The fact that horned puffins are crevice nesting birds has made studying them and monitoring their populations quite difficult. The nesting sites are hard to locate and it may be impractical to count all individuals. Instead, counting of individuals must be done by monitoring bird counts at peak season or by counting birds that have been rafted offshore.
Weather affects monitoring as well. Wind speed, but not not sky conditions or precipitation, has a statistically significant affect on the counts. Overall, there is a weak drop in counts of puffins when weather is poor.
Extrapolating trends can be difficult because counting individuals and estimating breeding pairs does not yield an accurate reflection of colony numbers the following year. Some researchers have devised a technique that could help with this problem called an over-water count. This involves counting the puffins as they are flying to or from the nesting area. It allows one to count the birds in a standard setting, facilitating comparisons, but the accuracy of these counts and their ability to detect change has been questioned.
Monitoring these birds is difficult and little is known about their communication. It is clear that horned puffins are not very vocal birds. When it does produce noise it is low pitched and comparative to a groan or growl. In aggressive defense they produce a sound described as "A-gaa-kah-kha-kha" and during head flicking there is a repetative "op-op-op-op." Visual displays are important in pair formation, courtship, and nest defense. Like all birds, horned puffins perceive their environments through visual, auditory, tactile and chemical stimuli.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
The estimated breeding population for horned puffins today is 1.2 million birds, with most breeding on islands off the coast of Alaska. The largest breeding populations are in the Semidi Islands with 350,000 breeders.
Horned puffin breeding numbers appear to have dropped from 1977 to well into the mid 1990’s. Overwater counts have produced conflicting results, however. Some have have not shown a significant decline, while others estimates have suggested that sea-bird populations, including horned puffins, dropped by 50 percent from 1972 to 1993. One boat-based viewing survey suggested a 79 percent drop in horned puffin populations in Alaska from 1972 to 1998. Horned puffins have been found to carry toxic trace metals, including mercury and cadmium. These are contained in the fish that that puffins eat and have been found in the livers of horned puffins. Also, upon autopsy some horned puffin individuals have been found with PCBs and organochlorine pesticides.
Another major source of mortality in this species is bycatch in fishing gillnets. Losses due to bycatch were most significant in the 1950's through the 1990's, when tens of thousands of puffins were killed by salmon and squid fisheries. Since that time the bycatch has been more carefully monitored and has not led to further significant population decline.
US Migratory Bird Act: no special status
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
This species has no significant negative impact on humans.
Alaskan Natives used horned puffins as food and clothing. Parkas are made from the tough skin of this auk and the feathers provide the natives with further insulation. The eggs are still collected as food in the Bering Straight region with minimal effect on the populations. Fratercula corniculata also is the focus of tourism in some regions of Alaska.
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material
Horned puffins prey on fish, squid, and marine worms, but the overall impact of this predation on prey populations is unknown. They have little impact on other auks because of the isolated nesting grounds this species prefers.
The main staple of horned puffins is fish such as juvenile herrings (genus Clupea), capelin (genus Mallotus), and sand lances (genus Ammodytes). Puffins also sometimes prey upon salmon (genus Oncorhynchus) and cod (genus Gadus). They capture fish by surface diving. During the summer the diet varies. It may include fish, squid (class Cephalopoda), and other invertebrates. Diets of forty-one individuals from Buldir Islands contained, in order of abundance, squid, then fish, then marine worms (Polychaeta). The diet of the horned puffin during winter is not well studied. Puffin chicks are fed mostly raw fish.
Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans; other marine invertebrates
Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )
Fratercula corniculata, horned puffins, is widespread in the Pacific and low Arctic. It breeds along the coast of British Columbia, on some islands and peninsulas around Alaska, and along the Bering Sea coast of Russia. It winters off shore, mainly in the North Pacific. The species is commonly found on Russian islands but can also be seen off the coast of Japan and British Columbia, rarely as far south as southern California. Horned puffins tend to stay in their breeding grounds during the winter as long as the grounds are not iced over.
In Alaska, 50% percent of all individuals live ninety kilometers from the mainland of the west coast, on the Semidi Islands.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: holarctic
Horned puffins nest in bluffs of fractured rock or crevices in cliff faces near the shoreline. They may also create burrows in upland areas. In the Semidi Islands, they occur in the same habitat as parakeet auklets (Aethia psittacula).
