In the wild, lynx have lived as long as 14.5 years. In captivity, lifespans of 26.75 years have been recorded.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 14.5 (high) years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 26.75 (high) years.
Canadian lynx are not known to have a negative impact on human economies.
Lynx are listed in CITES Appendix II, and they are listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and endangered in the state of Michigan.
US Federal List: threatened
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: endangered
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Communication and perception are probably similar to that of other cats. In addition to having good vision to facilitate hunting, these animals have excellent hearing. Scents are probably used in marking territories. Tactile communication is likely to occur between mates, as well as between mothers and their offspring. Communication through vocalizations occurs as well.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Lynx populations are affected by reductions in hare populations through increased mortality among kittens and reduced pregnancy rates. Indeed, the only direct affect on adults seems to be hunger and not increased mortality. Litters are larger and kittens healthier in years when hare populations are large and food is plentiful.
The coloration of lynx varies, but is normally yellowish-brown. The upper parts may have a frosted, gray look and the underside may be more buff. Many individuals have dark spots. The tail is quite short and is often ringed and tipped with black. The fur on the body is long and thick. The hair is particularly long on the neck in winter. The triangular ears are tipped with tufts of long black hairs. The paws are quite large and furry, helping to distribute the weight of the animal when moving on snow.
Head-body length is between 670 and 1,067 mm and tail length ranges from 50 to 130 mm. Amimals typically weigh between 4.5 and 17.3 kg. On average, males weigh slightly more than females.
Range mass: 4.5 to 17.3 kg.
Range length: 670 to 1,067 mm.
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Canadian lynx have been exploited for their fur since the seventeenth century. With restrictions on trade in furs of large cats in the late 1960's, and subsequent reduction of ocelot and margay populations by fur trappers, increased attention has been focused on the pelts of Canadian lynx. However, it seems that the greatest pressure on populations of lynx remains the size of hare populations, not trappers. Lynx help control populations of small mammals, such as snowshoe hares and voles, that are agricultural or silvicultural pests.
Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; controls pest population
As predators, Canadian lynx are important in regulating the populations of their prey. This is particularly noticeable in the cycle of populations of lynx and snowshoe hares.
Canadian lynx are strictly carnivores. Snowshoe hares are of particular importance in the diet of these cats, and populations of the two are known to fluctuate in linked cycles with periods of about 9.6 years. In these cycles, there is a slight lag between hare and lynx populations. Although in some areas, such as Cape Breton Island, lynx prey exclusively on hares, in other areas they also take rodents, birds and fish.
In the fall and winter, lynx will kill and eat deer and other large ungulates that are weakened by the rutting season. They also utilize carcasses left by human hunters.
Canadian lynx only eat meat. Snowshoe hares are a very important food for these cats, and when there are fewer hares to eat, the number of lynx decreases. In some areas, such as Cape Breton Island, lynx eat only hares, but in other areas they also feast on rodents, birds and fish. If they can find a deer that is very weak or sick, lynx will kill and eat it. They also feed off carcasses left by human hunters.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; fish; carrion
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
Major populations of Canadian lynx, Lynx canadensis, are found throughout Canada, in western Montana, and in nearby parts of Idaho and Washington. There are small populations in New England and Utah and possibly in Oregon, Wyoming and Colorado as well.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Lynx usually live in mature forests with dense undergrowth but can also be found in more open forests, rocky areas or tundra.
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; forest
Predators of these cats have not been reported. However, one can assume that young kittens are vulnerable to other large carnivores, such as wolves and bears.
The mating system of these animals is not reported. However, female home ranges are usually encompassed by the home range of a male, and the home ranges of multiple females may overlap. This distribution, in conjuction with the slight sexual dimorphism, indicate that the species is probably polygynous.
Females enter estrus only once per year and raise one litter per year. Estrus lasts 1 to 2 days. Mating in February and March is folowed by a gestation period of from 8 to 10 weeks. Litters typically have 2 or 3 kittens, though the number may range from 1 to 5. Lynx weigh about 200 g at birth. Lactation lasts for 5 months, although kittens eat some meat as early as one month of age.
Males do not participate in parental care. Young remain with the mother until the following winter's mating season, and siblings may remain together for a while after separation from the mother. Females reach sexual maturity at 21 months and males at 33 months.
Breeding interval: Lynx can breed once per year.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs in January and February.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 6.
Average number of offspring: 2.
Range gestation period: 56 to 70 days.
Average weaning age: 150 days.
Average time to independence: 10 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 21 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 33 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 204 g.
Average number of offspring: 3.5.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 573 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 498 days.
Females give birth to their young in fallen logs, stumps, clumps of timber, or similar tangles of roots and branches. This, one assumes, helps to protect the young from potential predators.
All parental care is provided by females. Young are altricial at birth, but have well-developed pelage. Nursing lasts for about 5 months, after which the young eat prey. Mothers may help to educate their young in hunting techniques, and cooperative hunting has been observed.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning
the species is valued for its thick fur and their population is declining.it is also threatened by habitat loss.
The Canada lynx occurs from Alaska south to British Columbia and east to the Atlantic Coast of Canada. The southern portion of the Canada lynx's range extends to isolated portions of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Colorado. Small populations of Canada lynxes exist in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, New Hampshire, Vermont [28,88,108], and Maine [28]. NatureServe provides a distributional map for the Canada lynx.
