The potential damage done to the plant is affected by the proximity of other shrubs, which provide additional fuel and higher fire intensity. With higher intensity or a longer burnout time, there is a greater chance of lethal heating of basal buds [101].
In sagebrush-grass communities of the Great Basin, burning during flowering when carbohydrate levels are at their lowest can be most deleterious to rabbitbrush species. If plants are defoliated by insects or browsing ungulates prior to burning they may lack sufficient reserves to resprout [69].
Yellow rabbitbrush sprouts vigorously after fire [1,45,78]. Sprouts originate from epicormic buds located just below the soil surface [69]. Typically, a single shoot appears the first year after burning [91,99]. Yellow rabbitbrush also reestablishes rapidly through seeds which may be carried relatively long distances [1]. Response to fire could vary by subspecies [69].
Yellow rabbitbrush often increases on burned range sites [46]. Production may be reduced for 1 to 3 years after fire, but then increases rapidly [45,66]. Studies have documented a 4- to 9-fold increase in production within the first 20 years after fire in northeastern Idaho [37]. After fire near Dubois, Idaho, production was reduced by 59% in the first postfire year [95]. Three years after the fire, production had doubled relative to preburn levels. It had tripled at the end of 12 years [95].
Yellow rabbitbrush is relatively short lived and is eventually overtaken by reinvading sagebrush. In sagebrush-grass communities of Nevada, recovery of yellow rabbitbrush to preburn levels may occur within 20 to 25 years, with yellow rabbitbrush much reduced in 40- to 50-year-old stands [45,69].
The Research Project Summary Vegetation response to
restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana provides
information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant community
species, including yellow rabbitbrush, that was not available when
this species review was written.
Yellow rabbitbrush provides important cover for pronghorn fawns [81]. It also provides nesting cover for sage grouse in southeastern Oregon and for waterfowl on sand dunes of eastern Washington [32,34]. Yellow rabbitbrush provides nesting cover for some species of songbirds including the Brewer's sparrow and sage sparrow [70]. Generalized cover value by subspecies is as follows [24]: Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus UT WY Elk poor poor Mule deer poor poor White-tailed deer ---- poor Pronghorn poor ---- Upland game birds good good Waterfowl poor poor Small nongame birds good good Small mammals good good Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus UT WY Elk poor ---- Mule deer poor ---- White-tailed deer ---- fair Pronghorn poor ---- Upland game birds poor ---- Waterfowl poor ---- Small nongame birds fair ---- Small mammals fair ---- Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus UT Elk poor Mule deer poor Pronghorn poor Upland game birds fair Waterfowl poor Small nongame birds fair Small mammals fair
Yellow rabbitbrush is a low native shrub growing from 1 to 3.6 feet (0.3-1.1 m) with many brittle, erect stems branching from a compact base [57]. The species has a large geographic range and wide ecological amplitude. Leaves are deciduous [89]. Disc flowers are borne in terminal cymes [16]. The main taproot is at least 1.9 feet deep (0.6 m), and many major secondary roots extend laterally [61]. Plants are relatively short lived (approximately 12-13 years). Their senescence and attrition from some densely populated stands on early successional sites is related to infestation by larvae of the beetle Acamaeodera pulchella. Where yellow rabbitbrush is scattered within late-seral big sagebrush stands, there is a lower level of infestation [98].
Yellow rabbitbrush is one of the most widely distributed shrubs on rangelands throughout western North America. It occurs from British Columbia south to southeastern California and east to North Dakota, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.
Distribution by subspecies is as follows [10]:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus - southern British Columbia to northern New Mexico
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus - Great Basin
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus - southern California and northern Arizona to northern Washington and western Montana eastward to northwestern Nebraska
Yellow rabbitbrush regenerates after fire by sprouting and by establishing from off-site seed.
