dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 10.9 years (wild)
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer adults, chicks and eggs are vulnerable to predation by a wide assortment of predators. These include birds of prey, gulls, crows and ravens snakes, foxes, coyotes, domestic cats, domestic dogs, raccoons, skunks and Virginia opossums.

Killdeers typically try to draw predators that come near the nest by distracting them. An adult killdeer sitting on eggs will lie still during the approach of an intruder. When the intruder comes too near, the adult will leave the nest and perform an "injured bird" routine, hobbling away and dragging its wings. After drawing the unwelcome visitor far enough from the nest, the adult killdeer takes off in flight and eludes the potential danger.

Known Predators:

  • birds of prey (Falconiformes)
  • gulls (Larus)
  • crows and ravens (Corvus)
  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
  • coyotes (Canis latrans)
  • domestic cats (Felis silvestris)
  • domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • raccoons (Procyon lotor)
  • striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis)
  • Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana)
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer communicate using vocalizations and physical displays. Their common name comes from the loud, piercing "kill-dee(r)" call. Killdeer calls often serve as an alert system for other individuals, including animals of different species.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer are neither endangered nor threatened according any of the organizations involved with biodiversity and conservation. They are, however, protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act.

Killdeer are highly adaptable and able to thrive in many human-altered habitats. Because of this, they are a very common species, with an estimated worldwide population of 1,000,000 individuals.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

There are no known adverse effects of killdeer on humans.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Any economic/agricultural contribution from killdeer is most likely the result of their ability to control crop pests. Since insects comprise a large majority of the their diet, killdeer eat pests such as mosquitoes, ticks, and locusts.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer affect the populations of the insects and crustaceans they eat. They also provide a valuable source of food for their predators. Killdeer also host at least 13 different species of parasites.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Charadrius vociferus can be considered omnivorous since berries are known to be included within the diet. Primarily though, the diet consists of various aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, insects and crustaceans.

Animal Foods: insects; aquatic crustaceans

Plant Foods: fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer are native to the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. They can be found over much of North America and in parts of South America. From the Gulf of Alaska coastline the range extends southward throughout the United States and reaches the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Distribution continues through the Nearctic zone and into South America, runs along the Andes Mountain Range and terminates at the southern border of Peru.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer live in terrestrial biomes including savannas, taiga and deciduous forest regions, preferring open areas within these biomes, especially sandbars, mudflats and pastures. Their preferred topographical features range greatly (shorelines, savannas, high altitude regions), with temperature being the critical factor of environment choice. With its large year-round distribution range (and as a result, a small wintering range), C. vociferus remain within their habitats year-round, migrating only when temperature becomes extremely cold, which for the killdeer, is approximately 10 degrees Celsius and below. Killdeer are highly adaptive to climate and environmental variations, and as a consequence, have effectively settled into human altered environments including parks and agricultural zones.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: taiga ; savanna or grassland ; forest

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural ; riparian

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The oldest known wild killdeer lived at least 10 years and 11 months.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
12 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
131 months.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Adult killdeer reach a length ranging between 23-27cm, with an average wingspan of 17.5 cm. Distinguishing characteristics include a dark, double-banded breast, with the top band completely encircling the upper body/breast. Another band is located at the head, resembling a mask absent of the facial portion. The band is continuous, thinning while going across the face along the forehead region and above the bill, and thickening at the supercilium; extending around the eye and onward around the back of the head. Plumage is relatively absent of complexity with the exception of a vividly colored, reddish-orange rump that is visible during flight and behavioral displays. The rest the body consists of a grayish-brown coloration along the dorsal side, crown and nape, while the ventral region is white. Characteristic of species in the same order, C. vociferus possess a lengthened tarsus and a pointed, extended bill, suitable for its foraging habits.

Male and female killdeer are similar in appearance, though breeding females may have additional brown on their face. Juvenile killdeer are similar in appearance to adults, with the exception of buffed fringes and the (uncommon) presence of tail-down.

There are three recognized subspecies of Charadrius vociferus. These subspecies are differentiated on the basis of differences in coloration and pattern of rufous edgings on their back and wing coverts.

Range length: 23 to 27 cm.

Range wingspan: 17.5 (low) cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Average mass: 88 g.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Killdeer are monogamous. Breeding pairs form on the breeding grounds in the spring. Male killdeer claim a territory in which to nest, and then attempt to attract a mate using aerial displays and a series of two-noted calls. Non-migratory breeding pairs may remain together year-round, and may breed together for several years.

