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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 23.8 years (wild)
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Benefits

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There are no known adverse effects of common kestrels on humans.

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Common kestrels are not typically preyed on, but are taken occasionally, especially as fledglings. Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) are known to prey on common kestrels. Suspected common kestrel predators include peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), eagle owls (Bubo bubo) and tawny owls (Strix aluco).

Known Predators:

  • northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis)
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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Morphology

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Falco tinnunculus is among the smallest of all raptors. Adults range in weight from 150 to 190 g, with females tending to be larger than males. Common kestrels have longer tails and wingspans relative to their body size than most other falcons, which allow them to be easily distinguished from related species. Common kestrel plumage ranges from gray to brown. The back is usually a darker color than the breast, both are covered in dark brown or black spots. The wings are tipped in black on the dorsal side and are pale underneath. Males often have a more bluish-gray heads and tails. Females are more of a reddish-brown color and have barring on the tail. In both sexes, there is a darker stripe or spot underneath each eye.

Hatchlings are mostly white or very pale brown. Older juveniles have feather patterns similar to adults, but the feathers are noticeably less sleek in juveniles and down is clearly visible. Juveniles more closely resemble adult females than adult males.

Range mass: 150 to 190 g.

Range length: 30 to 36 cm.

Range wingspan: 70 to 80 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Life Expectancy

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There is little data on the lifespan of F. tunnunculus in the wild. Predation, pollution, resource limitation, and road accidents contribute to early mortality in this species. Only about 66 % of common kestrels survive their first two years in the wild.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
15 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
16.2 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
16.0 years.

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Habitat

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Common kestrels prefer open, grassy fields and farmlands, which give them sufficient open areas to hunt. They can sometimes be found in forested areas and marshlands. Common kestrels occupy a wide range of altitudes, from sea level to almost 5000 m.

Range elevation: 0 to 5000 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; scrub forest

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Distribution

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Falco tinnunculus is a widespread kestrel species, found throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its range spans from Great Britain to China and as far south as South Africa. In Europe, F. tinnunculus is migratory and winters in southern Europe and sub-saharan Africa. However, the majority of the breeding population in Europe is non-migratory.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native )

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Trophic Strategy

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Common kestrels feed primarily on small mammals, including voles (Arvicolinae) and mice (e.g. Apodemus sylvaticus). They sometimes feed on amphibians, reptiles and other birds. Common kestrels hunt by soaring 10 to 20 m above the ground and diving quickly onto their prey. They may also been seen hunting on foot for small mammals and insects, especially beetles and grasshoppers. If prey is abundant, common kestrels will sometimes kill more than they need and cache what they do not eat.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Insectivore )

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Associations

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In some areas, common kestrels are key predators of small, herbivorous mammals, including voles and mice, and help control rodent and small mammal populations. Although they fall prey to goshawks and other raptors, they are not a primary food source for raptors.

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Common kestrels are important in controlling agricultural pests, especially mice and voles. They are also used in falconry.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Conservation Status

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This species is evaluated as of "least concern" by the IUCN.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Behavior

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Common kestrels primarily communicate visually and acoustically. Given their solitary nature, most of these communications are limited to the mating season (see 'Reproduction: Mating Systems'). An alarm call, described as "kee-kee-kee," is heard from a member of the pair when young are threatened. Territorial displays, however, occur year-round.

When territory is threatened, common kestrels may fly under the intruder while fanning their tails, shivering (see 'Mating Systems') and slowly rising under the intruding bird. Sometimes, the defending bird will attack the intruder.

Common kestrels perceive their environment mainly by sight since hunting from the air is a predominantly visual behavior. They have also been observed on foot, hunting by sound and sight.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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Common kestrels become quite vocal during the mating season, displaying a variety of calls. However, most of the calls are used year-round and the birds merely become more talkative during courtship months. One call, described as sounding like "quirrr-rr quirrr-rr," is made by both sexes during mating behaviors and by the female when she becomes interested in mating. A common visual display is a slow, "shivering" flight in which both sexes beat their wings quickly but shallowly. It may look like only the tips of their wings are beating. This display usually takes place immediately before or after mating. Vocal calls, such as the "quirrr-rr" call, accompany this display, signaling excitement between the pair. Mating pairs are often seen flying quickly together at great heights. This flight is characterized by sharp wing beats and a slight rocking motion. The end of this display is sometimes marked by the pair diving dramatically to the nest with wings thrown into a sharp "V" shape.