Lynx canadensis canadensis occurs in all of the areas listed above except Newfoundland [47,48,106,114], and Lynx canadensis subsolanus occurs in Newfoundland only [47,48,106].
The following lists are speculative and are based on the habitat characteristics and species composition of communities Canada lynxes are known to occupy. There is not conclusive evidence that Canada lynxes occur in all the habitat types listed, and some community types, especially those used rarely, may have been omitted. See Preferred Habitat for more detail.
Canada lynxes utilize regenerating forest stands for foraging habitat [2] (see Preferred Habitat). Mammals comprise the largest portion of the Canada lynx's diet, followed by birds [98,110]. Snowshoe hares make up the greatest biomass (35-99%) of prey consumed year-round [28,54,57,58,59,70,72,76,100].
Diversity of Canada lynx prey items increases during the summer and during periods of snowshoe hare scarcity [80]. Prey items may include red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) [52,58,73,100,110], ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) [16,90,110], great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) [33], mice (Peromyscus spp.) [58], voles (Clethrionomys spp. and Microtus spp.) [70], fishers (Martes pennanti) [87], red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) [70,101], and moose (Alces alces) and woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) carcasses [70].
Canada lynxes may prey on ungulates such as woodland caribou calves, deer (Odocoileus spp.) calves, and Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli) lambs, but ungulate dietary importance is insignificant [58,91,95,101].
Fire is important for maintaining high-quality habitat for Canada lynxes and their primary food source, snowshoe hares [44,86]. In the western portion of the Canada lynx's range, fire exclusion may have contributed to the Canada lynx's decline [71]. Fires that create a mosaic of successional stages are most beneficial for providing foraging and denning areas for Canada lynxes [2,38,60,80,86,88,121,121]. Fire may have negative impacts on Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares in the short term due to reduced food and cover [60,80]. As succession progresses, the amount of browse increases, and snowshoe hares become more abundant [121]. Canada lynx populations increase in response to high snowshoe hare densities [50,60,80,86]. The capacity of burned areas to support high snowshoe hare and Canada lynx densities declines over time. In later stages of succession, less herbage is within reach for snowshoe hares, decreasing their population, and subsequently, the Canada lynx population [38,50]. For more information about HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS on the snowshoe hare, see the FEIS review of snowshoe hare.
The Canada lynx requires a landscape containing early [31,51,58,60,86] and late-successional [60] habitats and may be positively or negatively affected by fire [56,86,88,121]. In general, wildlife species that are associated with early successional vegetation may benefit from fuel reduction treatments. Species associated with late-successional habitat with features such as a closed canopy, a dense understory, and/or coarse woody debris may be negatively affected by fuel reduction treatments. The Canada lynx requires both, so the effects of fuel reduction on Canada lynxes may vary with the management history of an area, current habitat condition, landscape setting, and prescribed fire attributes such as size, type, frequency, and season. Canada lynxes may not be affected by fuel reduction on the stand level due to their large home ranges [84].
Snowshoe hares often abandon fresh burns if cover is sparse and nutritious browse is available elsewhere [55]. Snowshoe hares attain peak populations 5 to 30 years following fire, especially in habitat dominated by quaking aspen and birch (Betula spp.) [51]. In northern latitudes, stands approximately 40 years old may provide optimal conditions for snowshoe hares. In southern latitudes where succession occurs at a quicker rate, 15- to 30-year-old stands may provide the best habitat for snowshoe hares [38]. Little data exist on the use of recent burns by Canada lynxes [36]. Fifteen- to 30-year-old burned areas provide optimal foraging habitat for Canada lynxes in boreal forests [36,37,51,58,60,61,80,96,105,122], but 5- to 50-year-old burned areas may be used [79,86]. In the western United States, fire creates seral landscapes that are often dominated by lodgepole pine, which benefit snowshoe hares and Canada lynxes [71]. Canada lynxes require mature forests for denning and raising kittens; however, no information is currently available about the optimal age forest age for denning habitat. On the Okanogan National Forest in Washington, female Canada lynxes utilized 250-year-old subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce or lodgepole pine forests to raise kittens [58,60] (see Preferred Habitat).
Thirty-five of 39 Canada lynx dens were located in 29- to 36-year-old burned areas near Whitehorse, Yukon. Seventy-two percent of the 301 km² study area had been burned or partially burned prior the study. Details about the severity of the fire were not included. Regenerating trees and shrubs were predominantly lodgepole pine, white spruce, quaking aspen, subalpine fir, and willow (Salix spp.). Of the 35 Canada lynx dens found in burned areas, 33 were located under the deadfall of fire-killed coniferous trees. Four dens were located in unburned areas: 1 was beneath a mature subalpine fir, 2 were beneath willow thickets, and 1 was beneath a mature white spruce blowdown [96].
In northwestern Montana, Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares were found most often in forest stands on an 80-year-old burn. Twenty-three of 29 radio-telemetry locations for 1 adult male and 1 adult female Canada lynx were in densely stocked stands of young (<80 years old), 100% lodgepole pine stands; 3 locations were in mature (>100-year-old) subalpine fir-Engelmann spruce stands, and 3 locations were in young (<80 years old) Douglas-fir-western larch stringers along stream bottoms [61].