Mating System: monogamous

Killdeer usually begin breeding in early spring, depending on their location. Nesting may begin as early as March in the southern United States, to as late as June in central Canada. In the Caribbean, killdeer can nest year-round. In most temperate localities, killdeer may lay up to three broods per season, but most often only raise one brood successfully. However, in the southern part of their range, successful hatching of two broods may be common.

The male and female work together to "build" their nest, which is simply a depression scraped into the bare earth, or other substrate. Nests are typically located in open areas with sparse vegetation, often in farm fields, road shoulders, parking lots and flat graveled rooftops. Females lay an average clutch of 4 eggs, though the clutch may be as few as 2 eggs and as many as 6. Eggs are incubated for 24 to 28 days, with both parents performing this duty. The chicks are precocial at hatching; they are down-covered and active, and are able to leave the nest soon after their down dries. Unlike most birds, killdeers do not feed their chicks in the nest. Soon after hatching, the parents lead the chicks to a feeding area. The chicks remain with the parents until they are able to fly, 20 to 31 days after hatching. They are able to breed the next year.

Breeding interval: In the northern part of their range, killdeer breed once per year, raising one to two broods per season. In the southern part of their breeding range, killdeer can breed year-round.

Breeding season: Killdeer usually begin breeding in early spring, depending on their location. Nesting may begin as early as March in the southern United States, to as late as June in central Canada. In the Caribbean and Mexico, killdeer can nest year-round.

Range eggs per season: 2 to 6.

Range time to hatching: 24 to 28 days.

Range fledging age: 3 to 24 days.

Range time to independence: 20 to 31 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average eggs per season: 4.

Both members of a killdeer breeding pair participate in nest preparation and incubation. Unlike most birds, killdeer parents do not feed their chicks in the nest. Instead, after the last egg has hatched, they lead the chicks to a feeding area. The chicks stay with the parents until they are able to fly.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male, Female)

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Chung, H. 2001. "Charadrius vociferus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Charadrius_vociferus.html
author
Hugh Chung, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Terry Root, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
editor
Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Charadrius vociferus

provided by DC Birds Brief Summaries

Resembling a much larger Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus), the Killdeer is most easily identified by its size (9-11 inches), brown back, two black breast bands, and orange-brown rump. Other field marks include its gray-green legs, black bill, and red eye ring. Male and female Killdeers are similar to one another in all seasons. The Killdeer breeds across the United States and southern Canada. Birds breeding in coastal areas and in the interior south are non-migratory, while birds breeding further north migrate south to Central America in winter. Other non-migratory populations occur in Mexico, Peru, and the West Indies. Less associated with water than most of its relatives, the Killdeer inhabits a number of open habitat types, including grasslands, mudflats, and gravel deposits. Also utilizes numerous man-made environments, such as fields, golf courses, and airports. The Killdeer eats small invertebrates, primarily worms and insects, but may consume plant matter when prey is scarce. Killdeers may be most easily observed while foraging for food, when it may be seen probing the soil with their bills or running across the surface to catch prey. Nesting Killdeer may also be observed feigning broken wings to lure intruders away from the nest site. This species is mainly active during the day, but frequently feeds at night when insects are plentiful.

Threat Status: Least Concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
author
Reid Rumelt

Charadrius vociferus

provided by EOL authors

Resembling a much larger Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus), the Killdeer is most easily identified by its size (9-11 inches), brown back, two black breast bands, and orange-brown rump. Other field marks include its gray-green legs, black bill, and red eye ring. Male and female Killdeers are similar to one another in all seasons. The Killdeer breeds across the United States and southern Canada. Birds breeding in coastal areas and in the interior south are non-migratory, while birds breeding further north migrate south to Central America in winter. Other non-migratory populations occur in Mexico, Peru, and the West Indies. Less associated with water than most of its relatives, the Killdeer inhabits a number of open habitat types, including grasslands, mudflats, and gravel deposits. Also utilizes numerous man-made environments, such as fields, golf courses, and airports. The Killdeer eats small invertebrates, primarily worms and insects, but may consume plant matter when prey is scarce. Killdeers may be most easily observed while foraging for food, when it may be seen probing the soil with their bills or running across the surface to catch prey. Nesting Killdeer may also be observed feigning broken wings to lure intruders away from the nest site. This species is mainly active during the day, but frequently feeds at night when insects are plentiful.