From the beginning of courtship until egg-laying, males hunt for the females and brings them prey as gifts. During this time, females becomes increasingly sedentary and spend the majority of their time in the nest.

Breeding density is most affected by available resources, such as nesting sites and food.

Common kestrels normally form pair bonds for long periods of time, if not for life. Rarely, males have multiple mates. This occurs in 1% to 2% of birds in some studies.

Mating System: monogamous ; polygynous

Common kestrel breeding and courtship behaviors begin in February or March. The breeding cycle ends about a month after fledging, which occurs in late August. Breeding occurs in April and May in the northern hemisphere.

Common kestrels nest on ledges, in buildings, in trees, or use abandoned nests of other bird species. They do not make their own nests, but may rearrange materials already present in the nesting site. A clutch consists of 3 to 7 eggs which hatch in 26 to 34 days. Fledging normally occurs within the first month after hatching, but young are still dependent on their parents until hunting skills are sufficient, which takes about 7 or 8 weeks. The young will reach sexual maturity by the next breeding season but most common kestrels do not mate during their first year of maturity.

Breeding interval: Common kestrels breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Common kestrels breed in April and May in the northern hemisphere.

Range eggs per season: 3 to 7.

Range time to hatching: 26 to 34 days.

Range fledging age: 27 to 32 days.

Range time to independence: 7 to 8 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous

Both sexes help in raising young. Females are sole incubators of the eggs. Hatchlings are altricial when they hatch, but grow very quickly and must be fed frequently. Males usually catch food for hatchlings while females tend to them. After fledging, young are dependent on their parents for food for the next month, since hunting and flying skills are slower to develop.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female)

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Nelson, T. 2006. "Falco tinnunculus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Falco_tinnunculus.html
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Thomas Nelson, Kalamazoo College
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Ann Fraser, Kalamazoo College
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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The kestrel feeds largely on small mammals, especially the short-tailed vole, and small birds such as house sparrows (3). Invertebrates are also very important components of the diet; earthworms taken from cereal fields are particularly important during winter (4). Kestrels hunt by sight, and when hovering they are able to remain still even in strong winds. Upon spotting their quarry, they plunge to the ground, seizing the prey with their talons (6). Kestrels nest in holes in trees, old buildings or in the abandoned nests of other birds, especially crows (2). From mid-April, between 4 and 5 eggs are laid; these are incubated largely by the female for up to 29 days. In their first few days of life, the young are fed by the female on food brought to the nest by the male. Both parents then take on the hunting duties, until the young fledge after 27-39 days (3).
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Conservation

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The kestrel should benefit from agri-environment measures aimed at improving farmland habitats for wildlife. Prescriptions such as unsprayed field margins and leaving stubble fields unploughed during the winter should increase the populations of small mammals and birds on which kestrels feed. Set-aside fields also provide good habitats for mice and voles (8).
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Description

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The kestrel is our most common diurnal bird of prey, and is often seen hovering over farmland and at the sides of motorways (3). With its long tail and narrow wings, it is easy to distinguish from most other species (2). The sexes are distinct; in males the rump and tail are bluish grey and unbarred, whereas in females they are brownish-red with dark barring (2). Furthermore, the head is grey in males and brown in females (2). Juveniles are similar to females, but are usually more yellowish-brown (2). The call is a high-pitched 'kee-kee-kee' (2).
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Habitat

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This bird exploits a broad range of habitats, including farmland, heaths, moors, parks, woodland edges and even city centres (3), but when feeding requires short grass or other low vegetation (8).
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Range

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Common and widely distributed throughout Britain (3). It has a wide distribution in the rest of the world, from Europe and North Africa, through Eurasia, the Middle East, India, China and Japan (3).
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Status

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Listed as a Species of Conservation Concern by the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, but not a priority species (5). Included in the Birds of Conservation Concern Amber List (medium conservation concern) (7).
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Threats

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Like many wild birds, the kestrel suffered as a result of the use of organochloride pesticides. The population declined rapidly during the 1970s, possibly as a result of agricultural intensification, habitat loss and a decline in populations of small mammal prey (5). Although the population seems to have remained stable during the last 15 years or so, there is some evidence that a further decline has occurred since 1994 (5).
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Status in Egypt

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Regular passage visitor and winter visitor.