On the Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares preferred a 25- to 28-year-old burned area to a 6- to 9-year-old burn or a 100- to 115-year-old mature forest. The forest in the 3 study areas consisted of predominantly black spruce with scattered white spruce or tamarack. Most of the 25- to 28-year-old burn (197 km²) was in the midsuccessional stage, but severely burned lowlands were in the shrub-sapling stage. Paper birch and quaking aspen dominated the overstory, and conifer saplings <16 feet (5 m) tall began to shade the understory in areas of dense regeneration. Maximum shrub height was 13.5 feet (4.1 m). Median percent canopy cover was 35%, and most debris piles had collapsed but not yet decayed [79].
The 6- to 9-year old burn (133 km²) was in the early successional tall shrub-sapling stage. The overstory was dominated by paper birch and quaking aspen saplings 16 feet (5 m) tall. Black spruce and tamarack seedlings were <3 feet (1 m) tall and grew among dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa) and beauverd spirea (Spiraea stevenii). Severely burned areas were in the moss-herb stage. Unburned areas comprised 5.9% of the area. Maximum shrub height was 9.2 feet (2.8 m). Median percent canopy cover was 5%, and leaning and fallen trees created debris piles ≤ 4.9 feet (1.5 m) tall [79].
Mature, 100- to 150-year-old coniferous forest was dominated by black spruce and tamarack 2 to 8 inches (5-20 cm) DBH. Maximum shrub height was 5.9 feet (1.8 m), and median percent canopy cover was 30%. Despite Canada lynx's preference for midsuccessional, postfire forest, mature forest stands may be important for denning and finding alternative prey items during snowshoe hare scarcity [79].
Coarse woody debris: Following fire, it is important to leave fire-killed trees to stabilize the soil and contribute to wildlife habitat for the Canada lynx and its prey. If salvage logging is implemented, the following are recommended: 1) strictly limit the removal of dead trees to roaded areas within the urban-wildlife interface; 2) use low-impact logging techniques such as high lead cables to minimize soil damage [30]; 3) maintain sufficient densities and diameter classes of woody debris for wildlife use; and 4) avoid sensitive sites such as severely burned areas, roadless and riparian areas, and sites with erosive or fragile soil [21,104].
Canada lynxes require coarse woody debris for denning and raising kittens [18,20,29,42,58,60,119] (see Preferred Habitat). Eliminating slash by broadcast burning following timber harvest may have a negative impact on the Canada lynx. Leaving piles of slash in an area may compensate for decreased structural diversity in even-aged monocultures and clearcut areas by providing cover. Slash piles may be most valuable when they are located within or near forested cover [2].
The following table provides fire-return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where Canada lynx is important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Fire-return intervals for plant communities with Canada lynx
Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) grand fir Abies grandis 35-200 [4] maple-beech Acer-Fagus spp. 684-1,385 [25,113] maple-beech-birch Acer-Fagus-Betula spp. >1,000 sugar maple Acer saccharum >1,000 [113] birch Betula spp. 80-230 [102] tundra ecosystems Deschampsia caespitosa, Carex bigelowii, Carex macrochaeta, Chamerion latifolium, Festuca altaica, Potentilla nana, Sibbaldia procumbens, Saxifraga spp., Trifolium dasphyllum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea >100 to 500 [32,112,115] beech-sugar maple Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum >1,000 [113] tamarack Larix laricina 35-200 [81] western larch Larix occidentalis 25-350 [5,13,27] Great Lakes spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35 to >200 northeastern spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35-200 [32] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to >200 [4] black spruce Picea mariana 35-200 conifer bog* Picea mariana-Larix laricina 35-200 red spruce* Picea rubens 35-200 [32] whitebark pine* Pinus albicaulis 50-200 [1,3] jack pine Pinus banksiana <35 to 200 [25,32] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-340 [12,13,103] Pacific ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [4] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [4,9,64] red pine (Great Lakes region) Pinus resinosa 3-18 (x=3-10) [39] red-white pine* (Great Lakes region) Pinus resinosa-P. strobus 3-200 [25,49,66] eastern white pine-eastern hemlock Pinus strobus-Tsuga canadensis 35-200 eastern white pine-northern red oak-red maple Pinus strobus-Quercus rubra-Acer rubrum 35-200 [113] aspen-birch Populus tremuloides-Betula papyrifera 35-200 [32,113] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [4,46,68] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [4,6,7] coast Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii 40-240 [4,69,89] northern red oak Quercus rubra 10 to <35 [113] western redcedar-western hemlock Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla >200 [4] eastern hemlock-yellow birch Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis 100-240 [102,113] eastern hemlock-white pine Tsuga canadensis-Pinus strobus x=47 [25] western hemlock-Sitka spruce Tsuga heterophylla-Picea sitchensis >200 mountain hemlock* Tsuga mertensiana 35 to >200 [4] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species reviewDue to their dependence on snowshoe hares, management practices that benefit snowshoe hares will benefit Canada lynxes [80]. This includes maintaining early to midsuccessional habitats [36,58,60,61,80,105,122]. These habitats should be adjacent to mature forests containing coarse woody debris for denning and raising kittens [2,18,20,29,42,58,60,80,119] (see Preferred Habitat). Trapping of Canada lynxes should be flexible, based on the approximate 10-year snowshoe hare-Canada lynx population cycle [80,97] (see Trapping). Management of Canada lynxes in southern latitudes may need to differ from management in northern latitudes, due to the lack of dramatic fluctuations in Canada lynx and snowshoe hare populations in southern populations [59].