References

  • Charadrius vociferus. Xeno-canto. Xeno-canto Foundation, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Jackson, Bette J. and Jerome A. Jackson. 2000. Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/517
  • Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus). The Internet Bird Collection. Lynx Edicions, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • eBird Range Map - Killdeer. eBird. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.d. Web. 20 July 2012.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-4.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
bibliographic citation
Rumelt, Reid B. Charadrius vociferus. June-July 2012. Brief natural history summary of Charadrius vociferus. Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
author
Robert Costello (kearins)
original
visit source
partner site
EOL authors

Comprehensive Description

provided by Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
Charadrius vociferus (Linnaeus)

The killdeer, an obviously unsuitable bird as a host for the brown-headed cowbird, has figured hitherto in the host catalog of that parasite solely on the basis of its inclusion in a list of cowbird victims compiled by Oberholser prior to 1920. When he was asked about it in 1921 he could not recall the source or the locality of the record, but he considered it to be valid and that it pertained to the nominate race of the cowbird.

Recently Harold Mossop (1963) reported a cowbird's egg with 4 eggs of the killdeer in a nest of the latter in Manitoba. On geographic grounds this must involve the northwestern race of the cowbird, M. ater artemisiae, for which it is a “first.” The fact that there is now a second “record” (both without detailed data) does not alter the status of the killdeer as a cowbird “host.” It is to be looked upon as a purely accidental involvement.

SPOTTED SANDPIPER
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
bibliographic citation
Friedmann, Herbert, Kiff, Lloyd F., and Rothstein, Stephen I. 1977. "A further contribution of knowledge of the host relations of the parasitic cowbirds." Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 1-75. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00810282.235

Killdeer

provided by wikipedia EN

The killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) is a large plover found in the Americas. It gets its name from its shrill, two-syllable call, which is often heard. It was described and given its current scientific name in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Three subspecies are described. Its upperparts are mostly brown with rufous fringes, the head has patches of white and black, and two black bands cross the breast. The belly and the rest of the breast are white. The nominate (or originally described) subspecies breeds from southeastern Alaska and southern Canada to Mexico. It is seen year-round in the southern half of its breeding range; the subspecies C. v. ternominatus is resident in the West Indies, and C. v. peruvianus inhabits Peru and surrounding South American countries throughout the year. North American breeders winter from their resident range south to Central America, the West Indies, and the northernmost portions of South America.

The nonbreeding habitat of the killdeer includes coastal wetlands, beach habitats, and coastal fields. Its breeding grounds are generally open fields with short vegetation (but locations such as rooftops are sometimes used); although it is a shorebird, it does not necessarily nest close to water. The nest itself is a scrape lined with vegetation and white material, such as pebbles or seashell fragments. This bird lays a clutch of four to six buff to beige eggs with dark markings. The breeding season (starting with egg-laying) occurs from mid-March to August, with later timing of egg-laying in the northern portion of the range. Both parents incubate the eggs for 22 to 28 days typically. The young stay in the nest until the day after being hatched, when they are led by their parents to a feeding territory (generally with dense vegetation where hiding spots are abundant), where the chicks feed themselves. The young then fledge about 31 days after hatching, and breeding first occurs after one year of age.

The killdeer primarily feeds on insects, although other invertebrates and seeds are eaten. It forages almost exclusively in fields, especially those with short vegetation and with cattle and standing water. It primarily forages during the day, but in the nonbreeding season, when the moon is full or close to full, it forages at night, likely because of increased insect abundance and reduced predation during the night. Predators of the killdeer include various birds and mammals. Its multiple responses to predation range from calling to the "ungulate display", which can be fatal for the performing individual. This bird is classified as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, because of its large range and population. Its population is declining, but this trend is not severe enough for the killdeer to be considered a vulnerable species. It is protected by the American Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and the Canadian Migratory Birds Convention Act.

Etymology and taxonomy

The killdeer was described in 1758 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae as Charadrius vociferus,[2] its current scientific name.[3] Linnaeus' description was based on a 1731 account of it by English naturalist Mark Catesby in his The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands,[2] where he called it the "chattering plover".[4] The genus name Charadrius is Late Latin for a yellowish bird mentioned in the fourth-century Vulgate Bible. This word derives from the Ancient Greek kharadrios, a bird found in ravines and river valleys (kharadra, "ravine"). The specific name vociferus is Latin, coming from vox, "cry", and ferre, "to bear".[5]

Three subspecies are described:

  • C. v. vociferus Linnaeus, 1758 – The nominate subspecies (originally described subspecies), it is found in the US (including southeastern Alaska), southern Canada, Mexico, and with some less widespread grounds further south, to Panama. It winters to northwestern South America.[3]
  • C. v. ternominatus Bangs & Kennard, 1920 – This subspecies is found on the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and Virgin Islands.[3]
  • C. v. peruvianus (Chapman, 1920)[note 1] – This South American subspecies is found in western Ecuador, Peru, and extreme northwest Chile.[3]

The killdeer's common name comes from its frequently heard call.[7]

Description

The killdeer is a large plover, with adults ranging in length from 20 to 28 cm (7.9 to 11.0 in), having a wingspan between 59 and 63 cm (23 and 25 in), and usually being between 72 and 121 g (2.5 and 4.3 oz) in weight.[3] It has a short, thick, and dark bill, flesh-colored legs, and a red eye ring.[8]

In flight

Its upper parts are mostly brown with rufous fringes,[3] its cap, back, and wings being the former color. It has a white forehead and a white stripe behind the eye, and its lores and the upper borders to the white forehead are black. The killdeer also has a white collar with a black upper border. The rest of the face is brown. The breast and belly are white, except for two black breast bands. It is the only plover in North America with two breast bands. The rump is red, and the tail is mostly brown. The latter also has a black subterminal band, a white terminal band, and barred white feathers on the outer portion of the tail. A white wing stripe at the base of the flight feathers is visible in flight.[8]

The female's mask and breast bands tend to be browner than those of the male. The adult of the subspecies C. v. ternominatus is smaller, paler, and greyer than the nominate. The subspecies C. v. peruvianus is smaller than the nominate and has more extensive rufous feather fringes.[3] The juvenile is similar to the adult.[8] The upper parts of the chicks are colored dusky and buff. Their underparts, forehead, neck, and chin are white,[3] and they have a single band across their breast.[8]

The killdeer is a vocal species, calling even at night. Its calls include nasal notes, like "deee", "tyeeee", and "kil-deee" (the basis of its common name). During display flights, it repeats a call of "kil-deer" or "kee-deeyu". When this plover is disturbed, it emits notes in a rapid sequence, such as "kee-di-di-di". Its alarm call is a long, fast trill.[3]

Habitat and distribution

The subspecies C. v. ternominatus in Cuba

The nominate subspecies of the killdeer breeds in the US (including southeastern Alaska), southern Canada, and Mexico, with less widespread grounds further south, to Panama. Some northern populations are migratory. This bird is resident in the southern half of its breeding range,[9] found throughout the year in most of the contiguous United States.[10] It also winters south to Central America, the West Indies, Colombia, Ecuador, and islands off Venezuela, leaving its breeding grounds after mid-July,[3] with migration peaking from August to September.[9] Migration to the breeding grounds starts in February[11] and ends in mid-May.[12]

The subspecies C. v. ternominatus is thought to be resident in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Virgin Islands. C. v. peruvianus is seen year-round in western Ecuador, Peru, and extreme northwestern Chile.[3]

The killdeer uses beach habitats, coastal wetlands, and fields during the non-breeding season.[13] It forages almost exclusively in these fields, especially those with short vegetation and with cattle (which likely shorten the vegetation) and standing water.[14] When breeding, the killdeer has a home range of about 6 ha (15 acres), although this is generally larger when nesting more than 50 m (160 ft) away from water.[15] Although generally a low-land species,[3] it is found up to the snowline in meadows and open lakeshores during its autumn migration.[12]

Behavior

Breeding

Copulation

The killdeer forms pairs on its breeding grounds right after arriving.[16] Both sexes (although the male more often than the female) advertise in flight with loud "killdeer" calls. The male also advertises by calling from a high spot,[17] scraping out a dummy nest,[18] and with killdeer flights, where it flies with slow wingbeats across its territory. Ground chases occur when a killdeer has been approached multiple times by another killdeer; similarly, flight chases occur when an individual has been approached from the air. Both are forms of territorial defense.[17]

The killdeer nests in open fields or other flat areas with short vegetation (usually below 1 cm (0.39 in) tall),[3] such as agricultural fields and meadows.[13] Nests are also sometimes located on rooftops.[3] This plover frequently breeds close to where it bred the previous year. The male seems to usually renest in the same area regardless of whether or not he retains the same mate. This does not appear to be true of the female, which has been observed to not use the same territory if she does not have the same mate.[19] The nest itself is merely a shallow depression[20] or scrape[3] in the ground, fringed by some stones and blades of grass.[20] It is generally built with white nesting material instead of darker colors; the function of this is suspected to either help keep the nest cool or conceal it.[21] In a study of piping plovers, the former function was supported, as nests were 2 °C (3.6 °F) to 6 °C (11 °F) cooler than the surrounding ground. The latter function also had some support, as the plovers generally chose pebbles closer in color to the eggs; nests that contrasted more with the ground suffered more predation.[22] When nesting on rooftops, the killdeer may choose a flat roof, or build a nest of raised gravel, sometimes lined with white pebbles or pieces of seashells.[23]

