Smooth sumac was among 50 understory species examined for changes in relation to spring burn periodicity in a Minnesota oak savanna dominated by northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) and bur oak. The table below shows average smooth sumac stem frequency per circular plot, each plot with a radius of 18.5 feet (5.6 m). The author did not draw specific conclusions for smooth sumac, but the numbers suggest persistence of the species despite burn treatments [94].
Plot Fire # of Mean stem
treatment burns frequency/plot
1a 2 yrs burn/2 yrs no burn 7 0
1 4 yrs burn/2 yrs no burn 10 0
3 Annual burns 14 2
4 Annual burns 16 13
5 3 yrs burn/3 yrs no burn 9 6
6 2 yrs burn/1 yr no burn 10 13
8 2 yrs burn/2 yrs no burn 7 8
Control unburned 0 3
Anderson and others [5] reported an increase in smooth sumac during the
first 10 years after an early spring fire in the Flint Hills of Kansas. Kruse and Higgins [54] found an increase in smooth sumac following spring burning in northern mixed grass prairies.
Increases are also reported following spring fires in South Dakota [96,],
Kansas [27,75], Indiana [8,80], Connecticut [62] and Minnesota [11]. Adams and others [4] report an increase in canopy cover following both March and July fires on separate tallgrass prairie sites in Oklahoma. It is noteworthy that in the same study other woody plants, including 2 Rhus species, were eliminated by the fires.
Repeated annual fires during the late spring may reduce the average
height of smooth sumac plants. On Kansas pastures, plants were reduced
in height after 20 years of annual late spring fires, with most
shrubs growing to only 12 to 18 inches (30.5-45.7 cm) in height.
Although smooth sumac was stunted by these fires, its density increased [75]. Abrams [2] reported a decrease in smooth sumac canopy cover after 2 consecutive April burns in the understory of a mature oak woodland.
In a study on the effects of an April 1984 fire on smooth sumac in the Kansas tallgrass prairie, Knapp [52] found reductions in height and production of woody, leaf, and reproductive tissue in August 1984. The burned and unburned sites had been free of fire for at least 5 years prior to fire treatment, so the 2 populations were considered similar. Smooth sumac aboveground biomass and fruit production was greater in unburned populations in the August following burning. However, a significant (P less than 0.05) postfire increase in shoot density resulted in similar leaf area indices in burned and control plots in August 1984.
In a 20-year study of the effects of fire frequency on Minnesota oak savanna herbs and shrubs, Tester [82,83] determined that increased fire frequency tended to increase the density of true prairie shrubs and decrease the density of non-prairie shrubs, though in the case of smooth sumac, cover estimates were not positively correlated with burn frequency.
Bowles and others [14] report a decrease in smooth sumac cover attributed to an 11-year fire management program in a peatland prairie fen in Illinois. A total of 8 dormant-season burns (4 in spring and 4 in fall) were conducted supplemented by shrub cutting.
A winter burn in South Carolina was reported to increase smooth sumac vigor the following spring [25].
The following Research Project Summaries provide information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community species, including smooth sumac, that was not available when this species review was written:
Smooth sumac, which often grows in dense thickets, provides cover for many birds and mammals [24,12,53,72,92]. Cover value has been rated as follows [26]: CO ND UT WY Pronghorn ---- ---- Poor Poor Elk ---- ---- Fair Fair Mule deer ---- ---- Fair Fair White-tailed deer ---- Fair ---- Fair Small mammals Fair Fair ---- Fair Small nongame birds Fair ---- Good Fair Upland game birds ---- ---- Fair Fair Waterfowl ---- ---- Poor Poor
Smooth sumac is a native, perennial, deciduous, thicket-forming shrub or small tree that grows from 2 to 20 feet (0.5 to 6 m) [78]. Branches tend to be fairly sparse, smooth, and stout [36]. The flowers are borne in long (up to 18 inches (45 cm)), dense, compound, terminal panicles [44]. The fruit is a small drupe containing a single small seed [10]. Smooth sumac has a high tannin content [40].
Smooth sumac thickets are often connected by branched rhizomes [89]. The main roots grow to depths of 7 to 8 feet (2.1-2.4 m) and give rise to many smaller roots. The dense network of main roots, relatively shallow laterals, and rhizomes promotes increased utilization of soil moisture and rapid vegetative spread. Rhizomes reach to a depth of 3 to 12 inches (7.6-30.5 cm) [19,90].