There is high gene flow among Canada lynxes despite geographic separation of distances up to 1,926 miles (3,100 km), so management should focus on maintaining connectivity of habitat within the core of the Canada lynx's geographic range [74,92]. Slough and Mowat [97] recommend a minimum effective size of 500 km² of high-quality habitat for a Canada lynx refugium during years when home range sizes for males and females do not fluctuate widely. Coordinating management across multiple ownerships is needed to prevent fragmentation of Canada lynx habitat. For detailed information about providing appropriate habitat to maintain Canada lynx populations, see the website on Canada lynx conservation and assessment strategy.
Silviculture: In intensively managed forests, even-aged regenerating forest stands should be interspersed with mature forest to provide quality habitat for the Canada lynx [2,53,88]. To produce diverse habitat, stripcutting or blockcutting may benefit Canada lynxes in boreal forests [88]. If maximizing the preharvest mammalian community is a management goal, the rate of successional convergence to mature forest may be increased by doing the following: 1) leave "moderate" amounts of downed woody matter in the harvested area; 2) leave snags and dead wood in close proximity to live trees to form clumps; and 3) leave >30% of mature trees as clumped residuals in harvested areas [36].
A short-term result of clearcutting is reducing snowshoe hare and Canada lynx densities [36,80]. In the long term, snowshoe hare abundance generally increases in clearcut areas due to an increase in browse plants and cover [36,58,60,61,80,105,122]. Clearcuts ≤15 years old probably have minimal value to Canada lynxes and snowshoe hares [80] and may not be optimal habitat for either species for 30 years [59]. In Maine, snowshoe hares did not recolonize spruce-fir habitat until 6 to 7 years following clearcutting, and populations peaked 20 to 25 years following clearcutting [65]. Large clearcuts may potentially act as barriers to Canada lynx movement [59]. Parker and others [80] recommend keeping clearcuts relatively small and maintaining a mosaic of clearcuts with mature forest and uneven-aged forest stands.
Recent trends away from clearcutting to partial harvest in northern Maine may negatively affect densities of snowshoe hares and Canada lynxes due to their preference for even-aged forests that regenerate after clearcutting or fire. More research is needed to examine the effects of specific types of partial harvest on the Canada lynx [53].
In west-central Alberta, Canada lynxes would likely benefit from short-rotation harvesting of quaking aspen [83].
Precommercial thinning decreased snowshoe hare abundance in forests dominated by lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and western larch (Larix occidentalis) in western Montana. This silvicultural practice may lead to an ecologically significant loss of prey available to the Canada lynx. When managing forests for high snowshoe hare abundance, the authors suggest a precommercial thinning method in which 20% of the total stand is retained in uncut 0.62 acre (0.25 ha) patches [45].
Coarse woody debris: Logs and upturned stumps in mature forests are important denning sites for the Canada lynx [18,19,20,29,42,96,119] (see Preferred Habitat). A lack of suitable den sites may reduce Canada lynx recruitment [96]. Forest thinning and salvage logging reduce the availability of coarse woody debris for denning Canada lynxes. They may also reduce the abundance of some prey species, which could be "detrimental" to Canada lynxes [20]. Snowshoe hares also utilize coarse woody debris for denning [22].
Trapping: Trapping is a major cause of Canada lynx mortality in some parts of Canada. However, due to high fecundity, especially following periods of increasing snowshoe hare availability, populations of Canada lynxes may increase rapidly [97].
An important factor in the management of Canada lynx is the vulnerability of family groups to trapping (see Development) [23]. If adult females accompanied by kittens are trapped, orphaned kittens may die of starvation [23]. During periods of prey scarcity, in which kitten survival is low, Canada lynx populations may decrease substantially due to starvation and trapping [15,23,80]. Slough and Mowat [97] and Parker and others [80] suggest restricting trapping during early winter to avoid removing adult females from their kittens.
Parker and others [80] suggest flexible harvest regulations. Controlled trapping should be limited to years of high population recruitment to reduce overexploitation. This is crucial where habitat and immigration from unexploited populations is limited [80]. A closed season should be considered during periods of low snowshoe hare densities [80].The currently accepted scientific name for the Canada lynx is Lynx canadensis
Kerr [10,47,106,118]. It is a member of the family Felidae. The 2 currently
recognized North American subspecies are listed below [47,118]; however,
taxonomic debate exists [106]:
Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr
Lynx canadensis subsolanus Bangs
Mating: Canada lynxes mate in late March and early April [58,70,73,88,116]. It is unclear when females and males attain sexual maturity, but most research indicates that breeding does not occur until the second year of life [17,80,91]. On Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, most female Canada lynxes reached sexual maturity at 22 months. They were capable of conceiving as young as 9 months old; however, reproductive success depended on the abundance of snowshoe hares [80].
Reproductive success of Canada lynxes fluctuates in an approximate 10-year cyclical manner corresponding with the snowshoe hare cycle. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, Canada lynx birth rates typically range from 73% to 93% for adults and 33% to 100% for yearlings [80,97]. One to two years following a snowshoe hare decline, the birth rate declines [97]. Adult females may continue to conceive but live births are few or none [80,97]. Of 3,130 adult female Canada lynx carcasses examined in the Yukon, Tanana, and Copper basins of Alaska, the number of Canada lynx placental scars/female decreased from 3.7 to 1.4 scars during a snowshoe hare decline phase [74].
