Yellow Willow

yellow willow

More info for the term: cover

Dense stands of yellow willow provide excellent thermal and hiding cover
for many wildlife species. Songbirds frequently use trees for nesting
[19]. The degree to which Salix rigida provides environmental
protection during one or more seasons for wildlife species is as follows
[9]:

ND WY
Pronghorn ---- poor
Bighorn ---- ----
Elk ---- ----
Mt. goat ---- ----
Mule deer ---- good
White-tailed good good
deer
Small mammals ---- good
Small nongame ---- good
birds
Upland game birds ---- good
Waterfowl ---- good

More info for the terms: shrub, tree

Yellow willow is a deciduous shrub, or rarely, a small tree up to 23
feet (7 m) tall, with stems diameters up to 8 inches (20 cm) [7,11,44].
The silvery-gray bark of older twigs distinguishes it from many closely
related willows [11]. The leaves are alternate, simple, pinnately
veined, mostly lanceolate, with finely serrate margins, dark green to
yellow-green above and pale or glaucus beneath, with conspicuous
stipules usually present [7,11,19,44]. Male and female flowers occur on
separate plants as catkins. Staminate catkins are .8-2 inches (2-5 cm)
long, and pistillate catkins are .8-2.7 inches (2-7 cm) long, but mostly
under 1.5 inches (4 cm) [7,19,37].

Yellow willow is found at low to mid-elevations from Alberta to
Manitoba, south to western Kansas and New Mexico, west to Arizona and
California, and north along the Sierra Nevada Mountains to eastern
Washington. It is lacking in the Great Basin [14,17,37].

More info for the terms: fire regime, fuel, fuel moisture

Generally yellow willow has the ability to sprout from its roots or stem
base following fire [19,48]. When found along a streamside, the high soil
and fuel moisture content characteristic of this habitat reduces the
chance of fire ignition and spread. Its numerous wind dispersed seeds
are important in revegetating areas following fire [48].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".

Quick hot fires may be used to rejuvenate decadent willows, thus
producing abundant browse for big game animals [18], however it may take
5 or more years for willows to regain stem height and diameters
resistant to browsing [27].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte

Yellow willow is riparian in nature, found growing along stream and
river edges, moist ditches, and moist alluvial terraces [19,44,47].

Soils: When growing near a stream or river bank, it is typically found
on coarse-textured soils, but when found on alluvial terraces or moist
benches, it may occur in soils ranging from deep silts to sand [7,19].
In Montana, Hansen and others [19] report that stands adjacent to stream
channels have poorly developed mineral soils overlying coarse substrates.

Elevation: In the Rocky Mountain States, yellow willow is normally
found at low to mid-elevations. Elevational ranges for the following
western states is as follows [1,7,20,21,44,46,47]:

from 5,000-9,500 feet (1,524-2,896 m) in CA
from 7,000-8,000 feet (2,134-2,438 m) in CO
below 6,000 feet (1,830 m) in ID
below 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in e OR
from 4,400-7,700 feet (1,340-2,350 m) in UT
below 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in e WA
below 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in WY

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

63 Cottonwood
210 Interior Douglas-fir
218 Lodgepole pine
235 Cottonwood - willow
237 Interior ponderosa pine

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES38 Plains grasslands

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

K005 Mixed conifer forest
K007 Red fir forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K016 Eastern Ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K098 Northern floodplain forest

Severe fires can completely remove organic soil layers leaving willow
roots exposed and charred, and thus eliminating basal sprouting.
However, most fires kill only aboveground plant parts [27,35,48].

Willows in general are a preferred food of moose and beaver, and yellow
willow occurs in riparian habitats which these animals frequent [5,43].
Moose and elk browse yellow willow during both summer and winter
[15,19,42]. In Montana, stands found on alluvial terraces generally have
greater herbage production than stands found on coarse-textured soils
along stream banks [19].

More info for the terms: forest, shrubs

Yellow willow typically occurs as a pioneer or early seral species along
the banks of rivers or streams. In these riparian communities, it is
often found with cottonwoods (Populus spp.) and other willows (Salix
spp.).