Yellow rabbitbrush is commonly observed on burned sites in west-central Utah [12]. Burning temporarily eliminates big sagebrush and other plants that compete for resources such as water or space. Release from competition stimulates yellow rabbitbrush to produce large numbers of viable achenes that are widely dispersed by wind. Seedlings that emerge from these achenes establish successfully because of their rapid root elongation [59,60].
The range of fire intervals reported for some species that dominate communities where yellow rabbitbrush occurs are listed below. To learn more about the FIRE REGIMES in those communities refer to the FEIS summary for that species, under "Fire Ecology or Adaptations."
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa): 2 to 42 years
Mexican pinyon (P. cembroides): 20 to 70 years
Yellow rabbitbrush produces small stems and seed stalks annually which die but remain on the plant for a year or more. During drought periods, this dry, dead material may increase fuel accumulation and contribute to the spread of fire [64].
The recovery of yellow rabbitbrush after fire depends on both its ability to resprout after fire and its production of large numbers of achenes when released from competition. To prevent massive reestablishment of yellow rabbitbrush, potential treatment sites should be chosen carefully. An adequate cover of perennial grasses and forbs reduces yellow rabbitbrush reproduction. In northern Nevada, a density of not less than 2.5 perennial grass plants/m2 is recommended [98].
It is well adapted to drought and occurs in desert or semi-desert environments [6,20]. Yellow rabbitbrush grows on open ridges, on slopes, and along drainageways [38]. It grows on dry, well-drained medium to coarse-textured soils and exhibits fair salt tolerance [46, 55,69]. Yellow rabbitbrush grows on alkaline soils and exhibits an affinity for calcium [53].
Subspecies overlap in range but have somewhat different ecological requirements [58]. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus is fairly common in dry foothills and mountainous habitats. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus generally occurs at lower elevations on dry plains, valleys, and foothills, particularly on poorer soils and in disturbed areas. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus grows on soils with a pH of 6.0 to 8.4 [10].
Yellow rabbitbrush is most commonly found at elevations between 2,600 and 11,000 feet (790 and 3,350 m) [37,90]. Elevational ranges for several subspecies are as follows [10]:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus 976 to 11,000 feet (297-2,590 m)
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus 4,200 to 10,000 feet (1,280-13,48 m)
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus 850 to 12,800 feet (259-3,901 m)
Yellow rabbitbrush is usually top-killed by fire [45,54]. It has high resin content, and both foliage and stems may be consumed, even with relatively high moisture content. Fuel distribution as well as overall fuel loading affects the potential survival of yellow rabbitbrush [101].
Yellow rabbitbrush provides an important source of browse for livestock and wildlife, particularly in the late fall and early winter after more palatable species have been depleted. Livestock and wild ungulates show varying preference for yellow rabbitbrush depending on season, locality, and subspecies. Mature or partially mature plants are generally preferred to green, immature ones [55]. McArthur and Meyer [57] report that the subspecies Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus is often heavily used by both livestock and wildlife.
In southeastern Idaho, yellow rabbitbrush plants may be almost completely consumed by black-tailed jackrabbits during the winter and early spring [5]. Black-tailed jackrabbit use generally occurs when plants are dormant [21]. In south-central Idaho, mountain cottontail also feed on yellow rabbitbrush [39].
White-tailed deer in Montana feed on yellow rabbitbrush during the winter and early spring [2]. In the Missouri Breaks, mule deer consume this shrub during fall, winter, and spring. Some winter elk use has also been reported in the Missouri Breaks [51]. Yellow rabbitbrush furnishes some food for pronghorns in Utah [41,81]. Pronghorn browse it during spring and summer in southern Oregon [96].
Domestic sheep feed on Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus on spring pastures in southeastern Idaho [48].
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus grows with big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), snakeweed (Gutierrezia spp.), and other rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.). Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
subsp. puberulus is most commonly found in big sagebrush communities with other subspecies of low rabbitbrush, as well as with salt-tolerant species such as halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus), shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia), and winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata). It is occasionally found with pinyon (Pinus spp.) and juniper (Juniperus spp.). Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
subsp. viscidiflorus is most common in sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and pinyon-juniper. It is associated with salt-tolerant shadscale, halogeton, and winterfat at lower elevations. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus var. stenophyllus is usually found in sagebrush communities on poor soils and disturbed sites. It also grows in more saline areas.