Horned puffins forage off shore close to their breeding colonies, spending most of the year in coastal waters. They show no preference with respect to water temperature or salinity. They winter off-shore, preferring open water areas with large populations of the pelagic fish on which they feed.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; polar ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes: coastal
The life span of Fratercula corniculata is not well studied. Some estimates are that it can survive 20 years or more.
In captivity the horned puffin does not do well, especially when taken as a chick. A chick's diet must be supplemented with vitamins or it dies quickly due to malnourishment and bacterial infections.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 20 (low) years.
Range mass: 581 to 648 g.
Average mass: 532 g.
Average length: 32 cm.
Range wingspan: 185.7 to 199.6 mm.
Average wingspan: 188.7 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger
Fratercula corniculata is preyed upon mainly by introduced species. Significant predators include Arctic fox, red fox, and Norwegian rats. Nevertheless, predation does not substantially affect horned puffin populations because of their hard-to-reach nesting sites.
Known Predators:
The most common time for mating is either morning or evening. Birds indicate readiness by head flicking, which may be done either on land or in water. During this display, the bill may be open or closed. Members of a pair may mutually bow or put their bills side by side. Horned puffins form monogamous pairs.
Males may perform a swim display in which they raise themselves from the water and extend their necks upwards. Then they flick their heads, and at this time mounting is often observed. Mating takes place mostly in water with some rare cases on land.
Mating System: monogamous
The general reproductive behaviors of horned puffins are not as well known as those of most auks. Birds arrive in the breeding colonies between April and May. Colonies are usually small. The nesting sites are on steep slopes or cliffs, and nests are usually separated by a distance of 1.5 meters. The nest itself may be in a burrow, in a rock crevice (usually), or under a boulder. It is lined with feathers, grass, or debris collected by both sexes.
A mating pair produces one egg, which is oval in shape. If the egg is lost it is replaced in 10 to 21 days. The egg itself is gray with purple dots, a type of spotting that suggests an ancestral habit of laying eggs out in the open. Horned puffin eggs quickly become covered in guano and other debris. They incubate for around 41 days, and both males and females participate in caring for and incubating eggs.
After the egg is hatched, parental care continues for 6 days. Feeding of a chick is done during the day by both parents. The chick becomes able to manage its own body temperature between 5 and 6 days after hatching. After this and for the next 35 days, the chick is left alone in the nest while both parents bring it food. There is no evidence of post-fledging care and the chicks depart at night by themselves. Horned puffins reach reproductive maturity between 3 and 5 years of age.
Not much is known about the molting process besides that it takes place in autumn to winter, and bill ornaments are dropped at the end of caring for the chick.
Like some other marine birds, females have sperm storage glands. It is not known if they are functional.
Breeding interval: Horned puffins breed once yearly.
Breeding season: Horned puffins breed from April to July.
Average eggs per season: 1.
Range time to hatching: 40 to 42 days.
Range fledging age: 34 to 40 days.
Average fledging age: 35 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 to 5 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 to 5 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous ; sperm-storing
Female horned puffins lay a single egg in the spring, which is incubated by both parents for 41 days. After the egg hatches, the parents tend the chick closely for the next week. The chick is born altricial, but is able to thermoregulate a little over a week after hatching. After that, the chick is left alone in the nest for the next 37 to 46 days while being attended by the parents only for feeding. Pairs defend their nests and males defend their mates. Males show a threat display and fight if provoked.
Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
The horned puffin (Fratercula corniculata) is an auk found in the North Pacific Ocean, including the coasts of Alaska, Siberia and British Columbia. It is a pelagic seabird that feeds primarily by diving for fish. It nests in colonies, often with other auks.
It is similar in appearance to the Atlantic puffin, its closest relative of the North Atlantic, but differs by a "horn" of black skin located above the eye, present in adult birds.
The binomial name of this species, Fratercula corniculata, comes from the Medieval Latin fratercula, meaning “friar”; their black-and-white plumage resembling the robes of monks.[2] Corniculata means “horn-shaped” or “crescent-shaped”, in reference to the black horn above the bird's eye.
The vernacular name puffin – puffed in the sense of swollen – was originally applied to the fatty, salted meat of young birds of the unrelated species, the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus),[3] formerly known as the "Manks puffin". It is an Anglo-Norman word (Middle English pophyn or poffin) used for the cured carcasses.[4] The Atlantic puffin acquired the name at a much later stage, possibly because of its similar nesting habits,[5] and it was formally applied to that species by Pennant in 1768.[3] It was later extended to include the similar and related Pacific puffins.[4]
The Yup’ik of the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta call the puffin "qilangaq", "qengacuar(aq)" (“little nose”), or "qategarpak" (“large white breast”).[6] The Ainu people of Sakhalin call them etupirka, which means "beautiful beak".