A female on a nest in Pennsylvania

The eggs of the killdeer are typically laid from mid-March to early June in the southern portion of the range, and from mid-April to mid-July in the northern part.[3] In both cases, the breeding season itself extends to about August.[24] In Puerto Rico, and possibly in other Caribbean islands, breeding occurs year-round.[3]

The killdeer lays a clutch of four to six eggs that are buff to beige, with brown markings and black speckles. The eggs are about 38 by 27 mm (1.5 by 1.1 in) in size,[7] and laid at intervals of 24 to 48 hours.[3] The energy expenditure of both sexes is at its highest during egg-laying; the female needs to produce eggs, and the male needs to defend his territory.[25] Both of the sexes are closer to the nest site than usual during egg-laying and incubation, although the male is generally closer than the female during all stages of breeding. This latter fact is likely due to the male's increased investment in nest-site defense.[15] Up to five replacement clutches can be laid, and occasionally two broods occur.[3] Second broods are usually laid in the nesting territory of the first brood.[16] The eggs are incubated for 22 to 28 days[7] by both the male and the female, with the former typically incubating at night.[3] The time dedicated to incubation is related to temperature, with one study recording that killdeer incubated eggs 99% of the time when the temperature was about 13 °C (55 °F), 76% of the time around 26 °C (79 °F), and 87% of the time at about 35 °C (95 °F). When it is hot (above at least 25 °C (77 °F)), incubation cools the eggs, generally through shading by one of the parents.[26]

Eggs in a nest on the ground

About 53% of eggs are lost,[27] mainly to predators.[28] The young are precocial, starting to walk within the first days of their life. After they hatch, both parents lead them out of the nest, generally to a feeding territory with dense vegetation under which the chicks can hide when a predator is near.[16] The chicks are raised, at least in single-brood pairs, by both parents, likely because of the high failure rate of nests and the need for both parents to be present to successfully raise the young.[25] In these broods, the young are usually attended by one parent at a time (generally the female) until about two weeks of age, after which both parents are occasionally seen together with the chicks. Otherwise, the inattentive adult is at least about 23 m (75 ft) away from the chicks. Periods of attentiveness for each parent generally last from about one to one and a half hours. When the chicks are young, this is mainly spent standing; as the chicks get older, less time is dedicated to standing. When the young are below two weeks of age, the attending adult spends little time feeding; foraging time increases as the chicks grow. The inattentive adult defends the young most of the time when they are less than a week old, but this task steadily shifts onto the attentive adult, until about three weeks of age, when the attending parent does almost all of the defense. One parent at a time broods the chicks and does so frequently until they are two days old. The young are brooded during the day until about 15 days after hatching and during the night for about 18 days after hatching. The only time when they are not in the presence of a parent is when the parents are mating or responding to a predator or aggressive conspecific.[16]

A chick in New Jersey

When a pair has two broods, the second is usually attended by just the male (which can hatch the eggs on his own, unlike the female[25]). In this case, the male does not spend most of the time standing; the amount of time he does stand, though, stays constant as the chicks age. Like attentive adults in two-parent broods, the sole parent increases the time spent foraging as the young age.[16]

The young fledge about 31 days after hatching, and generally move to moister areas in valleys and on the banks of rivers. They may be cared for by their parents for up to 10 days after they fledge, and exceptionally for 81 days after hatching. About 52 to 63% of nests fail to produce any fledged young. Breeding starts after one year of age.[3] The killdeer has a maximum lifespan of 10 years and 11 months.[29]

Feeding

The killdeer feeds primarily on insects (especially beetles and flies), in addition to millipedes, worms, snails, spiders, and some seeds. It opportunistically takes tree frogs and dead minnows.[3] It forages almost exclusively in fields (no matter the tide), especially those with short vegetation and with cattle (which likely shorten the vegetation) and standing water. Standing water alone does not have a significant effect on field choice unless combined with cattle.[14] Viable disseminules can be recovered from killdeer feces, indicating that this bird is important in transporting aquatic organisms.[30]