Community classifications in which yellow rabbitbrush is described as a dominant species are as follows:
An ecological reconnaissance of the Artemisia steppe on the east central Owyhee uplands of Oregon [20]
Flora and major plant communities of the Ruby-East Humboldt Mountains with special emphasis on Lamoille Canyon [50]
Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. vaseyana) and longleaf snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) plant associations in northeastern Nevada [82]
Yellow rabbitbrush is killed by various herbicides, but control is difficult. For best control, the soil should be moist within 4 inches (10 cm) of the surface [63]. Detailed information on response to herbicides is available [26,49,81,90,92].
After a disturbance, there is a delay before yellow rabbitbrush reaches peak achene production in response to reduced competition. This is the appropriate time to conduct site rehabilitation if reduction of yellow rabbitbrush is a management objective. Seed and seedling production do not cease after the initial reproductive surge, but massive establishment will not occur if other species (especially perennial grasses) have already taken advantage of the site potential [98].
Yellow rabbitbrush is tolerant of grazing and may be "rejuvenated" by foliage removal [81]. In parts of the Great Basin, plants regrew rapidly after they were nearly completely consumed by spring-browsing black-tailed jackrabbits. There was no difference in biomass between browsed and unbrowsed plants by July [5]. Shrub control measures such as chaining may stimulate sprouting in yellow rabbitbrush [90]. Yellow rabbitbrush commonly increases on degraded rangelands as more palatable species are removed [16].
Protein and energy levels in yellow rabbitbrush are rated poor
to fair [24]. Nutritional value (%) of fresh yellow rabbitbrush is
as follows [68]:
dry ash crude ether N-free protein
matter fiber extract extract (N x 6.25)
100.0 8.0 23.8 5.4 49.4 13.4
Yellow rabbitbrush can be a source of rubber and possibly valuable resins [35].
Palatability of yellow rabbitbrush varies by subspecies [56].
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus is
palatable to both livestock and wildlife. Chrysothamnus
viscidiflorus subsp. puberulusis rated as "low" in
palatability [75]. Palatability by subspecies has been rated
as follows [24]:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus
MT UT WY
Cattle ---- poor poor
Sheep ---- fair fair
Horses ---- poor poor
Pronghorn poor fair good
Elk poor fair good
Mule deer good fair good
Small mammals ---- fair good
Small nongame birds ---- poor fair
Upland game birds ---- fair fair
Waterfowl ---- poor poor
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus
UT WY
Cattle poor poor
Sheep fair poor
Horses poor poor
Pronghorn fair ----
Mule deer poor ----
Small mammals good ----
Small nongame birds fair ----
Upland game birds poor ----
Waterfowl poor ----
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. pumilus
MT WY
Cattle poor poor
Sheep fair fair
Horses poor fair
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus
CO MT UT WY
Cattle poor poor fair poor
Sheep poor poor good fair
Horses poor poor poor fair
Pronghorn ---- ---- fair good
Elk good ---- fair ----
Mule deer fair ---- good good
Small mammals ---- ---- fair good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- fair fair
Upland game birds ---- ---- fair fair
Waterfowl ---- ---- poor poor
The phenological development of yellow rabbitbrush varies by elevation, climate, and infrataxa. Restricted vegetative growth begins in early spring, with a period of accelerated growth occurring in late spring. Vegetative growth levels off just before flowering [81].
