This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Several florae provide keys for identifying devil's-tongue [10,30,39].
Devil's-tongue is a perennial native mat- or clump-forming cactus usually 3 to 4 inches (7.5-10 cm) tall. It occasionally grows to 12 inches (30 cm) in height in Florida. The succulent stem segments, or pads, are 1.5 to 4 inches (3.8-10 cm) long and 1.6 to 2.4 inches (4-6 cm) wide. Areoles on the pads give rise to 0 to 2 spines that are 1 to 2.4 inches (2.5-6 cm) long. Flowers are solitary, 1 to 1.5 inches (2.5-3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruit is a fleshy berry 1 to 1.6 inches (2.5-4 cm) long. The seeds are flattened, orbicular, and 0.2 inch (4.5 mm) in diameter. The root system is shallow and fibrous [10,30,35,59]. A caudex may develop in persistent stems [20].
Physiology: Devil's-tongue is considered highly drought tolerant [2].
Fire adaptations: Fire information specific to this species is lacking. Opuntia spp. are adapted to survive low-severity fire by sprouting from the caudex and by layering from pads that were buried or protected in the litter layer [20,75]. Prickly-pear cacti colonize burned areas when off-site seed is transported on-site by animals [78].
FIRE REGIMES: Devil's-tongue grows in plant communities with a wide range of fire frequencies from less than 10 years for many grassland and prairie communities to greater than 1,000 years for some of the eastern mixed-hardwood communities. As of this writing (2005), fires ecology studies are lacking for eastern pricklypear. The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where devil's-tongue occurs. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) maple-beech-birch Acer-Fagus-Betula spp. >1,000 sugar maple Acer saccharum >1,000 sugar maple-basswood Acer saccharum-Tilia americana >1,000 [83] bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium <10 [52,63] Nebraska sandhills prairie Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium <10 bluestem-Sacahuista prairie Andropogon littoralis-Spartina spartinae <10 [63] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [69] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [6,21,58] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (µ=40) [82,88] saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus <35 to <100 [63] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. <35 [63,86] blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii <35 [63,68,86] blue grama-buffalo grass Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides <35 [63,86] grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii <35 to <100 blue grama-tobosa prairie Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica <35 to <100 blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima <35 to <100 Arizona cypress Cupressus arizonica <35 to 200 [63] beech-sugar maple Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum >1,000 [83] juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana <35 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum <35 [63] cedar glades Juniperus virginiana 3-22 [43,63] creosotebush Larrea tridentata <35 to <100 Ceniza shrub Larrea tridentata-Leucophyllum frutescens-Prosopis glandulosa <35 [63] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii <5-47+ [63,64,86] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. <35 [63] jack pine Pinus banksiana <35 to 200 [31] shortleaf pine Pinus echinata 2-15 shortleaf pine-oak Pinus echinata-Quercus spp. <10 slash pine Pinus elliottii 3-8 slash pine-hardwood Pinus elliottii-variable <35 sand pine Pinus elliottii var. elliottii 25-45 [83] South Florida slash pine Pinus elliottii var. densa 1-15 [60,73,83] Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi 5-30 western white pine* Pinus monticola 50-200 [5] longleaf-slash pine Pinus palustris-P. elliottii 1-4 [60,83] longleaf pine-scrub oak Pinus palustris-Quercus spp. 6-10 [83] pitch pine Pinus rigida 6-25 [19,46] pocosin Pinus serotina 3-8 loblolly pine Pinus taeda 3-8 loblolly-shortleaf pine Pinus taeda-P. echinata 10 to <35 Virginia pine Pinus virginiana 10 to <35 Virginia pine-oak Pinus virginiana-Quercus spp. 10 to <35 [83] galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea <35 to <100 [63] mesquite Prosopis glandulosa <35 to <100 [57,63] mesquite-buffalo grass Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides <35 Texas savanna Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa <10 [63] oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. <35 [83] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. <35 to <200 [63] northeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. 10 to <35 southeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. <10 [83] coast live oak Quercus agrifolia 2-75 [42] white oak-black oak-northern red oak Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra <35 bur oak Quercus macrocarpa <10 [83] oak savanna Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [63,83] shinnery Quercus mohriana <35 [63] post oak-blackjack oak Quercus stellata-Q. marilandica <10 black oak Quercus velutina <35 live oak Quercus virginiana 10 to<100 [83] interior live oak Quercus wislizenii <35 [5] cabbage palmetto-slash pine Sabal palmetto-Pinus elliottii <10 [60,83] blackland prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Nassella leucotricha <10 Fayette prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Buchloe dactyloides <10 [83] little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. <35 [63] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species reviewDevil's-tongue is a species that can flourish under a great range of conditions. It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 5,500 feet (1,576 m), will grow well on various types of soils under a wide range of moisture regimes, and can survive extremes of both hot and cold temperatures [10,45].