The killdeer uses visual cues to forage. An example of this is "foot-trembling",[31] where it stands on one foot, shaking the other in shallow water for about five seconds, pecking at any prey stirred up.[32] When feeding in fields, it sometimes follows plows to take earthworms disturbed to the surface.[3] The female forages significantly more than the male during most stages of breeding. The former feeds the most before and during egg-laying, the least when incubation starts (as little time to feed remains), with a return to high levels after.[24] During the nonbreeding season, the killdeer forages during the night, depending on the lunar cycle. When the moon is full, it feeds more at night and roosts more during the day. Foraging at night has benefits for this bird, including increased insect abundance and reduced predation.[31]

Predators and parasites

The killdeer is parasitized by acanthocephalans, cestodes, nematodes, and trematodes.[33] It is preyed upon by herring gulls, common crows, raccoons, and striped skunks.[27] The mentioned birds and other avian predators are the majority of predators in some areas during the breeding season. Predation is not limited to eggs and chicks: mustelids, for example, can kill incubating adults.[34]

Responses to predators

The parents use various methods to distract predators during the breeding season. One method is the "broken-wing display",[35] also known as "injury feigning".[36] Before displaying, it usually runs from its nest, making alarm calls and other disturbances. When the bird has the attention of the predator, the former turns its tail towards the latter, displaying the threatening orange color of the rump. It then crouches, droops its wings, and lowers its tail, which is more common for them.[35] With increasing intensity, the wings are held higher, the tail is fanned out, and the tail becomes more depressed.[27] Another behavior that has received attention is the "ungulate display", where the adult raises its wings, exposes its rump, lowers its head, and charges at the intruder. This can be fatal to the displaying bird.[37]

The intensity of the responses to predators varies throughout the breeding season. During egg-laying, the most common response to predators is to quietly leave the nest. As incubation starts and progresses, the intensity of predator responses increases, peaking after hatching. This is probably because it is worth more to protect the young then, as they are more likely to fledge. After hatching, reactions decrease in intensity, until a normal response is called. This is because the young become more independent as they age.[27]

Status

The killdeer is considered a least-concern species by the IUCN due to its large range of about 26.3 million km2 (10.2 million sq mi) and population, estimated by the IUCN to be about one million birds,[1] or about two million, according to the Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive.[3] Though the population is declining, it is not decreasing fast enough to be considered a vulnerable species.[1] It is protected in the US by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918,[38] and in Canada by the Migratory Birds Convention Act.[39]

Notes

  1. ^ Originally described as Oxyechus vociferus peruvianus.[6]