Gestation period and litter size: Gestation is 60 to 65 days [59,73,91]. Typically, 1 or 2 kittens are born from May to July [58,73,91,96,116]. Yearling and adult lynxes may produce litters 6 weeks earlier than average during periods of snowshoe hare abundance [70]. In western Montana, litter size ranged from 1 to 5 kittens, with an average of 2.75 (n=20) [17]. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, yearling Canada lynxes may experience increased reproductive rates, and all age classes of females produce larger litters [73,80] that average 4 to 5 kittens [97].
Development: Canada lynx kittens remain with their mother for 9 to 10 months following birth to nurse and learn how to hunt [23,58,80,97].
Social organization: Canada lynxes are generally solitary [11,28]; however, they may travel in groups consisting of a female with her kittens, 2 adult females with their kittens, or an adult female with an adult male during the breeding season [23,80]. An adult female may remain in contact with her offspring for the female's lifetime [23].
Habits: Canada lynxes are most active between dusk and dawn [28,91], and hide during the day [91]. They are active year-round [28].
Dispersal: Dispersal of Canada lynxes is characterized as juveniles dispersing from their natal area or as a response to snowshoe hare declines [85]. Kittens remain with their mother through their first winter, and natal dispersal occurs from late April to early May [97]. Maximum natal dispersal distance for females is 6.0 miles (9.7 km) [91]. Canada lynxes are capable of long-range exploratory movements of up to 600 miles (1,000 km) [97].
Mortality: Mortality of Canada lynxes is influenced primarily by the relative abundance of snowshoe hares and the amount of trapping by humans. During periods of snowshoe hare scarcity, starvation is the most significant cause of natural mortality for lynxes [58]. One year following a snowshoe hare decline near Whitehorse, Yukon, 90% (n=161) of the Canada lynx population was reduced due to starvation, dispersal, and a collapse in recruitment [97]. Female Canada lynxes may lose their litters shortly after parturition during food shortages [70]. The mean mortality rate of 8 Canada lynx kittens over 2 years in north-central Washington during a period of snowshoe hare scarcity was 88% [58]. Mortality for kittens may increase to 100% one to two years following a snowshoe hare decline [80,97]. During periods of snowshoe hare abundance, natural mortality of juvenile and adult Canada lynxes is low. Juvenile mortality may range from 17% to 50% [97].
Trapping may be a significant cause of mortality [23,97]. Mortality rates may range from 50% to 90% in areas where trapping of Canada lynxes is allowed [23,80] and 0% to 27% where Canada lynxes are protected [58]. Because yearling Canada lynxes are dependent on their mothers for survival, mortality may increase if their mothers are trapped [80] (see Trapping).
The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), or Canadian lynx, is a medium-sized North American lynx that ranges across Alaska, Canada, and northern areas of the contiguous United States. It is characterized by its long, dense fur, triangular ears with black tufts at the tips, and broad, snowshoe-like paws. Its hindlimbs are longer than the forelimbs, so its back slopes downward to the front. The Canada lynx stands 48–56 cm (19–22 in) tall at the shoulder and weighs between 5 and 17 kg (11 and 37 lb). The lynx is a good swimmer and an agile climber. The Canada lynx was first described by Robert Kerr in 1792. Three subspecies have been proposed, but their validity is doubted; it is mostly considered a monotypic species.
A specialist predator, the Canada lynx depends heavily on the snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) for food. This leads to a prey-predator cycle, as Canada lynxes respond to the cyclic rises and falls in snowshoe hare populations over the years in Alaska and central Canada. The Canada lynx population increases with an increasing hare population; if the hare population decreases in a given area, it moves to areas with more hares and has fewer offspring. The Canada lynx hunts mainly around twilight, or at night, when snowshoe hares tend to be active. The lynx waits for the hare on specific trails or in "ambush beds", then pounces on it and kills it by a bite on its head, throat or the nape of its neck. Individuals, particularly of the same sex, tend to avoid each other, forming "intrasexual" territories. The mating season is roughly a month long (from March to early April). After a gestation of two to three months, a litter of one to eight kittens is born. Offspring are weaned at 12 weeks.
This lynx occurs predominantly in dense boreal forests, and its range strongly coincides with that of the snowshoe hare. Given its abundance throughout the range and lack of severe threats, the Canada lynx has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. This lynx is regularly trapped for the international fur trade in most of Alaska and Canada but is protected in the southern half of its range due to threats such as habitat loss.
