Saithe

Alaskan Pollock is a separate species (Theragra chalcogramma).

Atlantic Pollock are know by various common names including saithe, coalfish, billet, and many others.

Major predators include seals, sea lions, whales, dolphins, and other large bony fish. Human fishing operations play a significant role in pollock mortality, and there is speculation that overfishing may be causing the decrease in age at maturity observed by Cargnelli et al. (1999). Adults and juveniles exhibit schooling as an anti-predator defense. Rangeley and Kramer (1998) found that schooling and habitat selection are important anti-predator strategies in juveniles; juveniles spend more time in algae beds in the presence of a predator. Juveniles that remain in the open were more likely to aggregate in the presence of a predator.

Known Predators:

• seals (Phocidae)
• sea lions (Otariidae)
• toothed whales (Odontoceti)
• dolphins (Delphinidae)
• large bony fish (Actinopterygii)

Pollock are brownish-green dorsally with the color becoming more pale ventrally. They have a pale, smooth lateral line that is interrupted. The body is fusiform. They have a small chin barbel and a terminal mouth (Cohen et al. 1990). Although there is evidence that some populations may be geographically isolated, there is no evidence that there are any important genetic differences between populations (Mayo et al. 1989). Adult pollock can reach maximum lengths of 130 cm but are usually less than 110 cm (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Mayo et al. (1989) reported that for the period 1970 to 1984 mean length was 50.5 cm for males and 47.9 cm for females. O'Brien et al. (1993) reported that for the period 1986 to 1988 mean length was 41.8 cm for males and 39.1 cm for females. This change in size has also been accompanied by a decrease in mean age at maturity (see Development).

Range mass: 32 (high) kg.

Average mass: 0.5-5 kg.

Range length: 28 to 130 cm.

Average length: 45-85 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Maximum reported age in pollock is 25 years. A more typical lifespan is 10 years. The majority of fish caught, however, range between 3 and 6 years of age (Mayo 1994).

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 25 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 10 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 25 years.

The eggs are pelagic, and are typically found at depths of 50 to 90 m. Juvenile pollock move into the shallow littoral zone for the first two years of life (Steele 1963). Juvenile pollock often use macroalgae in the rocky intertidal zone as a source of refuge and forage during this period (Rangeley and Kramer 1995). Adults leave the shallow littoral zones and swim in large schools throughout the water column. Adults show no substrate preference, but temperature is an important factor. Adults may be found at depths ranging from 5 to 325 m, but more typically between 35 and 130 m (Cargnelli et al. 1999)

Range depth: 5 to 325 m.

Average depth: 35-130 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; coastal

Other Habitat Features: intertidal or littoral

Pollachius virens occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the western Atlantic, their distribution is centered between Cape Cod and the Strait of Canso, while in the eastern Atlantic they are mainly found around Iceland, in the North Sea, and off the northern coast of Norway (Steele 1963). Specimens have been found as far south as North Carolina (Coles 1926), although their abundance is very low at the southern edge of their range. They are native to much of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans.

Biogeographic Regions: arctic ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native )

Food sources differ between life history stages. Larval pollock subsist initially on yolk contained in egg sacks. Small larvae consume larval copepods, while larger larvae consume adult copepods (Steele 1963). Juvenile pollock subsist mainly on crustaceans, particularly the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002), and to a lesser degree on fish and mollusks. Adults feed on crustaceans, fish, and mollusks as well, but the relative importance of these varies with the size of individual. The smallest adults (41 to 65 cm) feed primarily on crustaceans, medium size adults (66 to 95 cm) feed mainly on fish such as Atlantic herring Clupea pallasii pallasii, while the largest adults (> 95 cm) feed on mollusks such as squid Loligo (Bowman and Michaels 1984).

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )

Pollock are an extremely important fish in commercial fisheries, and commercial fisheries on both sides of the Atlantic are well developed. The degree to which pollock are integrated into the fisheries of many nations is evidenced by the several dozen common names in several languages for P. virens. They are also an important gamefish (Steele 1963).

Positive Impacts: food

There are no negative impacts of Atlantic pollock on humans.