The moisture regimes in which eastern pricklypear can thrive are quite varied. For example, the cactus occurs in extremely xeric sandstone cedar glades in Kentucky and Tennessee, but also thrives in the saw-palmetto prairies in Florida where the water table is often at or near the ground surface [22,36].
Devil's-tongue is winter hardy, being able to survive on sites where the minimum winter temperatures can drop below 10 oF (-12 oC). The cactus avoids freeze damage by rapidly reducing the water content in cells during cold acclimation [54].
Eastern pricklypear is most commonly found on sandy or gravely soils but can also flourish on organic detritus and silty or loamy soils. It is tolerant of low-nutrient, acid, and alkaline soils [10].
Roots, stems, fruits, and seeds of devil's-tongue may be eaten by a variety of birds and animals [24,55]. Devil's-tongue is one of the most important foods of the prairie pocket mouse [16]. Gopher tortoises will feed on the stems, fruits and seeds, but devil's-tongue does not constitute a large percentage of their diet [15]. White-tailed deer in North Carolina feed on devil's-tongue fruits in the fall and winter [44]. The ornate box turtle, endangered in Wisconsin, feeds on the stems and fruits [24].
The pads of Opuntia spp. can be used as emergency livestock forage after the spines have been singed off [48].
Palatability/nutritional value: Devil's-tongue is low in nutritional value for livestock [48]. The nutritional value of fresh, immature devil's-tongue stems in the United States is as follows [61]:
Percent composition
Percent digestible protein
ash 2.6 cattle 0.5 crude fiber 1.2 horses 0.4 protein 0.9 domestic sheep 0.5 domestic rabbits 0.5Cover value: Snakes and lizards hide under the pads to avoid the sun. Birds, including northern bobwhites, nest in pricklypear cacti, using the protection offered by the spines [24,47].
Opuntia spp. may increase in abundance during droughty periods because of a
reduction in other plant species that are not as drought tolerant. Also,
dry conditions are not as favorable for some of the insects that
can be the most damaging to pricklypears. As moisture levels increase in
years following drought, insect damage to pricklypears can be high, and
native grasses and forbs begin to reestablish on the site near clumps of
pricklypear where the clumps create a favorable microsite for seed germination
[2].
There is some indication that Opuntia spp. may increase in response to
heavy grazing. However, researchers are not sure if pricklypear
populations respond to a reduction of the preferred forage species, or if the
grazing animals simply provide for improved spread and establishment of the
cacti by transporting the pads on their bodies [13].
Opuntia spp. can be problematic in pastures grazed by domestic sheep and goats.
The spines can cause bacterial infection in the mouth and
intestinal tract, and the seeds can cause rumen impaction [80].
Devil's-tongue establishes from singed or unburned pads after fire [11]. It probably also establishes from on- and off-site seed sources and pads transported onto burns from off-site sources [13]; however, information on postfire seedling establishment of devil's-tongue and postfire pad transport is lacking (as of 2005).
A spring fire in a sand lovegrass-little bluestem-prairie sandreed community in Illinois destroyed most of the existing pads of devil's-tongue. Sampling showed good regrowth of the cactus 3 months after fire. However, mortality of the new plants was high in the next 2 years following the burn. Prickly-pear biomass was 34 g/m² 3 months after fire, 26 g/m² 1 year after fire, and 10 g/m² 2 years after fire [3]. In studies of other Opuntia spp., it was found that many plants that sprout following fire are attacked by insects that spread bacterial and fungal infections which subsequently kill the new stems [20].
Devil's-tongue reproduces from seeds, by layering, and sprouting from detached stem segments and the caudex [2,20,76].
Breeding system: Devil's-tongue is monoecious [10].
Pollination: Devil's-tongue is pollinated by insects [10].
Seed production: Throughout much of its distribution, devil's-tongue relies primarily on seeds for reproduction [2]. Flowers and fruits are 1st produced at 2 years of age [25].
Seed dispersal: Seeds of devil's-tongue are primarily spread when the fruits are eaten by birds and a variety of rodents including rabbits, woodrats, prairie-dogs, mice, and ground squirrels. Ground squirrels may cache the seeds, some of which are later consumed. Cached seeds that are not eaten may germinate and produce new plants [2,26].