In a detailed study of 13 clones of smooth sumac in Michigan and Ohio, Gilbert [34] drew several major conclusions, including the following: Stems range from 1.3 to 9.8 feet (0.4-3m) in height and 1 to 15 years in age, with the tallest stems being the oldest. Fifty-six percent of observed floral buds did not develop completely to the flowering or fruiting stage. One clump was shown to be a vegetative development of a single individual. A single clone may cover as much as an area 72 × 131 feet (22 × 40 m). Average annual spread of a clone is 37.6 inches (94 cm), and a stem may arise from a rhizome several years old.
Smooth sumac is distributed widely throughout most of the contiguous U.S. and into Mexico [58]. It does not occur in California [42,93]. In Canada it extends from Lake Huron to central British Columbia [46,57,76].
Smooth sumac sprouts vigorously from underground rhizomes following fire [66,78,97]. Since rhizomes are buried at depths of 3 to 12 inches (7.6-30.5 cm) [89], overlying soil probably protects them from most fires.
Although vegetative reproduction is the primary mode of reestablishment after fire, smooth sumac may also reproduce through seed. Evidence suggests that some species of Rhus seedbank with seed stored in the humus layer. These seeds germinate when fire creates seedbed and open canopy [1,63].
FIRE REGIMES:
Smooth sumac occurs in ecosystems and plant communities with varying FIRE REGIMES. The range of fire intervals reported for some species that dominate communities where smooth sumac occurs are listed below. To learn more about the FIRE REGIMES in these ecosystems and communities, refer to the FEIS Species Review for the dominant plant species, under "Fire Ecology Or Adaptations."
Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which smooth sumac may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Management practices to reduce smooth sumac cover through repeated prescribed fires alone appear limited. However, evidence suggests that the height or structure of smooth sumac stands can be altered. Repeated annual fires during the late spring may effectively reduce smooth sumac height [75].
Hutchison [49] reports that to reduce smooth sumac in Illinois prairies, stand-replacing prescribed fire in August may be sufficient to kill mature stems, but must be followed by sprout removal. He indicates that dormant-season fires do not control sumac, and spring fires may increase sprouting.
Reeves and Lenhart [68] provide fuel weight prediction equations for smooth sumac and 18 other east Texas woody species. Elliot and Clinton [29] developed equations for predicting total aboveground, foliage, and stem biomass for herbs, smooth sumac, and other woody vegetation in prescribe burned and other early-successional, disturbed sites in southern Appalachian oak-pine (Pinus-Quercus spp.) forest. Equations for smooth sumac are as follows:
Smooth sumac grows in a wide range of habitats including open woodlands, prairies, dry rocky hillsides, canyons, and protected ravines [36,40,90]. It often forms dense thickets in prairies [89]. It is common in ecotonal areas and is often found along roadsides, in dry waste areas, and in old fields [36]. Smooth sumac grows well on shallow to moderately deep, dry to moist, coarse or variably textured soils. It grows best on slightly acidic to neutral soils (pH 6.5-7.0) with sunny exposures [78].
Smooth sumac occurs as high as 2290 meters in Utah [91].
14 Northern pin oak
17 Pin cherry
40 Post oak-blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
45 Pitch pine
52 White oak-black oak-northern red oak
53 White oak
210 Interior Douglas-fir
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
238 Western juniper
239 Pinyon-juniper
FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce-fir forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub
K038 Great Basin sagebrush
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe
K057 Galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass
K065 Grama-buffalo grass
K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalo grass
K069 Bluestem-grama prairie
K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K081 Oak savanna
K084 Cross Timbers
K086 Juniper-oak savanna
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K097 Southeastern spruce-fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K100 Oak-hickory
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods-fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods-spruce forest
K110 Northeastern oak-pine forest
K111 Oak-hickory-pine
K112 Southern mixed forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
109 Ponderosa pine shrubland
421 Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose
602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed
603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass
606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass
710 Bluestem prairie
720 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (dunes)
721 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (plains)
722 Sand sagebrush-mixed prairie
731 Cross timbers-Oklahoma
801 Savanna
802 Missouri prairie
804 Tall fescue
809 Mixed hardwood and pine
Sumacs (Rhus spp.) generally tolerate fire [17]. Fires in the Great Plains rarely kill smooth sumac and some authorities state that smooth sumac actually depends on fire for survival [97]. Its propensity for sprouting minimizes fire's damaging effects.