Pollock are characterized by a pelagic larval stage that typically lasts between three and four months. When individuals reach 3 cm in length they migrate into the shallow sublittoral zone until near the end of their second year. Individuals are often termed "harbor" pollock at this stage (Steele 1963). At the end of their second year, juveniles move to offshore regions where they will spend most of their adult life (Cargnelli et al. 1999).

Habitat loss or degradation of nearshore intertidal zones that serve as a refuge for juvenile pollock are a current concern, and there is a call for more research related to this topic (Cargnelli et al. 1999). There is some speculation that these habitats may be a bottleneck restricting population size. There are additional concerns regarding the effect of overfishing on pollock population sizes. After catch rates increased steadily throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, catch rates dropped 82% between 1986 and 1996 (Mayo 1998). This was accompanied by a 36% decrease in spawning stock biomass between 1986 and 1994. There is speculation that overfishing may be causing important changes in population structure as well, for example the decrease in mean age at maturity and mean size at maturity observed by Caragnelli et al. (1999).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

Pollock rely on their lateral line system for schooling. Pitcher et al. (1976) covered the eyes of schooling ollock with opaque patches to demonstrate that vision is not necessary for schooling behavior. However pollock are not able to school if their lateral line has been severed, evidence that it is important for schooling. Pollock may use vision for prey detection and capture and for mating.

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical

Pollock are an important predator in many ecosystems due to their population size and density. They play in important role in population dynamics for some crustaceans, fish, and mollusks (see 'Food Habits'). Sea lampreys Petromyzon marinus parasitize pollock.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Sea lampreys Petromyzon marinus

Pollock undertake migrations to reach spawning grounds. The largest concentrations of spawning adults occur in Massachusetts Bay, the Stellwagen Bank, Cape Ann to the Isle of Shoals, the western Gulf of Maine and on the Scotian Shelf (Cargnelli et al. 1999). However, there is little information on the actual spawning event, and no knowledge of mating system (Cargnelli et al. 1999).

Pollock undertake north-south migrations for spawning. Spawning occurs between September and April but peaks between December and February (Cargnelli et al. 1999) . There is more variability in spawning time in northern sites than in southern sites. Spawning occurs over hard bottoms with stony or rocky surfaces, and is highly dependent on temperature. Spawning begins when water temperatures fall below 8 C, and peaks when temperatures are below 4.5 to 6 C. Spawning is reported to occur at salinities of 32 to 32.8 ppt (Collette and Klein-MacPhee 2002). Fecundity per female ranges from 200,000 to 8,260,000 eggs. Incubation time of eggs ranges from 5 to 15 days, and optimal development occurs at 8.9 C (Cargnelli et al. 1999).

Mayo et al. (1989) reported that for the period 1970 to 1984 mean age at maturity was 3.5 years for males and 3.2 years for females. O'Brien et al. (1993) reported that for the period 1986 to 1988 mean age at maturity had dropped to 2.3 years for males and 2.0 years for females.

Breeding interval: Pollock breed once yearly after reaching sexual maturity.

Breeding season: Spawning occurs between September and April, and is concentrated between December and February.

Range number of offspring: 200,000 to 8,260,000.

Range gestation period: 5 to 15 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.0 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 839 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 730 days.

Parents provide no care for the young, and eggs rise in the water column and drift after fertilization. Young have a yolk sack that is absorbed after approximately five days. The rate at which yolk is absorbed is temperature dependent (Steele 1963).

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

Coal fish (also called saithe) are feared predators. Not only do they eat small crustaceans, herring and sprat, they even eat their own young. They closely resemble whiting. The greatest difference is found in the jaw. While by coal fish the lower jaw sticks out, it's the upper jaw that sticks out by whiting. Coal fish often live in large schools on or just above the sea floor. On a global scale, this fish is number two on the list of most important species for the fisheries. Only anchovies (from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans together) are caught more often.

