Comments
provided by eFloras
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa , a tree of scattered occurrence and of no concern for timber, is valuable for esthetics and watershed protection. The northernmost stands of the species, in Kern County, are about 35 kilometers east of the closest approach of P . menziesii .
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
provided by eFloras
Trees to 25 m tall; trunk to 1.3 m d.b.h.; bark reddish brown, aging dark blackish gray, scaly, longitudinally fissured; branchlets pendulous, reddish brown or pale brown, aging gray-brown, slender, flexible, slightly pubescent; winter buds reddish brown, ovoid-conical or fusiform-conical, acute. Leaves 2.5-4 cm × ca. 2 mm, stomatal bands 2, abaxial, grayish white, base strongly twisted, apex acute. Seed cones greenish yellow when immature, ripening to dull brown, ovoid-cylindric, 9-13(-18) × 4-6 cm. Seed scales at middle of cones broadly cuneate-flabellate, thick, transversely convex, 2-2.5 × 3-3.5 cm, often resinous, puberulent when young, soon glabrous, faintly striate abaxially. Bracts exserted, not reflexed, lingulate, cusp longer than lateral lobes. Seeds brown, ovoid-conical, 1-1.2 cm × ca. 6 mm; wing pale brown, obovate, 1-1.4 cm.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Description
provided by eFloras
Trees to 44m; trunk to 2.3m diam.; crown broadly conic. Twigs slender, glabrous or pubescent. Leaves (20--)25--45 × 1--1.5mm, bluish green, apex mucronulate. Pollen cones pale yellow. Seed cones 9--20 × 4--7cm. Seeds 9--12mm. 2 n =24.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
provided by eFloras
Cultivated. Jiangxi (Lu Shan) [native to W United States]
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Habitat & Distribution
provided by eFloras
Slopes, cliffs, and canyons, in chaparral and mixed coniferous forests; 200--2400m; Calif.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Synonym
provided by eFloras
Abies macrocarpa Vasey, Gard. Monthly & Hort. 18: 21. 1876 (Jan.); Pseudotsuga californica Flous; P. douglasii (Lindley) Carrière var. macrocarpa (Vasey) Engelmann
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Synonym
provided by eFloras
Abies macrocarpa Vasey, Gard. Monthly & Hort. 18: 21. 1876.
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- Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Common Names
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
bigcone Douglas-fir
bigcone spruce
bigcone Douglas-spruce
hemlock
false hemlock
desert fir
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Description
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Bigcone Douglas-fir is a native evergreen conifer from 50 to 100 feet
(15-30 m) in height and 22 to 62 inches (56-155 cm) in DBH. Its growth
form is straight and pyramidal. The deeply ridged bark is composed of
thin, woodlike plates separating heavy layers of cork [
3,
10]; bark of
trees over 40 inches (102 cm) in DBH is from 6 to 8 inches (36-64 cm)
thick [
31]. Main branches are long and pendulous, spreading from 20 to
50 feet (6-15 m) [
1,
3,
15,
18,
21]. Side branches are few. The needles,
from 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2-3 cm) long, are shed about every 5 years
[
10,
24]. Female cones are from 4 to 7 inches (10-18 cm) long [
28,
24].
Seeds are large and heavy, each having a short rounded wing [
18]. Roots
are described as strong and spreading [
18]. The largest known bigcone
Douglas-fir is 91 inches (231 cm) DBH, 173 feet (53 m) tall, and is
estimated to be from 600 to 700 years of age [
10].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Distribution
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Bigcone Douglas-fir occurs in mountains of southern California. It is
distributed from the Santa Ynez Mountains in eastern Santa Barbara
County and the Tehachapi Mountains of southwestern Kern County south to
Julian, San Diego County [
3,
18]. It is cultivated in Hawaii [
33].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Ecology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
fire regime,
herbaceous,
litter,
mesic,
treeBigcone Douglas-fir is one of only a few western conifers capable of
sprouting following fire. Mature trees sprout vigorously from the
branches and bole after burning. The trunk and main branches of bigcone
Douglas-fir have many dormant adventitous buds, which are insulated from
fire beneath thick bark. Fire or other damage to the tree stimulates
cell division and growth in these buds. Consequently, epicormic stems
grow from the axils of branches or from branch stubs along the trunk
from the middle or upper one-third of the crown [
10,
18].
Bigcone Douglas-fir growing at low elevation often escapes fire damage
because the mesic sites where it grows are not fire-prone [
15].
Potential fuels at higher-elevation sites are sparse because understory
vegetation is killed as trees mature and canopies close [
31]. Litter
layers of bigcone Douglas-fir forests are usually poorly developed due
to the paucity of herbaceous understory and the sparse fall of needles
from trees [
14]. Survival of bigcone Douglas-fir is enhanced in rough
terrain such as talus gullies and rugged canyons; such topography often
impedes the momentum and intensity of spreading fires [
23]. Rates of
deforestation by slope class range from 84 percent for slopes of less
than 10 degrees to 51 percent for slopes between 30 and 39 degrees. On
slopes greater than 40 degrees, bigcone Douglas-fir survival is 75
percent [
22].
FIRE REGIMES : Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the
FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Fire Management Considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
density,
woodlandDespite its ability to develop new crowns, bigcone Douglas-fir is not
favored by frequent fire. Repeated fire depletes energy reserves and
enlarges old wounds, and mortality is high in trees subjected to such
FIRE REGIMES [
18]. Bolton and Vogl [
3] speculate that trees subjected
to frequent fire loose their ability to sprout. In contrast to most
conifers, however, fire-damaged trees are usually free from bark beetle
attacks [
10]. Bigcone Douglas-fir is adapted to a regime of long,
fire-free intervals [
7]. Frequent fire increases the number and density
of the chaparral and woodland species in the spaces between bigcone
Douglas-fir trees [
14]. Occasional circumstances of stand defoliation,
however, select in its favor because of its sprouting habit [
23]. The
interfaces of chaparral and bigcone Douglas-fir forests are in constant
flux as environmental factors of fire, drought, precipitation, and
erosion assert themselves [
32].