Flowering usually begins in mid- to late summer [89]. Yellow rabbitbrush flowers during summer in all but the most extreme drought years [86]. Seed ripens from late fall to early winter [89]. Seeds generally begin sprouting in March and continue sprouting into June. The following table gives a generalized comparison of flowering development of various subspecies [24]:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus Begin Full End State Flowering Flowering Flowering --------------------------------------------------------- UT May Aug. Aug. CO June Aug. Sept. WY July July Sept. MT July Aug. Aug. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus Begin Full End State Flowering Flowering Flowering --------------------------------------------------------- WY July Aug. Aug. MT May Aug. Aug. Phenological development for Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus in Idaho was [15]: Leaf growth starts 4/13 Twig growth starts 5/24 Fl. buds visible 6/30 First bloom 7/27 Full bloom 8/18 Bloom over 9/8 Seed ripe 9/2 Dissemination over 10/10 Young and Evans [97] report that yellow rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. viscidiflorus) undergoes 2 phases of branch elongation between bud burst and flowering. A period of restricted growth in early spring is followed by accelerated growth in late spring and early summer.
Yellow rabbitbrush sprouts vigorously after fire [1,45,78]. Sprouts originate from epicormic buds located just below the soil surface [69]. Typically, a single shoot appears the first year after burning [91,99]. Yellow rabbitbrush also reestablishes rapidly through seeds which may be carried relatively long distances [1]. Response to fire could vary by subspecies [69].
Yellow rabbitbrush often increases on burned range sites [46]. Production may be reduced for 1 to 3 years after fire, but then increases rapidly [45,66]. Studies have documented a 4- to 9-fold increase in production within the first 20 years after fire in northeastern Idaho [37]. After fire near Dubois, Idaho, production was reduced by 59% in the first postfire year [95]. Three years after the fire, production had doubled relative to prefire levels. It had tripled at the end of 12 years [95].
Fire may not always lead to increases in yellow rabbitbrush. Fall and spring prescribed fires in a basin big sagebrush community in east-central Oregon had no significant effect on yellow rabbitbrush density in postfire year 1 or 2 compared to density on control plots [102]. See the Research Project Summary of this study for more information on fire effects on yellow rabbitbrush and 60 additional woody plant, grass, and forb species.
Yellow rabbitbrush is relatively short lived and is eventually overtaken by reinvading sagebrush. In sagebrush-grass communities of Nevada, recovery of yellow rabbitbrush to prefire levels may occur within 20 to 25 years, with yellow rabbitbrush much reduced in 40- to 50-year-old stands [45,69].
Small shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)
FIRE REGIMES: Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Yellow rabbitbrush produces an abundance of small, viable, plumed seeds [69,86]. Seeds are easily dispersed even long distances by wind [69]. A stratification period does not appear to be necessary but may speed germination. In eastern Oregon, seedlings established in grass and litter on the northeast sides of older rabbitbrush and sagebrush plants. They also established on north-facing slopes of small mounds or indentations made by animals. Seedling mortality in these sites was greater than 50% by June 12. Established seedlings do not persist unless late spring rains replenish soil moisture. Yellow rabbitbrush establishment during dry years is unlikely because seedling roots do not elongate deeply enough before surface moisture is depleted [59]. Seedlings do not appear to originate from seed banked in soil [98,99].
Yellow rabbitbrush resprouts vigorously [95].
Yellow rabbitbrush quickly and aggressively invades disturbed open sites including burns and overgrazed rangelands [7,12,86,90]. It is a seral species in sagebrush communities and occupies disturbed areas such as burns after competing vegetation has been removed [28,29]. This shrub persists in small numbers in naturally disturbed areas such as washes, sand dunes, and talus slopes [100]. However, it attains dominance only on highly disturbed early seral sites [84]. Yellow rabbitbrush often remains dominant for the first 15 years after disturbance, but then declines and is replaced by species such as big sagebrush [90]. In a Nevada study, individual plants become senescent in about 12 years [101]. Longevity may vary with subspecies, however. Tueller and Payne [81] report that Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus var. latifolius persists for approximately 10 years. In pinyon-juniper communities, yellow rabbitbrush is considered an early to mid-seral species [43].