The scientific name Felis lynx canadensis was proposed by Robert Kerr in 1792 who described a lynx from Canada.[3] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, several lynx zoological specimens were described:
The placement of the Canada lynx in the genus Lynx was supported by Gerrit Miller in 1912.[6] Until as late as the early 2000s, scientists were divided over whether Lynx should be considered a subgenus of Felis, or a subfamily itself; some even doubted if the Canada lynx should be considered a species on its own.[2][7][8] It was recognized by Wallace Christopher Wozencraft in 2005 as a valid Lynx species along with the bobcat (L. rufus), the Eurasian lynx (L. lynx) and the Iberian lynx (L. pardinus).[9] Wozencraft recognized three subspecies of the Canada lynx:[9]
The validity of the subspecific status of the Newfoundland lynx was questioned in 1975, as results of a study of coat colour, cranial measurements and weights of Canada lynx specimens showed that the standard measurements are not significantly distinct, apart from a few variations like the Newfoundland lynx's darker coat.[10]
In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group considered the Canada lynx a monotypic species, since it shows little morphological or genetic differences.[11]
The lynx population on Newfoundland is thought to have genetically diverged from the mainland Canada lynx around 20,000 to 33,000 years ago following the Last Glacial Period.[12][13]
According to a 2006 phylogenetic study, the ancestor of five extant felid lineages—Lynx, Leopardus, Puma, Felis and Prionailurus plus Otocolobus—arrived in North America after crossing the Bering Strait 8.5 to 8 million years ago (mya). Lynx diverged from the Puma, Felis and Prionailurus plus Otocolobus lineages around 2.53–4.74 mya.[14] The Issoire lynx (L. issiodorensis), believed to be the ancestor of the four modern Lynx species, probably originated in Africa 4 mya and occurred in Europe and northern Asia until it fell to extinction around 1 mya.[15][16] The populations of the Eurasian lynx that reached North America 2.6 mya are believed to have initially settled in the southern half of the continent, as the northern part was covered by glaciers. The southern populations gradually evolved into the modern bobcat. Later, when the continent was invaded by the Eurasian lynx for a second time within the last 200,000 years, the populations that settled in the northern part of the continent, now devoid of glaciers, evolved into the Canada lynx.[8][17] In his 1981 paper, Swedish paleontologist Lars Werdelin noted that the Canada lynx does not appear to have changed much since its first appearance.[18] Canada lynx fossils excavated in North America date back to the Sangamonian and the Wisconsin Glacial Episode.[2] The 2006 study gave the phylogenetic relationships of the Canada lynx as follows:[14][19]
Ocelot lineage Lynx lineage LynxBobcat (L. rufus)
Canada lynx (L. canadensis)
Iberian lynx (L. pardinus)
Eurasian lynx (L. lynx)
Puma lineage
Acinonyx (Cheetah), Puma (cougar), Herpailurus (jaguarundi)
Domestic cat lineage Leopard cat lineage
_Lynx_trail.jpg)
The Canada lynx is a lean, medium-sized cat characterized by its long, dense fur, triangular ears with black tufts at the tips, and broad, snowshoe-like paws. Like the bobcat, the hindlimbs are longer than the forelimbs, so the back slopes downward to the front. The Canada lynx is sexually dimorphic, with males larger and heavier than females. The lynx is between 73 and 107 cm (29 and 42 in) in total length and stands 48–56 cm (19–22 in) tall at the shoulder; females weigh around 5–12 kg (11–26 lb) while males around 6–17 kg (13–37 lb), though an exceptional male in Pennsylvania weighed 20 kg (44 lb).[20][15] Physical proportions do not vary significantly across the range and are probably naturally selected to allow for survival on smaller prey.[21] The stubby tail is 5–13 cm (2.0–5.1 in) long and has a completely black tip.[15][22] Skeletal muscles make up 56.5 % of the Canada lynx's body weight.[23][24]
The long, thick fur, uniformly coloured with little to no markings except on the underside, insulates the lynx in its frosty habitat. The fur is typically yellowish brown, though in Newfoundland it can vary from brown or buff-grey in spring and summer to a greyish shade with a grizzled appearance in winter; the underparts are white and may have a few dark spots.[15][25] An individual from Alaska was reported to have bluish-grey fur.[26] The fur is generally shorter in summer than in winter.[27] The backs of the ears are brown with a silvery-grey spot at the centre.[2] Black tufts around 4 cm (1.6 in) in length emerge from the tips of the ears, which are lined with black fur.[22] In winter, the hair on the lower cheek becomes longer, giving the impression of a ruffle covering the throat. There are four nipples.[15][25]
The claws are sharp and fully retractile.[2] The large, broad paws are covered in long, thick fur and can spread as wide as 10 cm (3.9 in) to move quickly and easily on soft snow.[8] Its paws can support almost twice as much weight as a bobcat's before sinking.[7][28] Both species walk with the back foot typically following the front foot and often do not follow a straight line. The lynx's stride is 300–460 mm (12–18 in), while the bobcat's varies between 130 and 410 mm (5 and 16 in). Canada lynx tracks are generally larger than those of the bobcat; thicker fur may make the toe pads appear less prominent in the snow. In dirt the tracks of the lynx are 76–95 mm (3–3.75 in) long and 89–114 mm (3.5–4.5 in) wide, whereas in snow they are bigger (110 mm (4.5 in) long and 130 mm (5 in) wide).[29][30] The warm coat, wide paws and long legs serve as adaptations for the lynx to navigate and hunt efficiently in snow.[7]
The Canada lynx has 28 teeth.[31] The dental formula is 3.1.2.13.1.2.1. The deciduous dentition is 3.1.23.1.2, as the young do not have molars.[2] The four long canines are used for puncturing and gripping. The lynx can feel where it is biting the prey with its canines because they are heavily laced with nerves. It also has four carnassial teeth that cut the meat into small pieces. To use its carnassials, the lynx must chew the meat with its head to its side. There are large spaces between the four canines and the rest of the teeth, and the second upper premolars are absent, to ensure the bite goes as deeply as possible into the prey.[32]