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Associations

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In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / predator
adult of Falco tinnunculus is predator of adult of Timarcha tenebricosa

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Brief Summary

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The small raptor which appears to stand still in mid-air ('hovering') is a kestrel. It is an excellent mouse hunter. While hovering in the air, it is not necessarily looking for the animal itself but for its urine trail. Kestrels are capable of seeing ultraviolet colors, which is also found in urine. So they are able to detect the well hidden mice. They like to nest in large bird houses, specially designed for these birds.
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Common kestrel

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Falco tinnunculus - Common Kestrel

The common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In the United Kingdom, where no other kestrel species commonly occurs, it is generally just called "kestrel".[2]

This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America.[3] It has colonized a few oceanic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of Micronesia for example, the species was only recorded twice each on Guam and Saipan in the Marianas.[4][5][6]

Description

Common kestrels measure 32–39 cm (12+1215+12 in) from head to tail, with a wingspan of 65–82 cm (25+1232+12 in). Females are noticeably larger, with the adult male weighing 136–252 g (4+348+78 oz), around 155 g (5+12 oz) on average; the adult female weighs 154–314 g (5+3811+18 oz), around 184 g (6+12 oz) on average. They are thus small compared with other birds of prey, but larger than most songbirds. Like the other Falco species, they have long wings as well as a distinctive long tail.[4]

Their plumage is mainly light chestnut brown with blackish spots on the upperside and buff with narrow blackish streaks on the underside; the remiges are also blackish. Unlike most raptors, they display sexual colour dimorphism with the male having fewer black spots and streaks, as well as a blue-grey cap and tail. The tail is brown with black bars in females, and has a black tip with a narrow white rim in both sexes. All common kestrels have a prominent black malar stripe like their closest relatives.[4]

The cere, feet, and a narrow ring around the eye are bright yellow; the toenails, bill and iris are dark. Juveniles look like adult females, but the underside streaks are wider; the yellow of their bare parts is paler. Hatchlings are covered in white down feathers, changing to a buff-grey second down coat before they grow their first true plumage.[4]

Behaviour and ecology

In the cool-temperate parts of its range, the common kestrel migrates south in winter; otherwise it is sedentary, though juveniles may wander around in search for a good place to settle down as they become mature. It is a diurnal animal of the lowlands and prefers open habitat such as fields, heaths, shrubland and marshland. It does not require woodland to be present as long as there are alternative perching and nesting sites like rocks or buildings. It will thrive in treeless steppe where there are abundant herbaceous plants and shrubs to support a population of prey animals. The common kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in wetlands, moorlands and arid savanna. It is found from the sea to the lower mountain ranges, reaching elevations up to 4,500 m (14,800 ft) ASL in the hottest tropical parts of its range but only to about 1,750 m (5,740 ft) in the subtropical climate of the Himalayan foothills.[4][7]

Globally, this species is not considered threatened by the IUCN.[1] Its stocks were affected by the indiscriminate use of organochlorines and other pesticides in the mid-20th century, but being something of an r-strategist able to multiply quickly under good conditions it was less affected than other birds of prey. The global population has been fluctuating considerably over the years but remains generally stable; it is roughly estimated at 1–2 million pairs or so, about 20% of which are found in Europe. There has been a recent decline in parts of Western Europe such as Ireland. Subspecies dacotiae is quite rare, numbering less than 1000 adult birds in 1990, when the ancient western Canarian subspecies canariensis numbered about ten times as many birds.[4]