Birds, insects, and mammals consume smooth sumac fruits and leaves [9,69,81,95]. Because the drupes persist through the fall and winter months, smooth sumac provides a ready food source when other foods are scarce or unavailable. It is browsed by deer, particularly during the winter months when more preferred browse is scarce [95]. This species provides little forage for domestic livestock [66].
Smooth sumac is a climax indicator in a number of shrub-grassland
communities. In eastern Washington climax mountain grasslands once
dominated by smooth sumac and perennial grasses have been
overgrazed and are now smooth sumac/cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)
communities [22]. Smooth sumac grows well in
both the mountain brush and pinyon-juniper (Pinus-Juniperus spp.) zones [36].
Dominant associates in Appalachian pine-hardwood forests are pitch pine (P. rigida), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinia), chestnut oak (Q. prinus), and mountain-laurel (Kalmia latifolia) [28,29].
Common plant associates in Kansas bluestem prairies are [75]:
Grasses
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans)
sideoats grass (Bouteloua curtipendula)
blue grama (B. gracilis)
hairy grama (B. hirsuta)
buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides)
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
Woody Plants
buckbrush (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus)
American elm (Ulmus americana)
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)
bur oak (Q. macrocarpa)
chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii)
roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii)
Characteristic woody and graminoid species associated with smooth sumac in black oak (Q. velutina) savanna in Indiana include [8]:
white oak (Q. alba)
black cherry (Prunus serotina)
sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
flameleaf sumac (Rhus copallina)
little bluestem
yellow sedge (Carex pensylvanica)
prairie junegrass (Koelaria macrantha)
Indiangrass
Plant classifications naming smooth sumac
as a dominant species are:
Steppe vegetation of Washington [22]
Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington [32]
Canyon grasslands and associated shrublands of west-central Idaho and
adjacent areas [84]
In a 1983 review of management practices for controlling smooth sumac, Evans [30] determined that smooth sumac is susceptible to a number of control practices, including cutting 2 or 3 successive years shortly after flowering or cutting 5 times over a period of 3 years. The author also indicates that cutting can be used in combination with herbicides and prescribed burning. As discussed in the Fire Effects section of this report, spring burning alone often causes smooth sumac to proliferate. Evans recommends combining cutting and burning and suggests herbicides where appropriate.
Packard [64] reports that cutting mature stems at flowering helps control smooth sumac, but may be less effective in the case of those which had been previously cut or partially burned at a less sensitive time.
Hutchinson [49] reports that smooth sumac is one of the primary invaders of hill prairies in Illinois, where dense clones eliminate other native species. He suggests however, that it not be eliminated totally from communities, and should be left in ravines and draws. Removal of shrubs by cutting is recommended in July, followed by sprout cutting in August. He also indicates that fire may be a useful control (see Fire Management Considerations section).
The general response of smooth sumac to browsing is unclear. Wambolt
[88] reported that it is a decreaser, whereas other researchers have
classified it as an increaser [5]. Still others report that on many
sites its response is unpredictable [32]. Daubenmire [23] followed the progress of disturbed smooth sumac thickets in a western Washington palouse prairie site and concluded that the thickets are highly dynamic under "heavy" grazing. One large thicket thinned out over 10 years, while another became established and spread in a different place.
Though treatment with herbicides increased both crude protein and dry matter digestibility in several Oklahoma shrub forage species, only dry matter digestibility increased significantly (P less than 0.05) in smooth sumac [77].
Smooth sumac is rated poor in both energy and protein value [26]. Soper and others [77] observed significant (P less than 0.05) seasonal fluctuations in smooth sumac nutritional value and an increase in dry matter digestibility after treatment with herbicides.
Smooth sumac is planted as an ornamental because of its colorful fall foliage [44]. It is recommended in Utah for xeriscaping due to its drought tolerance [37]. It is also planted as a shelterbelt species and on depleted game ranges [16,67] and is recommended for use in "living" snow fences where wildlife habitat improvement is an objective [72].
Laboratory analyses of smooth sumac plant tissue indicate the presence of antifungal and antibacterial compounds [71,59].