The Canada lynx can be told apart from the bobcat by its longer ear tufts, broader paws, shorter tail with a fully black tip, longer legs and the fewer markings and greyer shade of the coat.[8][29][33] The bobcat is generally smaller than the Canada lynx, but in areas where they are sympatric the bobcat tends to be larger and may still be confused with the Canada lynx.[22]
The Canada lynx occurs predominantly in the dense boreal forest of Canada, and its range strongly coincides with that of the snowshoe hare. In the past, the lynx occurred in the northern United States in 24 states, possibly southward to the Rocky Mountains in New Mexico and northward to the tree line in the Arctic through coniferous forests in Alaska and Canada. The lynx continues to occur in its former range in most of Alaska and Canada. In the United States, the Canada lynx occurs in the Blue Mountains and the Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest, the Rocky Mountains, the northern Great Lakes region (in Minnesota and Michigan's Upper Peninsula) and northern New England (in New Hampshire, Maine and Vermont). The lynx was successfully reintroduced in Colorado starting in 1999, after being extirpated from the state in the 1970s.[34][35] Canada lynxes generally avoid open areas despite good prey availability; they face difficulty surviving in heavily logged areas and on agricultural land, though they can thrive well in deforested areas that have been left to regenerate at least fifteen years. Canada lynxes have been recorded up to an elevation of 4,310 m (14,140 ft).[1][15][22] It is considered extirpated in New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Nevada, Indiana, and Ohio.[36]
A Canada lynx was shot near Newton Abbot in the United Kingdom in 1903 after it attacked two dogs. The animal remained unidentified at the time and was preserved by Bristol Museum and Art Gallery and was finally identified in a 2014 study. The researchers concluded it had probably been captive for some time, perhaps as an exotic pet or part of a travelling menagerie, but may have survived for a substantial period after escaping. They considered it "the earliest recorded example of an exotic cat on the loose in the UK".[37]
The Canada lynx tends to be nocturnal like its primary prey, the snowshoe hare. Nevertheless, activity may be observed during daytime.[15] The lynx can cover 8–9 km (5.0–5.6 mi) daily, moving at 0.75–1.46 km/h (0.47–0.91 mph), to procure prey.[38][39][40] These lynxes are good swimmers; one account records a Canada lynx swimming 3.2 km (2 mi) across the Yukon River.[25][41] Canada lynxes are efficient climbers, and will dodge predators by climbing high up in trees, but they hunt only on the ground.[22] These lynxes are primarily solitary, with minimal social interaction except for the bond between mothers and female offspring, and the temporary association between individuals of opposite sexes during the mating season.[28][42] Individuals of the same sex particularly tend to avoid each other, forming "intrasexual" territories—a social structure similar to that of bears, bobcats, cougars and mustelids. Intraspecific aggression and consequent cannibalism are rare, but may be more common when food is scarce.[43]
Canada lynxes establish home ranges that vary widely in size, depending upon the method of measurement. The two common methods are examining the tracks of the lynx in snow (snow-tracking) and radio telemetry; snow-tracking generally gives smaller sizes for home ranges. Studies based on snow-tracking have estimated home range sizes of 11.1–49.5 km2 (4.3–19.1 sq mi), while those based on radio telemetry have given the area between 8 and 783 km2 (3.1 and 302.3 sq mi).[7] Like other cats, Canada lynxes scent-mark their ranges by spraying urine and depositing feces on snow or tree stumps and other prominent sites in and around their range.[15]
Factors such as the availability of prey (primarily snowshoe hare), the density of the lynxes and the topography of the habitat determine the shape and size of the home range.[7] Studies have tried to correlate the abundance of snowshoe hares in an area with the sizes of lynxes' home ranges in that area. A 1985 study showed that the mean size of home ranges trebled—from 13.2 to 39.2 km2 (5.1 to 15.1 sq mi)—when the density of hares fell from 14.7 to 1/ha (5.95 to 0.40/acre).[44] However, a few other studies have reported different responses from Canada lynxes at times of prey scarcity; some lynxes do not show any changes in their ranges, while others may resort to hunting in small areas, occupying small home ranges.[7] Canada lynxes generally do not leave their home ranges frequently, though limited prey availability can force them to disperse or expand their ranges.[45][46]
Males tend to occupy larger ranges than do females; for instance, data from a 1980 radio telemetric analysis in Minnesota showed that males' home ranges spread over 145–243 km2 (56–94 sq mi), while those of females covered 51–122 km2 (20–47 sq mi).[47] In a study in the southern Northwest Territories, ranges of individuals of opposite sexes were found to overlap extensively, while the ranges of individuals of the same sex hardly coincided. The study suggested that individuals do not show any significant tendency to avoid or mingle with one another, and thus only passively defend their ranges.[45] Female home ranges contract in size when the females have offspring to take care of and expand to their original size at the time of weaning.[43]
Canada lynxes at the periphery of a population, given their smaller numbers and susceptibility to separation from the central population by natural barriers (such as rivers), might face more difficulty in breeding with lynxes towards the centre of the population and hence show lower genetic variability.[48][49] However, Canada lynxes are known to disperse over large distances, often thousands of kilometres, which might increase genetic variability in widely separated populations.[50] They typically move within areas where prey availability and the features of the snow (such as the hardness and the extent to which their paws sink into the snow) are more or less similar; individuals may disperse over smaller areas in areas of soft snow.[51]