Seed banking: No further information is available on this topic.
Germination: Germination rate is reported to be low for seeds of Opuntia species [76]. In laboratory tests, it was found that devil's-tongue seeds collected from rabbit fecal scats had a higher germination rate than seeds collected from unconsumed fruits. Seeds collected from the scats required an average germination time of 41 days and had a germination rate of 25%. Seeds collected from non-eaten fruits required 71 days and germinated at a rate of 18% [26].
Seedling establishment/growth: Although the literature reports that devil's-tongue regenerates by seeds [10], information is lacking on the specifics of seedling establishment and growth.
Asexual regeneration: Layering occurs when pads still attached to the parent plant take root into soil. Detached pads also readily root into soil [76]. The pads can disperse by attaching to animals by the spines [2]. Opuntia species can sprout from the caudex when the aboveground portion of the plant is destroyed [20].
The scientific name of devil's-tongue is Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. (Cactaceae) [10,35,39,50].
Hybrids: Devil's-tongue hybridizes with other pricklypears (Opuntia spp.), including erect pricklypear
(O. stricta), common pricklypear (O. monacantha),
cockspur pricklypear (O. pusilla), and twistspine pricklypear (O. macrorhiza) [10,39].
Devil's-tongue has been used in restoration projects, although the literature does not indicate extensive use for this purpose. Seedlings were successfully established in a reclamation project on a sand and gravel borrow-pit in Ohio [25].
Opuntia seeds germinate most readily when they are fresh. Dried seeds require scarification to induce germination [4]. Devil's-tongue is easily established from stem cuttings buried to approximately three-fifths of their length [76], and can be artificially propagated using tissue culture [85].
Opuntia humifusa, commonly known as the devil's-tongue,[2] Eastern prickly pear or Indian fig, is a cactus of the genus Opuntia present in parts of the eastern United States, Mississippi and northeastern Mexico.[3]
As is the case in other Opuntia species, the green stems of this low-growing perennial cactus are flattened, and are formed of segments. Barbed bristles are found around the surfaces of the segments, and longer spines are sometimes present.[4] The flowers are yellow to gold in color, and are found along the margins of mature segments. The flowers are waxy and sometimes have red centers. They measure 4–6 cm (1+5⁄8–2+3⁄8 in) across. This cactus blooms in the late spring.
The juicy red or purple fruits measure from 3–5 cm (1+1⁄8–2 in). As the fruit matures, it changes color from green to red, and often remains on the cactus until the following spring. There are 6 to 33 small, flat, light-colored seeds in each fruit.
Some botanists treat this cactus as a variety of O. compressa: hence O. c. var. humifusa, or a synonym of O. compressa. Those recognizing this species treat O. rafinesquii as a junior synonym.
This species naturally occurs along the East Coast of the United States, including on barrier islands from the Florida Keys to coastal Massachusetts.[5] Eastern prickly pear is found is scattered locations from New Mexico and Montana eastward,[6] and is one of two cactus species native to the eastern United States, along with the related O. cespitosa.[7] Since eastern prickly pear grows in hot, sunny locations with thin soil that does not hold water, it is found in shale barrens, which are accumulations of thin, flat, eroded sedimentary rock on steep slopes with southern exposures - essentially a desert microclimate - in the Appalachian Mountains.[8][9]
This plant is very intolerant of shade and instead thrives in sunny, hot and dry environments with well-draining, sandy soil.[10] O. humifusa will grow in open areas in sandy, rocky and coastal scrub habits. It is capable of surviving cool winters unlike many cacti, although harsh winter storms are known to cause habitat loss.[10]
The fruits are edible,[11] but have small spiny bristles. The pulp can be scooped and the seeds strained out to make syrup or jelly. The seeds can be briefly roasted and ground into meal.[12] Young cactus segments can be roasted to remove spines, then peeled and sliced to be eaten like string beans; alternatively, they can be deep fried. The leafy segments can be peeled and chewed for emergency hydration.[12]
Fruit in South Carolina
Growing wild in coastal habitat, Milford Connecticut
Growing wild in northern Illinois (partial shade)
Close-up of yellow barbed bristles and longer spines
Seedling; notice the larger spines
Flowers
Fruiting by the beach at Welwyn Preserve Opuntia humifusa, commonly known as the devil's-tongue, Eastern prickly pear or Indian fig, is a cactus of the genus Opuntia present in parts of the eastern United States, Mississippi and northeastern Mexico.