An important commercial species, similar to cod and haddock which it replaces in some products. The catch reported for 1987 in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics totalled 483 758 t, of which 404 102 t, were taken in the northeastern Atlantic (Norway: ca. 148 000 t, Iceland: ca. 78 200 t, France: ca 69 900 t, Faeroe Islands: ca 41 600 t, Germany: ca. 28 800 t, UK: ca. 22 700 t, Denmark: ca. 8 200 t, and others), and 71 879 t in the northwestern Atlantic (Canada: ca. 47 700 t, UK: ca. 20 700 t, France: ca 2 700 t and others). In the northwestern Atlantic, 80% of the catches are taken from October to December when this fish forms large schools. The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 339 987 t. The countries with the largest catches were Norway (197 969 t) and Faeroe Islands (34 5423 t). Saithe are caught with purse seine and Danish seines, trawls (bottom and pelagic), and longlines; also trolling with spoons is used. They are marketed fresh, chilled as fillets, and frozen; also canned, dried-salted and in brine.

An active, gregarious, pelagic fishoccurring in inshore and offshore waters to about 200 m depth.Migrations are known to occur, especially for spawning, to coastal waters in spring and to deeper waters in winter. Also, long-distance north-south migrations are known, both for Europe and America. During their first 2-3 years of age, saithe remain in shallow coastal waters.Growth is rapid: at 1 year, ca. 20 cm, 2 years, 35 cm, 3 years, 50 cm, 5 years, 60-65 cm, 10 years, 94-97 cm, 15 years, 108 cm. Maximum age is 25 years. European saithe grow faster in the southern part of their range, but it is not known whether this also applies to the North American population. First maturity is reached between 5 and 10 years of age in the European population and apparently earlier (at 3 years) in the Gulf of Maine. Spawning occurs in late fall and winter; in the western North Atlantic it begins in September and ends in March, with a peak from November to February. Average females lay about 220 000 eggs, but in large fish, the fecundity may reach 4 000 000 eggs per female. Smaller fish in inshore waters feed on small crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, euphausiids) and small fish, while the large saithe prey predominantly upon fishes.

Reaches nearly 130 cm total length; common from 30 to 110 cm.

A small barbel at tip of lower jaw. Lateral line smooth along its entire length. Colour: brownish-green dorsally, only slightly paler ventrally; fins coloured like the body, except for pelvics which are pale; lateral line pale.

Barents Sea and Spitsbergen to Bay of Biscay, around Iceland, southwest Greenland, and in the western Atlantic from Hudson Strait to North Carolina, although rare at the extremes of the range.

Chin barbel small. Lateral line smooth along its entire length. Body color is brownish-green dorsally, becoming only slightly paler ventrally. The lateral line pale.

Oviparous, sexes are separate (Ref. 205).

Oceanodromous. Migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, as tunas do. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.

Dorsal spines (total): 0; Analspines: 0

Studies on the diet of this species in various localities in the North Atlantic have shown the pelagic character of its food. During its first two years of existence, it inhabits mostly coastal waters where it feeds mainly on plankton like appendicularians and crustaceans. After this coastal period, it migrates to the open sea and its food remains pelagic, although prey is larger and consists of euphausiids, fishes and cephalopods (Ref. 42118). Parasites of the species include 6 trematodes, 2 nematodes, 2 cestodes and 1 acanthocephalan; Hemiuris levinseni (trematode) being the most common, followed by Echinorhynchus gadi (Ref. 5951). See also Ref. 8999.

An active, gregarious fish occurring inshore and offshore waters. Usually enters coastal waters in spring and returns to deeper waters in winter (Ref. 9988). Smaller fish in inshore waters feed on small crustaceans (copepods, amphipods, euphausiids) and small fish, while larger fish prey predominantly upon fishes. Spawn in batches (Ref. 51846). Utilized fresh, dried or salted, smoked, canned and frozen; eaten steamed, fried, broiled, boiled, microwaved and baked (Ref. 9988).

fisheries: highly commercial; gamefish: yes; price category: low; price reliability: reliable: based on ex-vessel price for this species

The saithe (/seɪð/ or /seɪθ/) (Pollachius virens) is a species of marine fish in the Pollock genus Pollachius. Together with P. pollachius, it is generally referred to in the United States as pollock. Other names include the Boston blue (separate from bluefish), coalfish/coley, and saithe in the UK, where the young fish are called podleys in Scotland and northern England.

Feeds on copepods, amphipods and euphausiids

southwest Greenland, Hudson Strait to North Carolina, although rare at the extremes of the range

Inhabit coastal waters in spring, move to deeper waters in winter.

benthic