大きな個体は洪水に対してそこそこの抵抗性を見せ、1シーズンなら生存する。しかし、0.3 m以上の水深があると2年目の成長期の間に死んでしまう[2][18]。
昆虫との関係[編集]
テーダマツに集まる昆虫についての概論はBakerによって述べられている[19]。 それによると本種は多くの害虫の宿主となっている。しかし、害虫の発生には頻度、地域、継続期間に大きな変動がある。発生する昆虫の大半は小さく、寿命が短く、たいていは一つないし少数のエリアに被害を与える。しかし、いくつかの昆虫はとてつもなく広い範囲を取り囲むまで増殖し、最後には僅かな例外を除いて減少して平常の分布数に戻る。大部分の昆虫が行うマツへの攻撃はダメージや損傷に関しては重大なものではない。 本種にとって最も重大な害虫はキクイムシの仲間である。Dendroctonus frontalis（英名:southern pine beetle）の攻撃はマツの大量死に結び付くときがある。別のキクイムシたちIps spp.の場合、被害は限定的である。ガの仲間Rhyacionia spp.は若い木に大発生することがある。ゾウムシの仲間であるHylobius spp.や Pachylobius spp.は胸高直径1 cm程度の若い木ならば殺してしまうことがある。球果や種子を食害するメイガの仲間Dioryctria spp.や カメムシの仲間Leptoglossus spp.は種子の数を著しく減らしてしまうことがある。southern pine beetleは加害するマツの中でも特に本種を好んで加害し、本種にとって最も厄介な昆虫である[20]。
微生物との関係[編集]
Heptingは本種に関連する一般的な病気について述べている[21]。それによると本種において特に問題になるのは、フザリウム（Fusarium spp.）やMacrophomina spp.が引き起こし若い苗が感受性の高い根腐れ(立枯)病とサビキンの仲間、Cronatrium quercumm f. sp. fusifromeが引き起こすfusiform rust（意訳：紡錘さび病?）である。 心材の腐朽を引き起こすものもいくつか知られている。主に幹の心材を腐朽させるものとしてPhellinus pini、根株の心材を腐朽させる（根株心腐病）を引き起こすものとして、マツノネクチタケ（Heterobasidion annosum）やカイメンタケ（Phaeolus schweintiziiが知られている。中でもマツノネクチタケは伐根（切株）に付着した胞子が、成長し地中の根の接触部分から健全個体へと感染を広げていくことが多く、人工林を経営する上では大きな問題になる。
発芽床は土壌のpHが6.0より高く、水分が少ないと根腐れしやすい。特に30℃以上の気温が長期間続くと激害となる。サビキンの感染によるfusiform rust のはアメリカ南部において苗床・造林地を通じて主要な病気であり、感染率を低く保つためには厳格な薬剤散布計画が求められる。
幹の病害の中でも最も深刻なのはfusiform rust である。この病気はバージニア州（Virginia）からテキサス州(Texas)において若い木を枯死させてしまう。また老齢個体であっても病変部に著しい変形をもたらして木材としての価値を下げる。エキナタマツ (Pinus echinata) との雑種はこの病気に対して比較的抵抗性を持つことで知られる。
子嚢菌の一種 Ascocalyx属の菌は幹に溝腐れ様の症状をもたらす。リギダマツとの雑種個体はこの病気に対してやや抵抗性を示す報告がある[22]
日本で問題になっているマツノザイセンチュウ (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) の感染に対しては強い抵抗性を持ち、通常の接種量ではマツ材線虫病を発症しない。日本の在来のマツの抵抗性系統は本種並みの抵抗性を持つものの選抜・固定を目標にしている。
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マツノネクチタケ(Heterobasidion annosum)
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カイメンタケ(Phaeolus schweinitzii)
有用な経済樹種として植林されており、同じくアメリカ南部に分布するダイオウマツ（P. palustris）、スラッシュマツ（P. elliotti）、エキナタマツ（P. echinata）等を加えてSouthern Yellow Pine（SYP、南方の黄色いマツの意味）などと呼ばれる。木材のほか、パルプ・製紙の原料などの使い方もされる。
リグニン生合成系の酵素の一種であるシンナミルアルコール脱水素酵素(CAD: cinnamylalcohol dehydrogenase, EC 1.1.1.195, 反応)を欠損した変異体が発見された[23][24]。CADを欠損したテーダマツ植物体の木部は赤褐色であり、リグニン含量も少なく、除去されやすい構造のリグニンを含んでいる[25]ため、パルプ・製紙用に大規模に植林され始めている。木部が赤褐色を呈する理由は、シンナミルアルコール類より共役二重結合が長いシンナミルアルデヒド類が重合されてリグニンに取り込まれているためである。
関連項目[編集]
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Eisenhower treeと呼ばれた本種の個体
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オーガスタ・ナショナル・ゴルフクラブ（Augusta National Golf Club）
- アメリカ合衆国ジョージア州にありマスターズ・トーナメントの開かれるゴルフ場として名高い。ここの17番ホールにEisenhower tree（アイゼンハワーの木）と呼ばれる有名な本種の個体がある。樹の名はアイゼンハワー元大統領にちなんだものである。彼はこのゴルフ場の会員権を持ち、プレーしていたが、この木に何度もボールを当ててしまった。この木が憎い彼は、1956年の会議でこの木を伐採することを提案した。ゴルフ場のオーナーは大統領の提案に反対だが、面と向かって拒絶するわけにもいかず会議を延期するという方法を取った。なんだかんだで、この木は現存しておりゴルフ場の名物になっていたが2014年2月の風害で大きな損傷を受け伐採撤去されてしまった。Eisenhower pine（アイゼンハワーのマツ）とも呼ばれる。
- 多摩森林科学園
- 東京都八王子市にある旧・林業試験場（現・森林総合研究所）の施設。元々は浅川実験林と呼ばれ、日本でも最初期に本種の植栽試験が行われた。裏手の山には現在も立派なテーダマツ林が残る。
[
ヘルプ]
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^ Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1971. Atlas of United States trees. vol. 1. Conifers and important hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication 1146. Washington, DC. 9 p., 313 maps.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fowells, H. A., comp. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC. 762 p.