The desiccating Santa Ana foehn winds that sweep the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto mountains represent a fire danger to bigcone Douglas-fir trees.
Santa Ana winds are capable of carrying fire downward from upslope mixed
coniferous forests [
28,
32].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the term:
phanerophytePhanerophyte
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat characteristics
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
cover,
shrubClimate: Bigcone Douglas-fir grows in a mediterranean climate,
characterized by hot summers and wet, mild winters. Annual rainfall
during a 30-year period on a bigcone Douglas-fir site in the San Gabriel
Mountains averaged 30 inches (762 mm) and ranged from 10 to 49 inches
(254-1,245 mm).
Elevation: Bigcone Douglas-fir occurs between 2,000 and 8,000 feet (610
and 2,720 m) [
10,
24].
Soil and topography: Bigcone Douglas-fir grows in a wide variety of
soil types [
10]. At low elevation, it occurs near streams in moist,
shaded canyons and draws where aspects are mostly north and east. At
elevations from 4,440 to 5,600 feet (1,350-1,700 m), aspects include
south- and east-facing slopes. At these elevations, bigcone Douglas-fir
also grows on sloping hillsides, ridges, and benches. At higher
elevations, it occurs on south and west aspects on all types of terrain.
The average angle of slope on which bigcone Douglas-fire grows is 34.5
degrees. Slope angles range from 2 to 90 degrees, although these
extremes are uncommon [
3].
Plant associations: The number of plant associates in bigcone
Douglas-fir communities is usually small [
14]. Common overstory
associates not listed under SAF Cover Types or Habitat Types and Plant
Communities include bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), California bay
(Umbellularia californica), Digger pine (Pinus sabiniana), and white
alder (Rhombus rhombifolia) [
1,
4,
7,
10,
19]. Shrub associates include
bigpod ceanothus (Ceanothus megacarpus), red shank (Adenostoma
sparsifolium), Eastwood manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa), toyon
(Heteromeles arbutifolia), white sage (Salvia apiana), black sage (S.
mellifera), purple sage (S. leucophylla), and California scrub oak
(Quercus dumosa) [
5,
10]. Ground cover is usually sparse and may include
California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), wild onion (Allium spp.),
scarlet beardtongue (Penstemon ternatus), chainfern (Woodwardia
fimbriata), and western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinium var.
pubescens [
10].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Cover Types
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):
243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
245 Pacific ponderosa pine
246 California black oak
247 Jeffrey pine
248 Knobcone pine
249 Canyon live oak
255 California coast live oak
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Ecosystem
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES34 Chaparral - mountain shrub
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Habitat: Plant Associations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):
More info for the term:
forestK005 Mixed conifer forest
K030 California oakwoods
K033 Chaparral
K034 Montane chaparral
K035 Coastal sagebrush
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Immediate Effect of Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
fire severity,
moderate-severity fire,
severityFire kills bigcone Douglas-fir seeds. Most authorities claim that
seedlings and saplings are killed by fire [
10,
14,
18]. One study,
however, showed that small burned trees sprouted following a fire of
unreported severity in the Transverse Ranges [
23]. The immediate effect
of fire on young trees is therefore unclear, but mortality rates
probably vary according to fire severity [
22]. Pole- and
sawtimber-sized trees are fire resistant. Aerial photographs of burns
in the eastern Transverse Ranges show that 60 percent of bigcone
Douglas-fir escaped defoliation during the period from 1938 to 1975
[
23]. An additional 15 percent were scorched but not killed.
Twenty-five percent of the trees were killed outright.
The branchlets of defoliated trees are usually killed. Large main
branches generally survive moderate-severity fire, but may be killed
when severely burned. Trunks of severely burned trees are often
protected from fatal damage by their thick bark [
18]. Bigcone
Douglas-firs growing sympatrically with canyon live oaks suffer less
fire damage than other bigcone Douglas-firs. These oak seems to act as
a buffer against the intense heat of chaparral fires burning into the
bigcone Douglas-fir community [
22,
23].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Importance to Livestock and Wildlife
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Bigcone Douglas-fir stands provide habitat for black-tailed deer, black
bear, and various small animals. These trees provide preferred spring
habitat for black bear in the San Bernardino Mountains [
18]. The seeds
are eaten by various rodents and birds [
10].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Key Plant Community Associations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
codominant,
cover,
forest,
natural,
xericLow elevation ( less than 3,500 feet [1,067 m]) bigcone Douglas-fir forest
communities are disjunct, surrounded by extensive areas of chamise
(Adenostoma fasciculatum) chaparral or coastal sage scrub [
4,
22,
13]. In
canyon bottoms, bigcone Douglas-fir communities intergrade with riparian
forest [
11]. From 3,500 to 4,500 feet (1,067-1,372 m), stands are more
widespread. Canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) is sympatric with
bigcone Douglas-fir at these elevations. Together they form a
two-layered forest consisting of a subcanopy of canyon live oak and an
overstory of bigcone Douglas-fir [
14,
21]. Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri)
replaces bigcone Douglas-fir on more xeric sites at these elevations
[
1]. From 4,500 to 5,500 feet (1,372-1,676 m), canyon live oak thins
and bigcone Douglas-fir becomes increasingly abundant. At higher
elevations, bigcone Douglas-fir decreases in importance and the bigcone
Douglas-fir forest type is gradually replaced by mixed evergreen forest.
Codominant species at higher elevations not listed as SAF Cover Types
include incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), California white fir
(Abies concolor var. lowiana), singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla),
sugar pine (P. lambertiana), and interior live oak (Q. wislizeni)
[
18,
32].
Publications listing bigcone Douglas-fir as a dominant or indicator
species are as follows:
Terrestrial natural communities of California [
11].
Vegetation types of the San Bernardino Mountains [
14].
Vegetation of the San Bernadino Mountains [
21].