Native Americans traditionally made hot and cold beverages [39], dyes, and medicines from smooth sumac fruits. Young sprouts were eaten in salads [10].
Smooth sumac fruits are palatable to many species of birds and small
mammals. Wild turkey, gray partridge, and mourning dove also feed on
the fruits [78].
Smooth sumac is moderately palatable to wintering mule deer [66,78]. In general, however,
smooth sumac is relatively unpalatable to most big game and domestic livestock. Overall
palatability is as follows [26]: CO ND UT WY
Cattle Poor ---- Poor Poor
Domestic sheep Poor ---- Poor Poor
Horses Poor ---- Poor Poor
Pronghorn ---- ---- Poor Poor
Bighorn ---- ---- ---- ----
Elk ---- ---- Poor Poor
Mt. goat ---- ---- ---- ----
Mule deer ---- ---- Poor Fair
White-tailed deer ---- Fair Fair ----
Small mammals ---- ---- Fair Good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- Fair Fair
Upland game birds ---- ---- Fair Fair
Waterfowl ---- ---- Poor Poor
Smooth sumac renews growth early in the year [89], with flowers developing before the leaves [86]. Flowering dates are as follows [26]:
Location Beginning of Flowering End of Flowering
CO May July
MT July July
ND July July
UT May July
Fruit ripens from September to October [16]. Seed often persists through the fall and winter [78].
The response of smooth sumac to fire appears to vary considerably depending on the burn frequency, season, and postburn management techniques. Smooth sumac spreads readily from rhizomes following fire [43,66], but growth may be stunted by frequent fire. Spring fires increase smooth sumac cover. Consecutive late spring fires may be particularly effective in reducing the height of these shrubs, although plants often increase in number after such fires [75].
Tree with adventitious bud/root crown/soboliferous species root sucker
Tall shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Ground residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)
Initial offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE REGIMES: Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Li and others [37] report that the 1.5 months required for flower, fruit and seed development in smooth sumac is much faster than that reported for other members of the Anacardiaceae family. Flowers may develop into conspicuous red fruits after only 6 weeks.
Smooth sumac produces at least some seed nearly every year [16]. The seeds are widely distributed by many species of birds and mammals [26]. There is evidence that seeds persist in the soil seedbank [1,6]. Smooth sumac seed has averaged up to 97% sound, depending on the lot examined [50]. Germination is inhibited by the hard, impervious hull and seedcoat [37,41,50]. Brinkman [16] observed that germination was greatest and most rapid under continuous light. A constant temperature regime of 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 oC) and alternating warm and cool temperatures both promoted good germination, whereas a constant temperature of 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 oC) prevented germination.
Smooth sumac also readily reproduces vegetatively. It spreads through rhizomes to form large, dense thickets [16,45]. The rhizomes may produce new shoots as far as 30 feet (1-9 m) from the parent plant [90].
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
Smooth sumac is a climax indicator in a number of shrub and grassland communities [22,32,84]. Three vegetation associations typified by smooth sumac are found on colluvial or alluvial soils in canyons in the Columbia Basin Province described in Franklin and Dyrness [32]; Their understories are dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata), sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), or red threeawn (Aristida purpurea). Daubenmire [22] identified these 3 hypothetical climaxes, but concluded that grazing effectively reduced them to a smooth sumac/cheatgrass community. The patchy distribution of smooth sumac stands in the Washington steppe and their restriction to sandy soils warrant designating them as one or more edaphic climaxes.
Smooth sumac is a prominent species in prairie and oak savanna communities where fire has been suppressed [38,49,80,83]. It is relatively intolerant of shade [90].
In a 1981 central Oklahoma tallgrass prairie studied for old field succession following different initial plowing treatments beginning in 1949, vegetation development in 4 hypothesized stages from pioneer weeds to mature prairie was heterogeneous and unpredictable. Smooth sumac was present in unplowed plots and also appeared in the other 2 plots that developed to mature prairie following one 1949 plowing and 5 annual plowings from 1949 to 1953. The authors [20,21] characterize the succession to mature prairie as "very rapid," at least in part due to continual fire suppression. They predict that woody shrubs, including smooth sumac and flameleaf sumac (Rhus copallina), Chickasaw plum (Prunus angustifolia), and coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) will continue to increase, and the upland forest trees post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Q. marilandica ) may eventually dominate the site. The authors note that in the absence of fire, mature prairie vegetation is not the climax on the coarse textured soils of the region, and that fire is essential to maintenance of tallgrass prairie. Please note, however, that the Fire Effects section of this report discusses a number of prescribed burns, especially in the spring, which increased smooth sumac.