Food and feeding

Common-Kestrel-4.jpg
Common-Kestrel-2.jpg

When hunting, the common kestrel characteristically hovers about 10–20 m (35–65 ft) above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using ridge lift. Like most birds of prey, common kestrels have keen eyesight enabling them to spot small prey from a distance. Once prey is sighted, the bird makes a short, steep dive toward the target, unlike the peregrine which relies on longer, higher dives to reach full speed when targeting prey. Kestrels can often be found hunting along the sides of roads and motorways, where the road verges support large numbers of prey. This species is able to see near ultraviolet light, allowing the birds to detect the urine trails around rodent burrows as they shine in an ultraviolet colour in the sunlight.[8] Another favourite (but less conspicuous) hunting technique is to perch a bit above the ground cover, surveying the area. When the bird spots prey animals moving by, it will pounce on them. They also prowl a patch of hunting ground in a ground-hugging flight, ambushing prey as they happen across it.[4]

European pine vole (Microtus subterraneus), a typical common kestrel prey since prehistoric times
Common-Kestrel-5.jpg

Common kestrels eat almost exclusively mouse-sized mammals. Voles, shrews and true mice supply up to three-quarters or more of the biomass most individuals ingest. On oceanic islands (where mammals are often scarce), small birds (mainly passerines) may make up the bulk of its diet.[6] Elsewhere, birds are only an important food during a few weeks each summer when inexperienced fledglings abound. Other suitably sized vertebrates like bats, swifts,[9] frogs and lizards are eaten only on rare occasions. However, kestrels are more likely to prey on lizards in southern latitudes. In northern latitudes, the kestrel is found more often to deliver lizards to their nestlings during midday and also with increasing ambient temperature.[10] Seasonally, arthropods may be a main prey item. Generally, invertebrates like camel spiders and even earthworms, but mainly sizeable insects such as beetles, orthopterans and winged termites will be eaten.[4]

F. tinnunculus requires the equivalent of 4–8 voles a day, depending on energy expenditure (time of the year, amount of hovering, etc.). They have been known to catch several voles in succession and cache some for later consumption. An individual nestling consumes on average 4.2 g/h, equivalent to 67.8 g/d (3–4 voles per day).[11]

Reproduction

Young kestrels, not yet able to fly, waiting for food

The common kestrel starts breeding in spring (or the start of the dry season in the tropics), i.e. April or May in temperate Eurasia and some time between August and December in the tropics and southern Africa. It is a cavity nester, preferring holes in cliffs, trees or buildings; in built-up areas, common kestrels will often nest on buildings, and will reuse the old nests of corvids. The diminutive subspecies dacotiae, the sarnicolo of the eastern Canary Islands is peculiar for nesting occasionally in the dried fronds below the top of palm trees, apparently coexisting with small songbirds which also make their home there.[12] In general, common kestrels will usually tolerate conspecifics nesting nearby, and sometimes a few dozen pairs may be found nesting in a loose colony.[4]

Male F. t. tinnunculus bringing food to nest

The clutch is normally 3–7 eggs; more eggs may be laid in total but some will be removed during the laying time. This lasts about 2 days per egg laid. The eggs are abundantly patterned with brown spots, from a wash that tinges the entire surface buffish white to large almost-black blotches. Incubation lasts from 4 weeks to one month, both male and female will take shifts incubating the eggs. After the eggs have hatched, the parents share brooding and hunting duties. Only the female feeds the chicks, by tearing apart prey into manageable chunks. The young fledge after 4–5 weeks. The family stays close together for a few weeks, during which time the young learn how to fend for themselves and hunt prey. The young become sexually mature the next breeding season.[4] Female kestrel chicks with blacker plumage have been found to have bolder personalities, indicating that even in juvenile birds plumage coloration can act as a status signal.[13]

Data from Britain shows nesting pairs bringing up about 2–3 chicks on average, though this includes a considerable rate of total brood failures; actually, few pairs that do manage to fledge offspring raise less than 3 or 4. Compared to their siblings, first-hatched chicks have greater survival and recruitment probability, thought to be due to the first-hatched chicks obtaining a higher body condition when in the nest.[14] Population cycles of prey, particularly voles, have a considerable influence on breeding success. Most common kestrels die before they reach 2 years of age; mortality up until the first birthday may be as high as 70%. At least females generally breed at one year of age;[15] possibly, some males take a year longer to maturity as they do in related species. The biological lifespan to death from senescence can be 16 years or more, however; one was recorded to have lived almost 24 years.[15]