A vegetation classification system applied to southern California [
26].
An introduction to the plant communities of the Santa Ana and San
Jacinto Mountains [
32].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Life Form
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeTree
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Management considerations
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
treeBigcone Douglas-fir populations are currently stable, with favorable
rates of reproduction [
3]. The tree is being considered for more
extensive plantings in semiarid locales. Its favorable qualities
include resistance to drought, fire, insects, decay, and damage from
ozone [
18,
20]. The needles of older trees sometimes fade to yellow,
drop, and trees appear dead only to sprout with renewed vigor within 2
years. The reason is unknown, although drought or insects may be
possible causes [
10].
Some bigcone Douglas-fir x Douglas-fir hybrids show promise for
outplanting on drier sites in the Douglas-fir region [
10,
18]. These
hybrids produce wood of comparable quality to that of Douglas-fir
and have the drought tolerance of bigcone Douglas-fir [
6].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Occurrence in North America
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
CA HI
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Phenology
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the terms:
cone,
seedBigcone Douglas-fir undergoes the following seasonal development:
cone buds form: September to October [
10]
pollination: early March to mid-April [
18]
seed germination: March to May [
10]
cones mature: August to September [
18]
seed released: September to October {18}
needles fall: September to October [
10]
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Plant Response to Fire
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
crown fire,
natural,
seed,
surface fireMost sprouting occurs on trees scorched by surface fire. Trees
subjected to crown fire rarely sprout [
22]. Aerial photographs taken
over the Meyer and Bear Burns of the Transverse Ranges at postfire years
1 and 2 showed that scorched stands with persistent dead foliage
sprouted, but severely burned stands were killed. Field study of stands
in the Village Burn (severity unreported) near Mount Baldy in the
Transverse Ranges revealed sprouting in pole-sized trees and saplings as
small as 10 feet (3 m) in height. All sprouts died on a number of such
smaller individuals after postfire year 1, but other trees regained full
crowns within 2 to 3 years [
23]. The seed-producing ability of bigcone
Douglas-fir is impaired for years [
19].
Postfire natural regeneration generally takes decades. A survey of
Transverse Range burns showed natural regeneration was almost
nonexistent in recent burns. No offspring were found in burns less than
19 years old. Seedlings and saplings were most evident in burned areas
free of further fire for 50 or more years. Bigcone Douglas-fir probably
requires the development of an overstory before shade-tolerant seedlings
will establish. Seed dispersal into these shaded areas is usually a
reproductive barrier following stand-replacing fires where all potential
parent trees are killed. Long-distance seed dispersal is inefficient in
bigcone Douglas-fir [
23].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Post-fire Regeneration
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regeneration Processes
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
epigeal,
litter,
root crown,
seed,
treeSexual: The male strobili of an individual tree usually sheds pollen
before female strobili open, preventing self-pollination [
10]. Seed
production begins at about 20 years of age; full seed production occurs
at about age 40. Insect larvae destroy some immature seed. At times,
they will destroy most of the crop. Heavy seed crops are rare. Seeds
fall under the parent tree and only during high winds is wider seed
dissemination possible [
18]. Rodents and birds play a minor role in
seed dispersal. Deer mouse, Merriam chipmunk, California ground
squirrel, and western grey squirrel consume considerable portions of the
seed crop [
10]. Seed quality tends to be poor. In one laboratory test,
seeds given cold-stratification treatment for 28 days proved 31 percent
viable [
18].
Seedbed requirements are broad. Seeds will germinate successfully on
bare mineral soil or deep litter, although some seedling mortality from
damping-off fungi occurs in deep litter. Germination is epigeal [
18].
Bigcone Douglas-fir does not reproduce well where fires are frequent
[
3,
18]. It reproduces best in locales undisturbed for at least 50
years, where emergents are shaded by canyon live oak. Survival is low
on open sites unless soil remains moist, but seedlings surviving on
these open sites attain top growth more rapidly than shaded seedlings
[
18,
31]. With time, continuous shade becomes a liability. A span of 40
to 70 years commonly is required for bigcone Douglas-fir to penetrate
through 16.5- to 27-foot (5-9 m) overstories of canyon live oak.
Seedlings on higher elevation south or west slopes, however, enter the
sapling-size class within 3 to 5 years [
10].
Vegetative: Vegetative reproduction occurs after injury. Bigcone
Douglas-fir does not sprout from the root crown, but intermediate-aged
trees will sprout from the bole. In the Santa Ana Mountains, coppice
sprouts developed in trees that were 5 to 45 inches (13-114 cm) in DBH
and 25 to 300 years old [
3]. Pole- and sawtimber-sized trees often
regrow burned crowns (see Plant Response to Fire). Seedlings and
saplings appear to have this ability as well [
23]. Sprouting in young
trees is not well documented, however. Some authorities claim that
seedlings and saplings are not usually capable of sprouting following
injury [
14,
18].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Regional Distribution in the Western United States
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):
3 Southern Pacific Border
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Successional Status
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info on this topic. More info for the terms:
climax,
forest,
shrubs,
successionBigcone Douglas-fir seedlings are shade tolerant, while mature trees are
intolerant [
18]. The bigcone Douglas-fir forest is a climax type. In
the absence of fire or other disturbance, bigcone Douglas-fir invades
and dominates surrounding chaparral and oak communities [
19]. Chaparral
shrubs remain the dominant vegetation type of their zone because
succession is constantly interrupted by drought accompanied by fire.
Trees usually do not grow large enough during the fire-free period to
become fire resistant [
3,
13]. Return of bigcone Douglas-fir to
chaparral sites following disturbance probably requires centuries [
14].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Taxonomy
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
The currently accepted scientific name of bigcone Douglas-fir is
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Vasey) Mayr [
10,
24]. There are no subspecies,
varieties, or forms [
3,
10]. Bigcone Douglas-fir and Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) do not naturally hybridize because their ranges
do not overlap. They readily hybridize, however, under laboratory
conditions (see Management Considerations) [
6].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms:
restoration,
seed,
treeBigcone Douglas-fir is used for watershed restoration. Radke and
McDonald [
18] reported that the Los Angeles County Department of
Forestry has extensively planted the tree over a 50-year period for that
purpose. Survival rates are not detailed. Bigcone Douglas-fir is
recommended for reforestation of north-facing slopes within its range.