The documented scientific name of smooth sumac is Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae)
[36,44,51]. There are no infrataxa. Smooth sumac and staghorn sumac (R. typhina) hybridize [58].
Smooth sumac is rated low in potential for short-term revegetation and moderate in potential for long-term revegetation [15]. It is useful in controlling soil erosion and for roadside planting [66]. Smooth sumac shrubs were among 17 native species successfully planted on an abandoned landfill in New York, chosen because of their value to wildlife. Survival of planted smooth sumac shrubs was greater than 50% on reclaimed strip mines in Texas [35]. In Montana it is propagated commercially [7] and has been used with limited success to revegetate road cuts [47].
Smooth sumac recovered naturally in disturbed stream channels in Tennessee [48] and abandoned coal mines in West Virginia [48,74] though the authors did not indicate whether the regeneration was from seed or rhizomes.
Propagation: Rootstocks can be easily propagated [78] and generally survive even when transplanted onto very severe sites [66].
Seed production and handling characteristics are described as "good" [65]. Smooth sumac seed remains viable 5 or more years in storage [78]. Seed stored for 10 years exhibited 63% germination following sulfuric acid treatments [16]. Sulfuric acid treatments aid germination [15,16,41,44].
Rhus glabra, the smooth sumac,[2] (also known as white sumac, upland sumac, or scarlet sumac)[3] is a species of sumac in the family Anacardiaceae, native to North America, from southern Quebec west to southern British Columbia in Canada, and south to northern Florida and Arizona in the United States and Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico.
One of the easiest shrubs to identify throughout the year (unless mistaken for poison sumac, in the absence of mature fruit), smooth sumac has a spreading, open habit, growing up to 3 m (9.8 ft) tall, rarely to 5 m (16 ft). The leaves are alternate, 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long, compound with 11–31 oppositely paired leaflets, each leaflet 5–11 cm (2–4+1⁄4 in) long, with a serrated margin. The leaves turn scarlet in the fall. The flowers are tiny, green, produced in dense erect panicles 10–25 cm (4–10 in) tall, in the spring, later followed by large panicles of edible crimson berries that remain throughout the winter. The buds are small, covered with brown hair and borne on fat, hairless twigs. The bark on older wood is smooth and grey to brown.
In late summer it sometimes forms galls on the underside of leaves, caused by the parasitic sumac leaf gall aphid, Melaphis rhois. The galls are not harmful to the tree.
Native Americans ate the young sprouts as a salad.[4] The fruit is sour and contains a large seed, but can be chewed (to alleviate thirst) and made into a lemonade-like drink. Deer forage the twigs and fruit.[5] In 2020, archaeologists unearthed a pipe at a dig in Central Washington state, showing chemical evidence that a Native American tribe had smoked Rhus glabra either alone or in a blend with tobacco, perhaps "for its medicinal qualities and to improve the flavor of smoke."[6]
Rhus glabra, the smooth sumac, (also known as white sumac, upland sumac, or scarlet sumac) is a species of sumac in the family Anacardiaceae, native to North America, from southern Quebec west to southern British Columbia in Canada, and south to northern Florida and Arizona in the United States and Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico.
One of the easiest shrubs to identify throughout the year (unless mistaken for poison sumac, in the absence of mature fruit), smooth sumac has a spreading, open habit, growing up to 3 m (9.8 ft) tall, rarely to 5 m (16 ft). The leaves are alternate, 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long, compound with 11–31 oppositely paired leaflets, each leaflet 5–11 cm (2–4+1⁄4 in) long, with a serrated margin. The leaves turn scarlet in the fall. The flowers are tiny, green, produced in dense erect panicles 10–25 cm (4–10 in) tall, in the spring, later followed by large panicles of edible crimson berries that remain throughout the winter. The buds are small, covered with brown hair and borne on fat, hairless twigs. The bark on older wood is smooth and grey to brown.
Fruit In late summer it sometimes forms galls on the underside of leaves, caused by the parasitic sumac leaf gall aphid, Melaphis rhois. The galls are not harmful to the tree.