References

  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2016). "Charadrius vociferus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22693777A93422319. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22693777A93422319.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Stockholm, Sweden: (Laurentii Salvii). p. 150 – via The Internet Archive.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Wiersma, P.; Kirwan, G. M.; Boesman, P. (2020). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A.; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. doi:10.2173/bow.killde.01. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
  4. ^ Catesby, Mark (1731). The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. Vol. 1. London: Printed at the expence of the author, and sold by W. Innys and R. Manby, at the West End of St. Paul's, by Mr. Hauksbee, at the Royal Society House, and by the author, at Mr. Bacon's in Hoxton. p. 71.
  5. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 99, 404. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  6. ^ Chapman, Frank M. (1920). "Description of a proposed new race of the killdeer from the coast of Peru". The Auk. 37 (1): 105–108. doi:10.2307/4072966. ISSN 0004-8038. JSTOR 4072966.
  7. ^ a b c Hauber, Mark E. (2014). The Book of Eggs: A Life-Size Guide to the Eggs of Six Hundred of the World's Bird Species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-226-05781-1.
  8. ^ a b c d "Killdeer Charadrius vociferus". Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. USGS. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  9. ^ a b Jonathan K. Alderfer; Paul Hess (2011). National Geographic Backyard Guide to the Birds of North America. National Geographic. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4262-0720-4.
  10. ^ Sanzenbacher, Peter M.; Haig, Susan M. (2001). "Killdeer population trends in North America". Journal of Field Ornithology. 72 (1): 160–169. doi:10.1648/0273-8570-72.1.160. ISSN 1557-9263. S2CID 85684751.
  11. ^ Nellis, David W. (2001). Common Coastal Birds of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc. p. 211. ISBN 1-56164-191-X.
  12. ^ a b Campbell, Robert Wayne; Dawe, Neil K.; McTaggart-Cowan, Ian; Cooper, John M.; Kaiser, Gary W.; McNall, Michael C. E. (1997). The Birds of British Columbia: Nonpasserines: Diurnal Birds of Prey Through Woodpeckers. UBC Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-7748-4435-2.
  13. ^ a b Johnsgard, P.A. (1981). The Plovers, Sandpipers and Snipes of the World. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-2553-9.
  14. ^ a b Long, Linda L.; Ralph, C. John (2001). "Dynamics of habitat use by shorebirds in estuarine and agricultural habitats in northwestern California". The Wilson Bulletin. 113 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1676/0043-5643(2001)113[0041:DOHUBS]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0043-5643. S2CID 85929172.
  15. ^ a b Plissner, Jonathan H.; Oring, Lewis W.; Haig, Susan M. (2000). "Space use of killdeer at a Great Basin breeding area". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 64 (2): 421. doi:10.2307/3803240. JSTOR 3803240.
  16. ^ a b c d e Lenington, Sarah (1980). "Bi-parental care in killdeer: An adaptive hypothesis". The Wilson Bulletin. 92 (1): 8–20. ISSN 0043-5643.
  17. ^ a b Mundahl, John T. (1982). "Role specialization in the parental and territorial behavior of the killdeer". The Wilson Bulletin. 94 (4): 515–530. ISSN 0043-5643.
  18. ^ Phillips, R.E. (1972). "Sexual and agonistic behaviour in the killdeer (Charadrius vociferus)". Animal Behaviour. 20 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(72)80166-0. ISSN 0003-3472.
  19. ^ Lenington, Sarah (1975). "Mate fidelity and nesting site tenacity in the killdeer". The Auk. 92 (1): 149–151. doi:10.2307/4084431. ISSN 1938-4254. JSTOR 4084431.
  20. ^ a b Hiller, Ilo (2008). "Killdeer". Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
  21. ^ Kull, Robert C. Jr. (1977). "Color selection of nesting material by killdeer". The Auk. 94 (3): 602–604. ISSN 1938-4254.
  22. ^ Mayer, Paul M.; Smith, Levica M.; Ford, Robert G.; Watterson, Dustin C.; McCutchen, Marshall D.; Ryan, Mark R. (2009). "Nest construction by a ground-nesting bird represents a potential trade-off between egg crypticity and thermoregulation". Oecologia. 159 (4): 893–901. Bibcode:2009Oecol.159..893M. doi:10.1007/s00442-008-1266-9. ISSN 1432-1939. PMID 19145449. S2CID 22438709.
  23. ^ Fisk, Erma J. (1978). "The growing use of roofs by nesting birds". Bird-Banding. 49 (2): 134–141. doi:10.2307/4512343. ISSN 2327-1280. JSTOR 4512343.
  24. ^ a b Brunton, Dianne H. (1988). "Sexual differences in reproductive effort: time-activity budgets of monogamous killdeer, Charadrius vociferus". Animal Behaviour. 36 (3): 705–717. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(88)80153-2. ISSN 0003-3472. S2CID 53171701.
  25. ^ a b c Brunton, Dianne H. (1988). "Energy expenditure in reproductive effort of male and female killdeer (Charadrius vociferus)". The Auk. 105 (3): 553–564. doi:10.1093/auk/105.3.553. ISSN 1938-4254.
  26. ^ Bergstrom, Peter W. (1989). "Incubation temperatures of Wilson's plovers and killdeers". The Condor. 91 (3): 634–641. doi:10.2307/1368114. ISSN 1938-5129. JSTOR 1368114.
  27. ^ a b c d Brunton, Dianne H. (1990). "The effects of nesting stage, sex, and type of predator on parental defense by killdeer (Charadrius vociferous): Testing models of avian parental defense". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 26 (3): 181–190. doi:10.1007/bf00172085. hdl:2027.42/46896. ISSN 1432-0762. S2CID 25058409.
  28. ^ Nol, Erica; Brooks, Ronald J. (1982). "Effects of predator exclosures on besting success of killdeer". Journal of Field Ornithology. 53 (3): 263–268. ISSN 0273-8570.
  29. ^ Clapp, Roger B.; Klimkiewicz, M. Kathleen; Kennard, John H. (1982). "Longevity records of North American birds: Gaviidae through Alcidae". Journal of Field Ornithology. 53 (2): 81–124. ISSN 0273-8570. JSTOR 4512701.
  30. ^ Proctor, Vernon W.; Malone, Charles R.; DeVlaming, Victor L. (1967). "Dispersal of aquatic organisms: Viability of disseminules recovered from the intestinal tract of captive killdeer". Ecology. 48 (4): 672–676 8. doi:10.2307/1936517. ISSN 1939-9170. JSTOR 1936517.
  31. ^ a b Eberhart-Phillips, Luke J. (2016). "Dancing in the moonlight: evidence that killdeer foraging behavior varies with the lunar cycle". Journal of Ornithology. 158 (1): 253–262. doi:10.1007/s10336-016-1389-4. ISSN 2193-7192. S2CID 42947525.
  32. ^ Smith, Susan M. (1970). ""Foot-trembling" feeding behavior by a killdeer". The Condor. 72 (2): 245. doi:10.2307/1366650. ISSN 1938-5129. JSTOR 1366650.
  33. ^ Eckman, Michael K. (1968). "Helminth parasites of the killdeer in Colorado". The Journal of Parasitology. 54 (6): 1143. doi:10.2307/3276980. ISSN 0022-3395. JSTOR 3276980.
  34. ^ Johnson, Matthew; Oring, Lewis W. (2002). "Are nest exclosures an effective tool in plover conservation?". Waterbirds. 25 (2): 184. doi:10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0184:ANEAET]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1939-9170. S2CID 83933209.
  35. ^ a b Deane, C. Douglas (1944). "The broken-wing behavior of the killdeer". The Auk. 61 (2): 243–247. doi:10.2307/4079369. ISSN 1938-4254. JSTOR 4079369.
  36. ^ Gochfeld, Michael (1984). "Antipredator Behavior: Aggressive and Distraction Displays of Shorebirds". In Burger, Joanna; Olla, Bori L. (eds.). Shorebirds. Shorebirds: Breeding Behavior and Populations. pp. 289–377. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-4691-3_8. ISBN 978-1-4684-4693-7.
  37. ^ Brunton, Dianne H. (1986). "Fatal antipredator behavior of a killdeer". The Wilson Bulletin. 98 (4): 605–607. ISSN 0043-5643.
  38. ^ "Migratory Bird Treaty Act Protected Species (10.13 List)". US Fish & Wildlife Service. 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
  39. ^ "Birds protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act". Government of Canada. 2017. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2018.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Killdeer: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

The killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) is a large plover found in the Americas. It gets its name from its shrill, two-syllable call, which is often heard. It was described and given its current scientific name in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Three subspecies are described. Its upperparts are mostly brown with rufous fringes, the head has patches of white and black, and two black bands cross the breast. The belly and the rest of the breast are white. The nominate (or originally described) subspecies breeds from southeastern Alaska and southern Canada to Mexico. It is seen year-round in the southern half of its breeding range; the subspecies C. v. ternominatus is resident in the West Indies, and C. v. peruvianus inhabits Peru and surrounding South American countries throughout the year. North American breeders winter from their resident range south to Central America, the West Indies, and the northernmost portions of South America.

The nonbreeding habitat of the killdeer includes coastal wetlands, beach habitats, and coastal fields. Its breeding grounds are generally open fields with short vegetation (but locations such as rooftops are sometimes used); although it is a shorebird, it does not necessarily nest close to water. The nest itself is a scrape lined with vegetation and white material, such as pebbles or seashell fragments. This bird lays a clutch of four to six buff to beige eggs with dark markings. The breeding season (starting with egg-laying) occurs from mid-March to August, with later timing of egg-laying in the northern portion of the range. Both parents incubate the eggs for 22 to 28 days typically. The young stay in the nest until the day after being hatched, when they are led by their parents to a feeding territory (generally with dense vegetation where hiding spots are abundant), where the chicks feed themselves. The young then fledge about 31 days after hatching, and breeding first occurs after one year of age.

The killdeer primarily feeds on insects, although other invertebrates and seeds are eaten. It forages almost exclusively in fields, especially those with short vegetation and with cattle and standing water. It primarily forages during the day, but in the nonbreeding season, when the moon is full or close to full, it forages at night, likely because of increased insect abundance and reduced predation during the night. Predators of the killdeer include various birds and mammals. Its multiple responses to predation range from calling to the "ungulate display", which can be fatal for the performing individual. This bird is classified as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, because of its large range and population. Its population is declining, but this trend is not severe enough for the killdeer to be considered a vulnerable species. It is protected by the American Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and the Canadian Migratory Birds Convention Act.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Distribution

provided by World Register of Marine Species
North America; range extends from Southern Labrador to coastal Peru

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]