Seed collecting and processing methods are detailed in the literature
[
25].
Trees planted on road cuts are often illegally harvested for use as
Christmas trees [
12].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Wood Products Value
provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term:
fuelThere is no current commercial market for bigcone Douglas-fir wood due
to limited distribution and access [
18]. It is heavy, hard, and fine
grained but not durable. There is less sapwood than heartwood, and the
latter contains pockets of resin. In the past, the wood was used
locally for fuel and lumber [
29].
- bibliographic citation
- Howard, Janet L. 1992. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Associated Forest Cover
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Bigcone Douglas-fir has been listed in at least three vegetation
classifications. One author placed the species in the California Coast
Range forest, considering it an endemic and relic species. Another
suggested that, in the San Bernardino Mountains at least, bigcone
Douglas-fir was a member of the Live Oak Woodland and the Bigcone
Douglas-fir vegetation types (4). Among forest cover types, bigcone
Douglas-fir is listed as a common associate in Canyon Live Oak (Society of
American Foresters Type 249) (5).
Bigcone Douglas-fir occupies an intermediate position between the lower
elevation chaparral zone and the higher elevation mixed-conifer forest. It
ranges downward into the chaparral as far as moisture conditions permit,
and upward among the pines and firs as far as severe climate allows.
Bigcone Douglas-fir does not extend solidly between the two types,
however. The species is found in patches, in groups, and as single trees
scattered among the oaks and chaparral. The continuity of stands also is
broken by cliffs, slides, and areas of adverse soil.
Evidence suggesting that bigcone Douglas-fir has long occupied its
present natural range is available from the fossil record. A likely
progenitor of the species has been found in both the Pliocene and
Pleistocene epochs (6).
Fire, or its absence, greatly influences the extent and makeup of
bigcone Douglas-fir stands. In general, repeated fires kill bigcone
Douglas-fir, leaving only oaks or chaparral. Less frequent, but more
catastrophic fires limit bigcone Douglas-fir to scattered large trees.
When fires are infrequent, stands with several size and age classes
develop; when fires are absent, multi-aged stands having at least some
regeneration evolve (7).
In recent large fires in the eastern Transverse Range, nearly 60 percent
of the trees escaped defoliation and 15 percent sprouted later, for a
survival rate of 75 percent. Trees appear to have survived primarily
because they were growing with large tree-size canyon live oaks (Quercus
chrysolepis), and in rough, broken terrain. Large canyon live oaks
apparently act as a buffer against severe combustion characteristics of
the chaparral nearby, and rough terrain impedes the speed and intensity of
a conflagration. Survival of bigcone Douglas-fir on slopes of less than 20
degrees was only 37 percent. On slopes greater than 40 degrees, survival
was more than 90 percent (10).
Throughout its natural range, bigcone Douglas-fir is almost inseparable
from canyon live oak. They form a community that is remarkably stable,
self-perpetuating, somewhat exclusive, and probably climax in terms of
succession. In the future, only minor shifts in species composition within
the community are likely (7).
In addition to canyon live oak, other tree associates, particularly at
high elevations, are ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa),
Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), singleleaf pinyon (P.
monophylla), and sugar pine (P. lambertiana), incense-cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens), and California white fir (Abies
concolor var. lowiana). At middle elevations, tree associates
are Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri), Digger pine (P. sabiniana),
California black oak Quercus kelloggii), two-petal ash (Fraxinus
dipetala), and California-laurel (Umbellularia californica). Singleleaf
pinyon and knobcone pines (Pinus attenuata), as well as curlleaf
(Cercocarpus ledifolius) and birchleaf mountain-mahogany (C.
betuloides) also are locally present. At lower elevations bigcone
Douglas-fir, along with bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) and
white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), is found in riparian settings,
often in deep ravines, where it escapes fire. Coast live oak (Quercus
agrifolia), toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), California scrub
oak Quercus dumosa), birchleaf mountain-mahogany, laurel sumac
(Rhus laurina), sugar sumac (R. ovata), and occasionally
southern California walnut (Juglans californica) are associates of
bigcone Douglas-fir (3) at lower elevations, mostly in nonriparian
settings.
Many woody shrubs are found with bigcone Douglas-fir (table 1). At
middle and high elevations, although scarce beneath bigcone Douglas-fir
and canyon live oak crowns, they flourish in open spaces between trees or
on edges of thickets. At low elevations, shrubs become abundant and well
developed around scattered large firs.
Table 1- Principal shrub associates of bigcone
Douglas-fir in three elevational zones
Elevation
Scientific name
Common name
274 to 1067 m or
Adenostoma fasciculatum
Chamise
900 to 3,500 ft
Artemisia californica
California sagebrush
Ceanothus leucodermis
Chaparral whitethorn
C. spinosus var. palmeri
Greenbark ceanothus
Dendromecon rigida
Bush poppy
Eriogonum fasciculatum
California buckwheat
Salvia spp.
White sage
Yucca whipplei
Chaparral yucca
1097 to 1676 m or
Adenostoma sparsifolium
Red shanks
3,600 to 5,490 ft
Arctostaphylos glauca
Bigberry manzanita
A. patula
Greenleaf manzanita
Ceanothus cuneatus
Wedgeleaf ceanothus
C. integerrimus
Deerbrush
C. leucodermis
Chaparral whitethorn
C. oliganthus
Hairy ceanothus
C. spinosus var. palmeri
Greenbark ceanothus
1707 to 2438 m or
Arctostaphylos glauca
Bigberry manzanita
5,600 to 7,900 ft
A. patula
Greenleaf manzanita
Castanopsis sempervirens
Sierra chinkapin
Ceanothus crassifolius
Hoary-leaf ceanothus
C. cuneatus
Wedgeleaf ceanothus
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Rubber rabbitbush
Penstomon ternatus
Scarlet beardtongue
Rhamnus californica
California buckthorn
R. crocea
Hollyleaf buckthorn
A number of herbaceous species are scattered beneath bigcone Douglas-fir
trees. Plants are relatively scarce and small because necessary nutrients,
moisture, and light, already captured by the taller and deeper-rooted
species, often are not available.