Published classification schemes listing yellow willow as an indicator
species or as a dominant part of the vegetation in community types or
dominance types are presented below.

Riparian dominance types of Montana [19]
Plant associations of Region Two: Potential plant communities of
Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas [25]
Riparian community type classification of eastern Idaho - western
Wyoming [46]
Riparian community type classification of northern Utah and adjacent
Idaho [47]

Associates: In Idaho, yellow willow is generally confined to Wyoming
big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis) and grass
vegetation zones, seldom extending into the forest, and avoiding cooler
mountain big sagebrush (A. tridentata var. vaseyana) zones [7].
Associated plants of Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming often include: 1)
overstory trees such as eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides), black
cottonwood (P. trichocarpa), water birch (Betula occidentalis), and
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), 2) shrubs such as sandbar willow (S.
exigua), Pacific willow (S. lasiandra), Booth willow (S. boothii),
Drummond willow (S. drummondiana), Wood's rose (Rosa woodsii), red-osier
dogwood (Cornus sericea), and inland currant (Ribes oxyacanthoides ssp.
setosum), 3) very wet site understory herbs such as beaked sedge (Carex
rostrata) and field horsetail (Equisetum arvense), and 4) moist site
understory herbs such as alpine aster (Aster foliaceus), Richardson
geranium (Geranium richardsonii), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
[7,19,46,47].

More info for the term: tree

Tree

Because of its soil binding properties and its close proximity to water,
yellow willow holds together and helps stabilize streambanks, protecting
the bank from erosion. Stands should therefore be maintained.

The energy value of Salix rigida (which is taxonomically similar to
yellow willow) is rated as fair and the protein value as poor [9].

AZ CA CO ID IA KS MN MT NE NV
NM ND OR SD UT WA WY AB MB ON
SK

All willows produce salicin, which chemically, is closely related to
acetylsalicylic acid commonly known as aspirin. This is probably why
Native Americans used various preparations from willows to treat
toothache, stomach ache, diarrhea, dysentery, and dandruff [31]. Native
Americans also used the stems for basketry and bow making, and the bark
for tea and fabric making [29].

In the West, willows (Salix spp.) as a group, are considered to be more
palatable to sheep, although cattle may make greater use of willow as
they tend to frequent riparian areas [39]. Van Dersal [42] reports that
yellow willow is universally browsed by livestock. The degree of use
shown by livestock and wildlife species for Salix rigida (S. rigida is
closely related to Salix lutea and has been considered conspecific with
S. lutea) in the following western states is rated as follows [9]:

ND WY
Cattle fair ----
Sheep good ----
Horses good ----
Pronghorn ---- poor
Bighorn ---- ----
Elk ---- good
Mt.Goat ---- ----
Mule deer ---- good
White-tailed poor good
deer
Small Mammals ---- good
Small nongame ---- good
birds
Upland game birds ---- good
Waterfowl ---- poor

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: shrub, tree

Yellow willow is a deciduous shrub or rarely small tree. Its catkins
emerge before and with the leaves in the spring. After fruits ripen,
seeds are dispersed from spring to early summer [6]. In California, it
flowers from May to June [22]. The flowering times for Salix rigida
(which is taxonomically similar to yellow willow) in the following
western states are presented below [9].

Flowering Begins Flowering Ends State

May June CO
May May ND
April June UT
May August WY

Generally yellow willow will sprout from its roots or stem base
following fire [19,35,48]. It shows better recovery from quick hot fires,
as slow burns are more damaging to plants (apparently burning down into
the roots) [18,19,27]. A prolific seeder, off-site plants are important in
revegetating burned areas through the dispersal of numerous wind and
water transported seeds [48].