Evolution and systematics

This species is part of a clade that contains the kestrel species with black malar stripes, a feature which apparently was not present in the most ancestral kestrels. They seem to have radiated in the Gelasian (Late Pliocene,[16] roughly 2.5–2 mya, probably starting in tropical East Africa, as indicated by mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data analysis and considerations of biogeography. The common kestrel's closest living relative is apparently the nankeen or Australian kestrel (F. cenchroides), which probably derived from ancestral common kestrels settling in Australia and adapting to local conditions less than one million years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene.[17]

The rock kestrel (F. rupicolus), previously considered a subspecies, is now treated as a distinct species.

The lesser kestrel (F. naumanni), which much resembles a small common kestrel with no black on the upperside except wing and tail tips, is probably not very closely related to the present species, and the American kestrel (F. sparverius) is apparently not a true kestrel at all.[17] Both species have much grey in their wings in males, which does not occur in the common kestrel or its close living relatives but does in almost all other falcons.

Subspecies

F. t. canariensis on Gran Canaria
F. t. rupicolaeformis from Hurghada, Egypt

A number of subspecies of the common kestrel are known, though some are hardly distinct and may be invalid. Most of them differ little, and mainly in accordance with Bergmann's and Gloger's rules. Tropical African forms have less grey in the male plumage.[4]

  • Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758
Temperate areas of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia north of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya mountain ranges to the NW Sea of Okhotsk region. Northern Asian populations migrate south in winter, apparently not crossing the Himalayas but diverting to the west.
Sahel east to Ethiopia, southwards around Congo basin to S Tanzania and NE Angola.
Has dark heavily marked birds and has a foxed red phase but not reliably identified in the field. Breeds East Asia from Tibet to Korea and Japan, south into Indochina. Winters to the south of its breeding range, from northeastern India to the Philippines (where it is localized, e.g. from Mindanao only two records exist).[18][19]
Arabian Peninsula except in the desert and across the Red Sea into Africa.
Northern Cape Verde Islands.
  • F. t. canariensis (Koenig, 1890)
Madeira and western Canary Islands. The more ancient Canaries subspecies.
  • F. t. dacotiae Hartert, 1913 – Local name: cernícalo
Eastern Canary Islands: Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, Chinijo Archipelago. A more recently evolved subspecies than canariensis.
  • F. t. objurgatus (Baker, 1929)
Western, Nilgiris and Eastern Ghats of India; Sri Lanka. Heavily marked, has rufous thighs with dark grey head in males.[19][20]
  • F. t. archerii (Hartert & Neumann, 1932)
Somalia, coastal Kenya, and Socotra
  • F. t. alexandri Bourne, 1955
Southwestern Cape Verde Islands.
Falco tinnunculus alexandri - MHNT

The common kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the Quaternary glaciation differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as the paleosubspecies F. t. atavus (see also Bergmann's rule). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living F. t. tinnunculus (and perhaps other subspecies), are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the Late Pliocene (ELMA Villanyian/ICS Piacenzian, MN16) about 3 million years ago to the Middle Pleistocene Saalian glaciation which ended about 130,000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable from those living today. Some of the voles the Ice Age common kestrels ate—such as European pine voles (Microtus subterraneus)—were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time evolved more rapidly (like M. malei, the presumed ancestor of today's tundra vole M. oeconomus), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely extinct without leaving any living descendants—for example Pliomys lenki, which apparently fell victim to the Weichselian glaciation about 100,000 years ago.[21][22]

In culture

Wooden common kestrel sculpture

The kestrel is sometimes seen, like other birds of prey, as a symbol of the power and vitality of nature. In "Into Battle" (1915), the war poet Julian Grenfell invokes the superhuman characteristics of the kestrel among several birds, when hoping for prowess in battle:

The kestrel hovering by day,
And the little owl that call at night,
Bid him be swift and keen as they,
As keen of ear, as swift of sight.

Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889) writes on the kestrel in his poem "The Windhover", exalting in their mastery of flight and their majesty in the sky.

I caught this morning morning's minion, king-
dom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding

A kestrel is also one of the main characters in The Animals of Farthing Wood.

Barry Hines’ novel A Kestrel for a Knave - together with the 1969 film based on it, Ken Loach's Kes - is about a working-class boy in England who befriends a kestrel.

The Pathan name for the kestrel, Bād Khurak, means "wind hover" and in Punjab it is called Larzānak or "little hoverer". It was once used as a decoy to capture other birds of prey in Persia and Arabia. It was also used to train greyhounds meant for hunting gazelles in parts of Arabia. Young greyhounds would be set after jerboa-rats which would also be distracted and forced to make twists and turns by the dives of a kestrel.[23]

Etymology

The name "kestrel" is derived from the French crécerelle which is diminutive for crécelle, which also referred to a bell used by lepers. The word is earlier spelt 'c/kastrel', and is evidenced from the 15th century.[24] The kestrel was once used to drive and keep away pigeons.[25] Archaic names for the kestrel include windhover and windfucker, due to its habit of beating the wind (hovering in air).[24]

The Late Latin falco derives from falx, falcis, a sickle, referencing the claws of the bird.[26] The species name tinnunculus is Latin for "kestrel" from "tinnulus", "shrill".[27]

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2016). "Falco tinnunculus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696362A93556429. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696362A93556429.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ Mangoverde World Bird Guide 2009
  3. ^ "Common Kestrels | Beauty of Birds". www.beautyofbirds.com. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Orta 1994
  5. ^ Wiles et al. 2000
  6. ^ a b Wiles et al. 2004
  7. ^ Inskipp, Inskipp & Sherub 2000
  8. ^ Viitala et al. 1995
  9. ^ Mikula, Hromada & Tryjanowski 2013
  10. ^ Steen, Løw & Sonerud 2011a
  11. ^ Steen et al. 2011b
  12. ^ Álamo Tavío 1975
  13. ^ López‐Idiáquez, D.; Fargallo, J.A.; López‐Rull , I.; Martínez‐Padilla, J. (2019). "Plumage coloration and personality in early life: sexual differences in signalling". Ibis. 161 (1): 216–221. doi:10.1111/ibi.12665. S2CID 91263096.
  14. ^ Martínez-Padilla, J.; Vergara, P.; Fargallo, J. A. (2017). "Increased lifetime reproductive success of first-hatched siblings in Common Kestrels Falco tinnunculus". Ibis. 159 (4): 803–811. doi:10.1111/ibi.12494.
  15. ^ a b AnAge 2010
  16. ^ Possibly to be reclassified as Early Pleistocene.
  17. ^ a b See Groombridge et al. 2002 for a thorough discussion of common kestrel and relatives' divergence times.
  18. ^ Peterson et al. 2008
  19. ^ a b Rasmussen & Anderton 2005
  20. ^ Whistler 1949, pp. 385–387
  21. ^ Mlíkovský 2002, pp. 222–223
  22. ^ Mourer-Chauviré et al. 2003
  23. ^ Phillott, D.C. (1832). "Note on the Common Kestril (Tinnunculus alaudarius)". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 2 (10): 527–528.
  24. ^ a b "kestrel". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  25. ^ Weekley 1921
  26. ^ Shorter Oxford English dictionary. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 2007. p. 3804. ISBN 978-0199206872.
  27. ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 266, 386. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.

References

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Common kestrel: Brief Summary

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Falco tinnunculus - Common Kestrel

The common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In the United Kingdom, where no other kestrel species commonly occurs, it is generally just called "kestrel".

This species occurs over a large range. It is widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as occasionally reaching the east coast of North America. It has colonized a few oceanic islands, but vagrant individuals are generally rare; in the whole of Micronesia for example, the species was only recorded twice each on Guam and Saipan in the Marianas.

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