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Climate
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The bigcone Douglas-fir habitat has long hot summers and cool moist
winters. Extremes of annual precipitation vary from less than 250 mm (10
in) to 1270 mm (50 in), with 510 to 1020 mm (20 to 40 in) more common. The
30-year average at 1325 m (4,350 ft) elevation on a north aspect in the
San Gabriel Mountains near Glendora, CA, was 610 mm (24 in). The lowest
annual precipitation recorded was 250 mm (9.9 in) and the highest 1240 mm
(49 in).
Snowpacks persist rarely in the range of the species, except at high
elevations. Snow may fall, however, as early as October, or as late as
May. During the rainy season, fog has been reported to add to the moisture
available for tree growth (14,15). During the summer, thunderstorms,
hailstorms, or cloudbursts are common on higher mountains. Because much of
this precipitation quickly evaporates, it does not foster tree growth
(15).
Specific temperature data within the range of bigcone Douglas-fir have
not been reported other than for one station at 730-m (2,400-ft) elevation
in the San Gabriel Mountains. The 22-year average mean for November
through April was 9° ± 2° C (49° ± 3.7° F).
Highs of above 27° C (80° F) and lows of below freezing were
recorded in each of the 6 months. Annual temperatures at low to middle
elevations in the mountain ranges of southern California where bigcone
Douglas-fir grows seldom exceed 41° C (106° F) or drop below -12°
C (10° F).
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Damaging Agents
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Fire is the most injurious agent of bigcone
Douglas-fir. In spite of its ability to develop new crowns after complete
defoliation, and its thick bark (15 to 20 cm or 6 to 8 in for trees more
than 100-cm or 40-in d.b.h.), trees die from fire, and particularly from
repeated fires that deplete energy reserves and enlarge old wounds.
Damage by insects and disease is not reported. The California flatheaded
borer (Melanophila californica) has been observed in the wood of a
few trees. Even trees damaged by fire seem free of bark beetle attacks. A
hard pitchy wood is given as a possible reason for lack of damage from
these agents. A needle-cast fungus (Rhabdocline pseudotsugae) has
been observed on bigcone Douglas-fir needles (8). Older trees occasionally
lose most of their needles, apparently from a physiological disorder, but
epicormic branching along the bole usually replaces the lost crown. Damage
to needles from ozone is another potential injury. However, in a
sensitivity study, seedlings of bigcone Douglas-fir ranked low (11th of 13
conifer species and hybrids) in susceptibility to ozone injury (9).
Many species of animals are associated with bigcone Douglas-fir,
especially deer, rabbits, and woodrats. Browsing of seedlings is a major
damage. Bigcone Douglas-fir stands are preferred spring habitat for black
bears in the San Bernardino Mountains (12). After the sapling stage,
animal damage is negligible.
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Flowering and Fruiting
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Throughout most of its natural range,
bigcone Douglas-fir flowers from early March through mid-April. Male
flowers generally shed pollen before female flowers become receptive-a
mechanism that facilitates cross-pollination and prevents selfing. The
plant is monoecious. Pollination in a given locality lasts 2 to 3 weeks.
Fertilized conelets begin to enlarge in mid-July and are easily seen soon
after.
Cones generally begin to dry and turn brown in August or September and
most seed is released in September and October. Seeds are large and heavy
and each has a rounded wing about 13 mm. (0.5 in) long. Mature cones are
rich dark brown and range from 11 to 17 em (4 to 7 in) long. Some cones
fall during winter, but others remain on the tree for at least a year.
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Genetics
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Varieties or natural hybrids of bigcone Douglas-fir are not known, but
an artificial cross of bigcone Douglas-fir and coast Douglas-fir was
achieved in 1956 at Oregon State University, Corvallis. Hybrid seedlings
indicated low mortality, good height growth, and a dense fibrous root
system. They showed promise for outplanting on drier sites in the
Douglas-fir region (2).
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Growth and Yield
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In deep shade, growth of bigcone Douglas-fir
seedlings and saplings is suppressed severely. Saplings may be only 60 cm
(24 in) tall when 40 to 50 years old (10). Growth rings often are
indistinguishable. Bigcone Douglas-fir trees break through the oak
overstory when 4 to 9 m (13 to 30 ft) tall and 40 to 70 years old.
Breast-height diameter at this age ranges from 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in).
Once above the oak foliage and into sunlight, growth of bigcone
Douglas-fir accelerates. Annual height increment may exceed 30 cm (12 in).
In more open stands, bigcone Douglas-fir seedlings and saplings develop
more quickly. Height of saplings may average 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) at age
20 and from 4 to 15 m (13 to 50 ft) at age 40. From 40 to 100 years,
annual increments of height and diameter may be uniform, even though
amounts of annual precipitation vary. Trees in favorable growing
conditions often produce thick tapering boles and long drooping branches.
In the Santa Ana Mountains, diameter growth rates seem to be correlated
to steepness of slope, with the average diameter of trees of a given age
increasing as the angle of slope decreases. The largest trees of a given
age, therefore, grow on level sites. The average d.b.h. of 20-year-old
trees on level ground was 20 cm (7.8 in), but only 6 cm (2.2 in) on 60 to
90 degree slopes. A possible explanation of the difference is that little,
if any, soil and litter are found on steep slopes, and water holding
capacity and nutrients usually are low (1).