More info for the term: root sucker

Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)

More info for the terms: capsule, root crown, seed

The dispersal of thousands of small windblown seeds is the primary
method that yellow willow uses to reproduce itself. Male and female
flowers (in the form of catkins) occur on separate plants. Like other
willows, it probably relies heavily on insect pollination, especially
from bees [31]. After fertilization, a capsule develops which
eventually splits open during spring or summer, dispersing the numerous
tiny seeds. The production of large quantities of seeds ensures that
some will fall on favorable sites. The seeds have a cottony down which
allows them to float long distances in the wind, and on water. Seeds
are non-dormant, remaining viable for only a few days. They germinate
rapidly, usually within 12-24 hours if a moist seedbed is reached [6].
The seed contains significant amounts of chlorophyll, and photosynthesis
generally occurs as soon as the seed is moistened.

Yellow willow is unable to produce suckers from lateral roots, but will
resprout from its root crown or stem base following fire or cutting
[2,18,19]. Regeneration may also occur through broken pieces of stems
or roots, which are transported and deposited by floodwaters, and later
sprout (this is common in willows) [2]. It is readily propagated from
stem cuttings that root easily in moist soil. This is covered more
fully under "Value For Rehabilitation of Disturbed Sites".

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

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Yellow willow is generally a pioneer or early seral species when
occurring along streambanks subjected to periodic flooding [19]. But
stands on moist benches with well developed soils may be long-lived
[47]. If conditions become permanently drier on these benches, stands
may be replaced by communities dominated by grasses such as tufted
hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa) and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
[19].

Salix rigida var. watsonii
Salix cordata var. lutea
Salix cordata var. watsonii
Salix cordata var. platyphylla

The currently accepted scientific name of yellow willow is Salix lutea
Nutt. There are no infrataxa [22,24,26].

More info for the term: competition

Yellow willow can be used to revegetate disturbed riparian areas by
planting cuttings. Cuttings quickly stabilize disturbed alluvium,
allowing other plants to become established. Unrooted willow stem
cuttings (slips) should be planted on sites that provide sufficient
moisture to start and maintain growth throughout the growing season
[43]. Since willows are sensitive to both competition and shading,
dense tall grasses will reduce transplant survival [33]. Therefore
grasses may need to be removed by cutting or by herbicide application
[30]. Rooted stock, although harder to plant, has higher survival
rates, and is therefore recommended for use [33,43]. Prerooting can be
accomplished by growing cuttings under greenhouse conditions, allowing
roots to grow .8-1.2 inches (2-3 cm) in length. Slips should be
obtained from local native stands. They should be 12-20 inches (30-50
cm) long, taken in the spring, from dormant 2-4 year old wood greater
than .4 inches (1 cm) in diameter. A 20 inch (50 cm) cutting should be
planted to a depth of 12 inches (30 cm), with 8 inches (20 cm) left
aboveground [33]. This deep planting allows for more rooting surface to
extract soil moisture, and higher amounts of carbohydrates as stored
food reserves [33,43]. Yellow willow cuttings root along the entire
stem section, but roots are most abundant along the lower one third of
the cutting. Roots and stems form about 10 days after planting [33].
If serious streambank erosion has occurred, causing a nearly vertical
cut bank, slope reshaping may be needed to enhance success of
transplants. Reshaping of the slope need not occur if existing
vegetation is able to stabilize the site through protective measures
[33,43]. Under any method of revegetation, sites should be fenced to
protect them from grazing and trampling.

Salix lutea is a species of willow known by the common name yellow willow. It is native to North America, including central Canada and parts of the western and central United States, with the exception of the Great Basin. It can be found in moist and wet habitat types, such as riverbanks, meadows, and gullies. It is a shrub up to 7 m tall, sometimes forming colonial thickets or becoming erect and treelike. The lance-shaped leaves may grow over 11 cm long and may have smooth, lightly serrated, wavy, or gland-studded edges. The inflorescence is a catkin of flowers up to 4 or 5 cm long, stout to slender in shape.

This and other willow species are used in revegetation projects in riparian habitat where erosion is a problem. This species reproduces vegetatively by sprouting from pieces of stem, but its primary method of reproduction is sexual, by the dispersal of a large amount of wind-carried seed.