The height of the adult puffin is approximately 20 cm (8 in), the weight is approximately 500 g (18 oz), and the wingspan is approximately 58 cm (23 in).[7] Horned puffins are monomorphic (the male and female exhibit the same plumage coloration). Sexually mature birds have a small fleshy black "horn" extending upwards from the eye, from which the animal derives its common name — the horned puffin. A dark eyestripe extends backwards from the eye towards the occiput. The cheeks are white, with a yellow wattle at the base of the bill. The legs and feet are orange.
The horned puffin's bill, which is larger than those of other puffin species, is red at the tip and yellow at the base. In summer (breeding) plumage, the bill's outer layer – the rhamphotheca – grows in size and turns bright yellow with a dark orange tip. The size and color of the rhamphotheca helps to attract a mate. The brilliant outer layers of the rhamphotheca are shed in late summer, as the face reverts to a gray and black color, and the legs and feet fade to a pale fleshy color. This phase is referred to as eclipse plumage. The puffin's bill has fluorescent properties that are also used to attract a partner. Puffins can see ultraviolet rays, allowing them to spot luminescence on the bills of other puffins during the courtship display.[8]
The horned puffin chick has smoky-gray cheeks and a fine, black triangular-shaped beak. The feet are pinkish or greyish. The juvenile's height is less than that of the adult at the time of leaving the nest.[9] Young puffins lose their greyish facial spots during their first springtime.[10] The beak gains its developed form at the age of one year and continues to grow over the years, reaching the brightest coloration at five years, the point of sexual maturity.[9] The puffin reaches its adult size and weight at this period.
Horned puffins emit a relatively small number of sounds, mostly low in volume. These guttural noises are identified as cooing, roaring or grunting. The most common puffin sound is usually transcribed as "arr-arr-arr", which accelerates when the animal is threatened,[11] becoming an "A-gaa-kah-kha-kha”.[12] These noises are most often produced by adults and are similar to bellowing, described as the "distant sound of a chainsaw”.[13]
The sounds during the mating season can be transcribed as "Op-op-op-op-op”.[12] These sounds are rarely made outside breeding times, and puffins are quieter at sea.[14]
The horned puffin is relatively common across its range.[15] It is present throughout the northern Pacific Ocean, including the Shumagin Islands of the Bering Sea, the Siberian coast, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. In North America, it is found on the western coasts of Alaska and British Columbia, Haida Gwaii and the Aleutian Islands.[15] Horned Puffin are also found in the vicinity of the Chukchi Sea and especially on Wrangel Island.[16] More rarely, the species travels as far south as Japan and the coasts of Oregon and California.[15] It is not a migratory bird, although it winters far out to sea.[15][17]
Horned puffins live among steep rocky slopes and cliffs. Unlike other puffins, they dig little or no burrows, preferring rock crevices or shelters under piles of rock for home and shelter.[18]
As of 2023, for the last several years, at least one Horned Puffin has been seen spending the summer months at Smith Island, Washington, in the Salish Sea, alongside the local breeding population of Tufted Puffins. Researchers, with help from several commercial Whale Watching companies in the region, are trying to figure out if this is a lone individual, or a potentially a mated pair. If it is the latter, this would add a breeding location for the species hundreds of miles away from their normal grounds.