Tree heights are affected by many variables, especially position on the
slope. Trees generally are tallest at the base of slopes and shortest near
the ridgeline. Trees at base of slopes commonly are straight and tall,
averaging 24 to 30 m (80 to 100 ft) in height, but trees on upper slopes
more often are gnarled and branchy and only 9 to 15 m (30 to 50 ft) tall.
The lifespan of bigcone Douglas-fir is as long as its coniferous
associates, or longer. In the Santa Ana Mountains, trees 250 or more years
old are commonplace. The oldest tree sampled was 622 years old and 140 cm
(55 in) in d.b.h. A 157-cm (62-in) d.b.h. monarch of indeterminate age is
nearby (1). The largest living bigcone Douglas-fir grows near San Antonio
Canyon on the Angeles National Forest in southern California. At 231 cm
(91 in) in d.b.h. and 44.2 m (145 ft) in height, this tree deserves its
name "Old Glory."
Bigcone Douglas-fir is well known for its ability to grow a new crown
after severe burning. This ability has helped to sustain the species in
its present natural range. New tissue, which leads to new branches,
develops from the upper surface of defoliated limbs in the upper portions
of the tree. Large sawtimber-sized trees, therefore, can develop new
crowns, but seedlings, saplings, and overmature sawtimber usually cannot.
Boles also produce new shoots after fire, mechanical, or physiological
injury. Vigorous intermediate-aged trees are particularly noted for this
capability. In the Santa Ana Mountains, new shoots developed in trees that
were from 13 to 114 cm (5 to 45 in) in d.b.h. and from 25 to 300 years old
(1).
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Reaction to Competition
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In its seedling stage, bigcone
Douglas-fir requires at least some shade. In moist sheltered situations,
however, it reproduces successfully in the open. Saplings and small poles
need increasing amounts of light for best development. Mature trees
usually are found in open stands, probably as a consequence of having
adequate light and moisture. In general, bigcone Douglas-fir may be
classed as intolerant of shade.
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Rooting Habit
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The species is described as having a strong
spreading root system.
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Cone crops of bigcone
Douglas-fir usually are small. Bumper crops are infrequent. Small amounts
of seed, however, are borne on a few trees nearly every year. The minimum
cone-bearing age of the species is about 20 years, but cones are rare on
trees younger than 40 years. Most seeds fall beneath tree crowns and only
during high winds is wider dissemination possible.
Insect larvae destroy some seeds in each cone crop and, at times, most
of the crop. Rodents and birds consume seeds and aid in dispersal by
distributing them beyond existing stands. Deer mice, chipmunks, ground
squirrels, and the western gray squirrel eat large amounts of available
seeds. The squirrels often bury seeds; some of these escape notice and
eventually germinate.
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Seedling Development
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Natural seedbed requirements for
germination are broad. Seeds of bigcone Douglas-fir have been observed to
germinate successfully on the bare mineral soils of rocky outcrops and
geomorphically active areas. They also germinate well in deep litter,
usually beneath an overstory of oak and bigcone fir, but heavy losses from
damping-off fungi often take their toll of tiny seedlings in this
environment. Germination is epigeal.
Time of germination varies with elevation. In the chaparral zone,
germination begins in late March. At higher elevations, germination ends
in late May, or occasionally, early June.
Seed quality tends to be poor, as indicated in such early descriptions
as "large number imperfect" and 49 a considerable percentage not
fertile" (14,15). In a laboratory test of seed stratified for 28 days
in moist vermiculite with a day temperature of 30° C (86° F) and
night temperature of 20° C (68° F), 31 percent of seeds
germinated.
Weather, especially rainfall, can be critical to germination and early
abundance of bigcone Douglas-fir seedlings. In the Santa Ana Mountains,
24,700 seedlings per hectare (10,000/acre) were present after a rainy
period preceded by a year of above-average precipitation. The seedling
environment, however, was not reported. New seedlings were absent during
dry years (1).
Bigcone Douglas-fir does not reproduce in stands having frequent fires,
nor do badly damaged stands seed back to bigcone Douglas-fir, except
during a series of wet years after a severe fire. Infertile seed,
destruction of seed by fire, consumption of seed by birds and rodents, and
lack of suitable microsites are possible reasons for scanty reproduction.
Lack of shade could be another reason. Throughout its range, bigcone
Douglas-fir reproduces most abundantly in locales undisturbed for at least
50 years, especially if shaded by canyon live oak trees. Where present,
seedlings ranged in density from 140 to 1,030/ha (56 to 416/acre), with an
average of 330/ha (132/acre). Advance reproduction, plants smaller than
2.5 cm (1.0 in) in d.b.h., was similar in mean and range of density (7).
Artificial regeneration of bigcone Douglas-fir began in 1905, with
outplantings in Los Angeles County. Survival was about 1 percent. The
species was planted extensively (9,880 seedlings per hectare or
4,000/acre) for watershed rehabilitation from 1925 to 1930 by the Los
Angeles County Forestry Department. From 1953 to 1975, this Department
outplanted some bigcone Douglas-firs in all but 4 years (13). Survival,
unfortunately, is unknown.
Additional information on artificial regeneration of bigcone Douglas-fir
is scanty. One small trial took place on a harsh site in Shasta County.
Seed was germinated in a greenhouse in 1.9-liter (0.5-gal) milk cartons
and 20 seedlings were outplanted as plugs when 1 year old. After five
growing seasons in the field, survival was 65 percent and height averaged
53 cm (21 in) with a range of 18 to 76 cm (7 to 30 in).
Early height growth of bigcone Douglas-fir seedlings is slow, especially
in deep shade. The species develops a taproot in early years, possibly at
the expense of shoot growth.