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^ 千葉春美・石井幸男・富岡甲子次・飯塚三男.（1963）赤沼におけるテーダマツの成長. 林業試験場報告161号
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^ 林野庁監修. 2001. 林業技術ハンドブック 全国林業改良普及協会
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^ Saylor, L. C., and K. W. Kang. 1973. A study of sympatric populations of Pinus taeda L. and Pinus serotina Michx. in North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 89:101-110.
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^ Hare, R. C., and G. L. Switzer. 1969. Introgression with shortleaf pine may explain rust resistance in western loblolly pine. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-88. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 7 p.
- ^ a b Dorman, Keith W. 1976. The genetics and breeding of southern pines. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 471. Washington, DC. 407 p.
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^ Greenwood, M. S. 1978. Flowering induced on young loblolly pine grafts by out-of-phase dormancy. Science 201(4354):443-444.
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^ Boyer, William D. 1978. Heat accumulation: an easy way to anticipate the flowering of southern pines. Journal of Forestry 76(l):20-23.
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^ Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.
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^ Wahlenberg, W. G. 1960. Loblolly pine: its use, ecology, regeneration, protection, growth, and management. Duke University, School of Forestry, Durham, NC. 603 p.
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^ 橋詰隼人（）
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^ Quarterman, E., and C. Keever. 1962. Southern mixed hardwood forest: climax in the southeastern coastal plain United States of America. Ecological Monographs 32(2):167-185.
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^ Delcourt, H. R., and P. A. Delcourt. 1977. Presettlement magnolia-beech climax of the Gulf coastal plain: quantitative evidence from the Apalachicola river bluffs, north-central Florida. Ecology 55:1085-1093.
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^ Trousdell, Kenneth B., Wilfred C. Williams, and Thomas C. Nelson. 1965. Damage to recently thinned loblolly pine stands by Hurricane Donna. Journal of Forestry 63(2):96-100.
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^ Mignery, A. L. 1967. Winter injury to loblolly pine in Tennessee related to seed origin. Southern Lumberman 215(2680):146.
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^ Shepard, R. K., Jr. 1974. Ice storm damage to thinned loblolly pine plantations in northern Louisiana. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 2(3):83-85.
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^ Williston, H. L. 1962. Loblolly seedlings survive twelve days' submergence. Journal of Forestry 60:412.
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^ Baker, Whiteford L. 1972. Eastern forest insects. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication 1175. Washington, DC. 642 p.
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^ Thatcher, R. C., J. L. Searcy, J. E. Coster, and others, eds. 1980. The southern pine beetle. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 1631. Washington, DC. 267 p.
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^ Hepting, George H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 386. Washington, DC. 658 p.
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^ 近藤秀明. 小林淳夫. （1984）. Ascoalyx属菌によるテーダマツの新病害, 溝がんしゅ病. 日林誌 66(2)' 84
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^ MacKay JJ, Liu W, Whetten R, Sederoff RR, O'Malley DM., "Genetic analysis of cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase in loblolly pine: single gene inheritance, molecular characterization and evolution.", Mol Gen Genet. 1995 Jun 10;247(5):537-45., PMID: 7603432
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^ MacKay JJ, O'Malley DM, Presnell T, Booker FL, Campbell MM, Whetten RW, Sederoff RR., "Inheritance, gene expression, and lignin characterization in a mutant pine deficient in cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase.", Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Jul 22;94(15):8255-60., PMID: 9223348, PMCID: PMC21590
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^ Lapierre C, Pollet B, MacKay JJ, Sederoff RR., "Lignin structure in a mutant pine deficient in cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase.", J Agric Food Chem. 2000 Jun;48(6):2326-31., PMID: 10888545
参考文献・資料[編集]
- 英語版 Wikipedia en:Pinus taeda
- United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service "Loblolly Pine"
外部リンク[編集]
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ウィキスピーシーズに
テーダマツに関する情報があります。
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ウィキメディア・コモンズには、
テーダマツに関連する
メディアおよび
カテゴリがあります。
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Pinus taeda USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
テーダマツ: Brief Summary
(
Japanese
)
provided by wikipedia 日本語
テーダマツ（Pinus taeda）はマツ科マツ属の樹木である。タエダマツ、タエダ松などとも表記される。
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İynəyarpaqlılar ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin. Etdiyiniz redaktələri mənbə və istinadlarla əsaslandırmağı unutmayın.
Denne botanikkrelaterte artikkelen er foreløpig kort eller mangelfull, og du kan hjelpe Wikipedia ved å utvide den. 
Це незавершена стаття про родину Соснові.
Это заготовка статьи по ботанике. Вы можете помочь проекту, дополнив её. 
这是一篇與植物相關的小作品。你可以通过编辑或修订扩充其内容。 
保全状況評価 LOWER RISK - Least Concern
分類 界 : 植物界 Plantae 門 : 裸子植物門 Pinophyta 亜門 : マツ亜門 Pinophytina 綱 : マツ綱 Pinopsida 亜綱 : マツ亜綱 Pinidae 目 : マツ目 Pinales 科 : マツ科 Pinaceae 属 : マツ属 Pinus 亜属 : Pinus 節 : Australes 種 : テーダマツ P.taeda 学名 Pinus taeda L. 和名 テーダマツ, タエダマツ 英名 Loblolly Pine 
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