To achieve flight, horned puffins either jump off a cliff to gain momentum, or races across the water to reaching the speed required for takeoff.[12] Horned puffins fly compactly and quickly, 10 to 30 meters (33 to 98 ft) above sea level. The wing beats are constant, rapid and regular.[14] They fly in groups of about two to fifteen individuals, traveling between nesting and foraging grounds, sometimes with tufted puffins or murres.[19]
The horned puffin walks upright, gripping rock surfaces with its claws, and climbs cliffs with ease. Its normal running position is made on low density soil, usually around a hole.[20]
Horned puffins live and breed in colonies of tens to thousands or more.[19] They fly in circular motions above the colony before landing, upon which they adopt a dominant or submissive posture towards other birds. The sign of submission is to briefly hold their legs slightly apart and spread their wings over their head for about four seconds.[20] The puffin's dominant display is to holding its beak open with its tongue lowered (known as "gaping"), back feathers erect, stepping in place as it rocks from side to side. This gesture is often made towards a rival puffin, who may either back down or fight with the intruder. During fights, puffins lock bills and beat each other with their wings, and the two combatants may tumble down a slope or cliff still locked in battle.[19]
Horned puffins spend half of their time on water,[21] paddling along the surface with their feet. They are extremely agile underwater, to the point that their movement can be called "underwater flight" rather than swimming. Their powerful wings serve as oars and their webbed feet work as a rudder. Water pressure keeps the feathers glued to the body, placing the puffin into an aerodynamic shape. Puffins can easily stay longer than one minute under water.[22]
Like most other seabirds, horned puffins have waterproof plumage, which permits it to dive and prevents rapid heat loss. This is made possible by its feather disposition and a specialized gland near the tail called the uropygial gland. This secretes a greasy and hydrophobic liquid that the puffin spreads on its plumage with its beak, permitting it to float.[23]
Adult horned puffins are quite general in their diet, feeding on fish, small invertebrates, crustaceans, polychaete worms and squid.[24] They also feed on small algae and marine plants.[25]
To catch fish, horned puffins dive down to about 30 meters (98 ft), pursuing prey mostly taking place at 15 meters (49 ft) in depth.[19][26] The puffin most commonly hunts in the early morning.[17] It dives head first into water, as it stakes out a school of fish, and keeps an eye out for predators.[22] Once the prey is spotted, the puffin dives in pursuit. Diving for prey usually lasts between 20 and 30 seconds. Puffins usually swallow several small fish before the bringing rest back to the colony. They do not take the time to readjust their prey within their beaks, so as not to risk losing their meal.[22]
Hunting areas are usually located fairly far offshore from the nest. Horned puffins will return from hunting with several small fish, squid or crustaceans in their specialized bills. The chicks have a less varied diet, feeding mainly on sandeel or capelin from near the coast. These fish are distributed by the parents two to six times per day.[18] Unlike many other seabirds, which employ regurgitation to feed their young, horned puffins feed their chicks whole fish directly from the bill.[27] Both parents participate in the feeding and rearing of the chick.
The horned puffin reaches sexual maturity between the age of five and seven years,[16] entering the breeding season between May and September.[26] Horned puffin pairs are monogamous. Courtship begins as the male and female puffin swim alongside on the water. The male displays by arising from the water, neck outstretched, opening and closing the bill while jerking the head. The female makes a hunched posture with her neck contracted inwards, close to the water surface. This is followed by billing, a practice where mated birds touch beaks.[20] A slight head movement from both partners confirms that the couple will now mate for life.[12] The male then mounts the female from behind, beating his wings to keep balance. After about 35 seconds of mating, the female proceeds to dive down and surface again. The pair then flap their wings.[19]
Pairs choose a nesting ground a week after arriving at the breeding area, preferring rock crevices. They clear a space and gather materials to build their nest, mostly out of grass and feathers.[19] Each pair lays only one egg per year. Pairs in the same colony usually lay around the same time, but very rarely this occurs over more than one week.[18] The female's sperm storage glands in the oviduct help select spermatozoa during the race to the egg cell.[28] The egg is oval, off-white in color with lavender, gray and brown highlights.[29] Both parents take turns incubating the egg over about 41 days, and spend another forty days raising the chick. The fledgling leaves the nest alone and at night, making its way towards open water, then quickly dives and swims away to begin independent life.[18][19]
Rises in ocean temperature have increased the reproductive rate of the horned puffin.[30]
The total number of horned puffins is estimated at 1,200,000. 300,000 are located in Asia,[15] while the other 900,000 are located in North America, with a high concentration in the Alaska Peninsula numbering 760 thousand.[18] In Alaska, nearly 250,000 puffins[18] are distributed in 608 different colonies, the largest being on Suklik Island. There are about 92,000 horned puffins in the Aleutian Islands, while nearly 300,000 are located on the islands and coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk.[18] The Chukchi Sea has a colony of 18,000 puffins at sea level, the largest in the area.[16]
Horned puffin in eclipse plumage
Four horned puffins in Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska
A breeding pair of puffins on a rocky ledge.
The horned puffin (Fratercula corniculata) is an auk found in the North Pacific Ocean, including the coasts of Alaska, Siberia and British Columbia. It is a pelagic seabird that feeds primarily by diving for fish. It nests in colonies, often with other auks.
It is similar in appearance to the Atlantic puffin, its closest relative of the North Atlantic, but differs by a "horn" of black skin located above the eye, present in adult birds.