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Soils and Topography
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Soils on which bigcone Douglas-fir grows are derived from a wide variety
of parent materials. Of 16 stands sampled throughout the range of the
species, 4 grew on metasedimentary parent materials (sandstone and
schist), 10 on granitics, and 2 in contact zones where the parent material
was primarily granitic. The soil orders where bigcone Douglas-fir is most
frequently found are Inceptisols and occasionally Alfisols. Soil series on
metasedimentary material are probably Laughlin and Friant; in contact
zones, Oak Glen; and on granitics, Tollhouse, Cieneba, Crouch, and two
others that resemble Tish Tang and Neuns. Soils show a broad range of
depth and development (7). Some are shallow and poorly developed; others
are deeper and better developed. Many are droughty. Bigcone Douglas-fir is
capable of becoming established on soils too dry for other conifers.
Topography where the species is found is variable. Much of the terrain
is rough and steep, strongly dissected by permanent and ephemeral streams.
Slopes vary from 1 to 93 percent. Some stands occupy precipitous slopes of
sheltered canyons, others are found on mostly steep broken slopes
intermixed with cliffs and avalanche chutes, and still others thrive on
gentler slopes and level ground. For all stands in the Santa Ana
Mountains, average angle of slope is 34.5 degrees (1). The species is well
represented on all aspects, north slopes in particular.
Elevations of the bigcone Douglas-fir habitat range from 275 m (900 ft)
on cool moist north slopes of canyon bottoms to 2400 m (7,875 ft) on warm
southfacing plateaus. As elevations increase, the aspect best suited to
bigcone Douglas-fir shifts from cooler to warmer. Many combinations of
slope, aspect, soil, and elevation, therefore, support bigcone
Douglas-fir.
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Special Uses
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The wood of bigcone Douglas-fir is heavy, hard, and close grained, but
not durable (15). It has less sapwood than heartwood, the latter
containing pockets of resin. In the past, bigcone Douglas-fir was used
locally for fuel and to a small extent for coarse lumber. Currently, it
has value in watersheds and wildlife habitats for its scenic beauty.
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Vegetative Reproduction
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Bigcone Douglas-fir does not sprout
from the root crown after cutting or fire. It has been propagated by
grafting.
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Brief Summary
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Pinaceae -- Pine family
Philip M. McDonald
Distinct in appearance and conspicuous among its usually shorter
associates, bigcone Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga macrocarpa) provides
contrast and variability to the southern California landscape. The wood of
the species, although suitable for coarse lumber, is scarcely utilized
because the trees are scattered and are more valuable for esthetics and
watershed protection.
Because the taxonomic characteristics of bigcone Douglas-fir are similar
to those of its northern "cousin," Douglas-fir, it was at least
twice assigned to the genus Abies. Commonly, the species has been
called hemlock, false hemlock, and desert fir. Colloquially, it is often
referred to as bigcone-spruce, probably because its drooping lower
branches, stiff needles, and upright cones remind the observer of the
spruce tree. The species' accepted common name, bigcone Douglas-fir,
stresses its Pseudotsuga lineage and the extraordinary size of its
cones.
The species has been grown successfully outside the continental United
States. It was unknown in Europe until the seedlings were raised at
Bayfordbury, England, in 1910. Trees also have been reported growing in
Sussex and North Ireland, where they reached heights of more than 18 m (60
ft) and crown spread of 12 m (40 ft) (3).
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Distribution
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The range of bigcone Douglas-fir is about 217 km (135 mi) from north to
south and about 338 km (210 mi) from east to west. Distribution of the
species, in general, is confined to the Transverse and Peninsular Ranges
of southern California. It is found on Mount Pinos, technically in the
Tehachapi Mountains but considered transitional between them and the
Transverse Ranges. Northern limits are near Mount Pinos in Kern County,
and the headwaters of Labrea Creek in Santa Barbara County. Westernmost
limits are Mission Canyon in the Santa Ynez Mountains, and Zaca Peak in
the San Rafael Mountains. Older publications claimed that bigcone
Douglas-fir grew in central Baja California, Mexico; a more recent
publication verifies that it does not (11). The southern limit of the
species is near Julian, San Diego County.
- The native range of bigcone Douglas-fir.
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Physical Description
provided by USDA PLANTS text
Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds not resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex mucronulate, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves blue-green, Scale leaf glands not ruptured, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs pubescent, Twigs not viscid, Twigs with peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone exerted, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds tan, Seeds brown, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Pseudotsuga macrocarpa
provided by wikipedia EN
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, commonly called the bigcone spruce or bigcone Douglas-fir, is an evergreen conifer native to the mountains of southern California. It is notable for having the largest (by far) cones in the genus Pseudotsuga, hence the name.
The tree occurs from the San Rafael Mountains in central Santa Barbara County and the Tehachapi Mountains of southwestern Kern County, south through the Transverse Ranges, to the Cuyamaca Mountains in San Diego County. The tree is shade-tolerant and prefers to grow on slopes.
Name
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa is a Douglas-fir. The name "bigcone spruce", though confusing as it is not a spruce species, is often still used,[3][4] and occurs in place names.[5]
Description
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa typically grows from 15–30 m (49–98 ft) in height and 56–155 cm (1 ft 10 in – 5 ft 1 in) in trunk diameter.[6] The growth form is straight, with a conical crown from 12–30 m (39–98 ft) broad, and a strong and spreading root system. The bark is deeply ridged, composed of thin, woodlike plates separating heavy layers of cork; bark of trees over 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter is from 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in) thick. The main branches are long and spreading with pendulous side shoots.
The leaves are needle-like, 2.5–4.5 cm (0.98–1.77 in) long,[7] and are shed when about five years old. The female cones are from 11–17 cm (4.3–6.7 in) long,[4] larger and with thicker scales than those of other douglas-firs, and with exserted tridentine bracts. The seeds are large and heavy, 10 mm long and 8 mm broad, with a short rounded wing 13 mm long;[4] they may be bird or mammal dispersed as the wing is too small to be effective for wind dispersal. Trees start producing seeds at about 20 years of age.
The largest known individual of this species is 53 m (174 ft) tall, 231 cm (91 in) in diameter, and is estimated to be from 600 to 700 years of age.