Yellow rabbitbrush may continue as a minor component in stands near or at climax condition [29]. Yellow rabbitbrush is much reduced in 40- to 50-year-old stands [45]. One reason for the limited longevity of some yellow rabbitbrush stands may be infestation by the larvae of Aemaeodera. Elimination of yellow rabbitbrush plants or reduction of vigor makes the site more susceptible to invasion by sagebrush or other late successional species.
The fully documented scientific name of yellow rabbitbrush is Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus (Hook.) Nutt. (Asteraceae). Several subspecies and varieties with somewhat different geographic distributions, habitat preferences, and morphologies have been recognized [7]. Intermediate forms exist between some subspecies [57]. Infrataxa of yellow rabbitbrush are:
subspecies:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. axillaris (Keck) L. Anderson [36], Inyo rabbitbrush
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. lanceolatus (Nutt.) H.M. Hall & Clements [31,36,87] mountain low rabbitbrush
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus subsp. puberulus (D.C. Eaton) H.M. Hall & Clements [36]
downy rabbitbrush
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus spp. viscidiflorus [31,36,87] stickyleaf low rabbitbrush
varieties:
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus var. latifolius (D.C. Eaton) Greene [19], yellow rabbitbrush
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus var. stenophyllus (Gray) Hall [41,89], low narrowleaf rabbitbrush
No legal status
Yellow rabbitbrush is well suited for revegetating disturbed sites such as road cuts, strip mines, and depleted rangelands due to its prolific seed production and relatively high germination rates [14, 50]. It can be used for erosion control and to stabilize mass soil slippage and increase surface stability [38]. In the Wasatch Mountains of Utah, yellow rabbitbrush has been successfully used to stabilize soils on subalpine sites [71]. Once plants are established, growth is rapid. Subsequent spread is by seed. Two years of rest from grazing is recommended after seeding [75].
Establishment by direct seeding in late fall and winter is good to fair [72]. Seed can be difficult to collect, however [65]. Vegetative propagation from stem cuttings produces "poor" results [38]. Three- to 5-month-old rabbitbrush can be successfully transplanted onto disturbed sites [23]. Seed is commercially available [22].
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus is a species of shrub in the family Asteraceae of the Americas known by the common names yellow rabbitbrush and green rabbitbrush.
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus grows up to about 150 centimeters (5 feet) in height, with spreading, brittle, pale stem branches. The leaves are up to a few centimeters long and may be thin and thread-like or up to 1 cm wide and oblong. They are glandular, resinous, and sticky.
The inflorescence is a bushy cluster of flower heads, each head 0.5–1 cm long. The flower head is lined with sticky yellow-green phyllaries and contains several yellowish protruding flowers.
The fruit is a hairy achene a few millimeters long with a wispy pappus at the tip. The species grows in sagebrush and woodland habitat.[3]
Subspecies and varieties include:[4][5][6][7]
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus contains an unusual m-hydroxyacetophenone derivative, named viscidone, and chromanone derivatives.[13]
The plant is widespread across of North American in much of the western United States and western Canada, from British Columbia and Montana south to California and New Mexico, with a few populations in the Black Hills of South Dakota and in western Nebraska,[14] as well as in South America in the Andean valleys of Chile and Argentina.
It grows easily in alkaline and saline soils, and thrives on soils that are rich in calcium.[15] It rapidly establishes in disturbed habitat, including burns, flooded washes, and rockslides, so it is a valuable shrub for revegetating damaged land such as overgrazed rangeland and abandoned mining areas.[15]
It is a larval host to the sagebrush checkerspot and it is an important nectar source in the fall.[16] Range animals such as deer and antelope browse the foliage.[17] It often occurs with Ericameria nauseosa.[17]pic
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus plants are typically top killed by fire, but can resprout with sufficient energy reserves, and their windborn seeds can blow into a burned area and sprout vigorously. [18] The numbers of plants often increase shortly after a fire and can dominate the landscape, but decreases as Artemisia tridentata (big sagebrush) recolonizes an area.[18]
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus is a species of shrub in the family Asteraceae of the Americas known by the common names yellow rabbitbrush and green rabbitbrush.