Distribution
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa is restricted to the California montane chaparral and woodlands and California coastal sage and chaparral ecoregions of California. It prefers a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot dry summers and wet, mild winters. Annual rainfall during a 30-year period on a bigcone Douglas-fir site in the San Gabriel Mountains averaged 75 cm (30 in) and ranged from 25–125 cm (9.8–49.2 in).
Bigcone Douglas-fir occurs between 300–2,700 m (980–8,860 ft). At low elevation, it occurs near streams in moist, shaded canyons and draws where aspects are mostly north and east. At elevations from 1,350–1,700 m (4,430–5,580 ft), aspects include south- and east-facing slopes. At these elevations, it also grows on sloping hillsides, ridges, and benches. At higher elevations, it occurs on south and west aspects on all types of terrain. The average angle of slope on which it grows is 35 degrees, ranging from level to 90 degrees, although these extremes are uncommon.
Ranges the tree is found in, south to north, include:[8][9]
Ecology
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, has several features to tolerate and survive wildfire, notably the very thick bark, and the presence of numerous adventitious buds on the upper side of the branches; this enables the trees to survive even crown fires which burn off all the branchlets, the apparently dead trees becoming green again the following spring. Wildfire frequencies in the chaparral habitats in which it often grows typically range from 15 to 50 year intervals. Bigcone Douglas-fir is closely associated with canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) and often establishes itself in its shade; after about 50 years, it emerges above the oak canopy.
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa showing branch regeneration after a crown fire through
epicormic shoots. Note the charred tree trunks.
The number of plant associates in bigcone Douglas-fir communities is usually small.
- Common overstory associates include: bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica), gray pine (Pinus sabineana), and white alder (Alnus rhombifolia).
-
Shrub associates include bigpod ceanothus (Ceanothus megacarpus), red shank (Adenostoma sparsifolium), eastwood manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa), toyon (Heteromoles arbutifolia), several species of sage (Salvia), and coastal sage scrub oak (Quercus dumosa).
- Ground cover associates are usually sparse, and may include California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), wild onion (Allium spp.), scarlet beardtongue (Penstemon ternatus), giant chain fern (Woodwardia fimbriata), and western bracken (Pteridium aquilinum var. pubescens).
Fire ecology
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa populations are suspected to be declining due to possibly larger and more extreme wildland fires with greater frequencies. Major wildfires within its range, since 2003, have clearly proven a reduced extent when compared to early 1930s extents derived from historical aerial photos. Although historical information has provided the opportunity to detect stand level patch changes, post-fire resprouting of older more mature trees and natural regeneration and recruitment of the species into higher canopy has yet to be adequately quantified.
One tree species in direct competition with bigcone is Calocedrus decurrens, with preliminary post-fire regeneration of this species exponentially greater than bigcone. One or two years after the Station fire in 2009 on the Angeles National Forest, there was an estimated 20:1 cedar:bigcone seedling density in fixed radius plots on Mount Wilson. It may be more appropriate to perform population stability estimates up to five years or much later (i.e. 20 yrs) after a large conflagration due to the potential for immediate and delayed post-fire sprouting and regeneration and interplant competition, as well as the well-noted strategy of seed germination in shrub understories, which is likely to escape detection by surveyors until much later in its life.
Research related to the role of mycorrhizae and its relationship to seed establishment needs evaluated in these vegetation communities due to the suspected role it has with the relationship with water, especially in water-limited systems such as those in the wildlands of southern California. In addition, an aggressive seed cone collection strategy should be drafted for this species which includes extensive collection during large cone production years such as 2013, and should include a tracking system to determine correlations to climatic conditions in order to develop a foundation from which to perform species viability assessments w/ varying future climate scenarios.
This tree is being considered for more extensive plantings in semiarid locales. Its favorable qualities include resistance to drought, fire, insects, decay, and damage from ozone, and its aggressive rooting system and tolerance to variable growing medium. The needles of older trees sometimes fade to yellow, drop, and trees appear dead only to sprout with renewed vigor within two years. The reason is unknown, although drought or insects may be possible causes.
Uses
Wildlife
Bigcone Douglas-fir stands provide habitat for black-tailed deer, black bear, and various small animals. These trees provide preferred spring habitat for black bear in the San Bernardino Mountains.
The seeds are eaten by various rodents and birds.
Restoration species
Bigcone Douglas-fir is used for watershed and habitat restoration. The Los Angeles County Department of Forestry has extensively planted the tree over a 50-year period for that purpose.
Some hybrids of Pseudotsuga macrocarpa (Bigcone Douglas-fir) × Pseudotsuga menziesii (Coast Douglas-fir) show promise for planting on drier restoration sites within the P. menziesii−Douglas-fir natural range. These hybrids produce wood of comparable quality to that of Douglas-fir and have the drought tolerance of bigcone Douglas-fir.
Timber
There is no current commercial market for bigcone Douglas-fir wood due to limited distribution and access. It is heavy, hard, and fine grained but not durable. There is less sapwood than heartwood, and the latter contains pockets of resin.
In the past, the wood was used locally for fuel and lumber.
See also
References
- Howard, Janet L. (1992). "Pseudotsuga macrocarpa". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
- Lipscomb, Barney (1993). "Pseudotsuga macrocarpa". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
- McDonald, Philip M. (1990). "Pseudotsuga macrocarpa". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Conifers. Silvics of North America. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Vol. 1 – via Southern Research Station.
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Pseudotsuga macrocarpa: Brief Summary
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Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, commonly called the bigcone spruce or bigcone Douglas-fir, is an evergreen conifer native to the mountains of southern California. It is notable for having the largest (by far) cones in the genus Pseudotsuga, hence the name.
The tree occurs from the San Rafael Mountains in central Santa Barbara County and the Tehachapi Mountains of southwestern Kern County, south through the Transverse Ranges, to the Cuyamaca Mountains in San Diego County. The tree is shade-tolerant and prefers to grow on slopes.
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