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The Canada lynx preys primarily on the snowshoe hare. These hares comprise 35–97% of their diet; the proportion varies by the season and the abundance of hares.[22] However, at times when the hare's numbers drop, Canada lynxes will include other animals in their diet—such as ducks, grouse, moles, ptarmigan, American red squirrels, voles and young ungulates (Dall's sheep, mule deer and boreal woodland caribou)—though snowshoe hares continue to be the primary component. The Canada lynx tends to be less selective in summer and autumn, adding small mammals to their diet besides the hare. The reason behind this is unclear—it could be due to a greater abundance of alternate prey, or reduced success in hunting hares.[43] A study in Alaska found that lynxes played a role in the decrease in populations of red fox, caribou and Dall's sheep when hares were very low in number.[52] They have also been reported feeding occasionally on succulents, sedges and grasses.[30] Canada lynxes ingest 0.6–1.2 kg (1.3–2.6 lb) of food daily.[15][22]
Canada lynxes hunt around twilight or at night, the time when snowshoe hares tend to be active.[22] They rely on their vision and sense of hearing to locate prey.[25] The lynx will roam or wait (in what researchers often term "ambush beds") on certain trails that snowshoe hares frequent, pounce on a hare and kill it by a bite on its head, throat or the nape of its neck.[43] Sometimes a chase of up to several bounds may be necessary to trap the prey. The lynx is assisted by its stereoscopic vision in detecting prey and measuring distances. Staying in cover while hunting helps the lynx conserve energy in its frigid habitat by avoiding unnecessary movement.[30] Young ungulates are given a throat bite to suffocate them to death. The lynx may eat its kill immediately or cache it in snow or leaves to eat it over the next few days.[15][22][43] Studies suggest success in hunting hares depends heavily on the distance between the lynx and the hare when the lynx begins chasing it and their relative speeds, which in turn depends on the hunting prowess of the lynx, the alertness of the hare and the vegetation cover among other factors.[15] Canada lynxes will occasionally hunt together, though studies differ on how this affects the success rate compared to hunting solo.[43] These lynxes may hunt in groups when hares are scarce.[53] Scavenging is common; they will take ungulates killed by the cold or vehicles.[22]
Apart from Canada lynxes, coyotes are also major predators of the snowshoe hare. A study showed that, compared to Canada lynxes, coyotes' feet sink deeper in the snow due to their smaller size and hence a larger body mass to foot area ratio, prompting them to ambush their prey instead of chasing it as lynxes often do.[54] A study of those two animals in southwest Yukon showed that when the hare population increased, both killed more than necessary for subsistence; lynxes need to kill 0.4 to 0.5 hare per day to meet their energy requirements but were observed to kill 1.2 hares per day during this period. Coyotes, with a success rate of 36.9%, emerged as more successful hunters than lynxes that succeeded in 28.7% of their hunts; however, this may have resulted from the greater number of adult coyotes in the studied population. Lynxes rarely cached their kills, unlike coyotes, and this may have led to incomplete consumption of some kills. When snowshoe hare numbers declined, both predators hunted for the same time period as they did when hares were abundant, but lynxes killed more hares than they had earlier. Moreover, lynxes supplemented their diet with American red squirrels.[40][53]
A specialist predator, the Canada lynx depends heavily on snowshoe hares for food.[22] Snowshoe hare populations in Alaska and central Canada undergo cyclic rises and falls—at times the population densities can fall from as high as 2,300/km2 (6,000/sq mi) to as low as 12/km2 (31/sq mi). Consequently, a period of hare scarcity occurs every eight to 11 years. An example of a prey-predator cycle, the cyclic variations in snowshoe hare populations significantly affect the numbers of their predators—lynxes and coyotes—in the region. When the hare populations plummet, lynxes often move to areas with more hares, sometimes covering over 1,000 km (620 mi), and tend not to produce litters; as the hares' numbers increase, so does the lynx population.[55][56][57][58] In northern Canada, the abundance of lynxes can be estimated from records maintained by the Hudson's Bay Company and the Canadian government since the 1730s.[59] Lynx populations have been found to vary periodically three- to seventeen-fold.[55] These cycles have been cited as an example of the Lotka–Volterra predator–prey equations, caused by the interplay of three major factors—food, predation and social interaction.[60] A study involving statistical modelling of the interspecific relations of the snowshoe hare, the plant species it feeds on and its predators (including the Canada lynx) suggested that while the demographics of the lynx depend primarily on the hare, the hare's dynamics depend on both its diet and its predators, of which the Canada lynx is just one.[61] Environmental factors such as forest fires, precipitation and snowfall might also significantly affect this prey-predator cycle.[62]
The mating season is roughly a month long, from March to early April. Urine marking and mating calls are part of display behaviour and increase the interaction between individuals of opposite sexes. Females can be induced ovulators when the availability of mates is low, or spontaneous ovulators when several mates are available. Females have only a single estrus cycle; estrus lasts three to five days in captivity.[15] Individuals have been observed making long wailing vocalizations, probably as mating calls.[63] Before birth, the female prepares a maternal den, usually in very thick brush, and typically inside thickets of shrubs, trees or woody debris.[33][64]
After a gestation of two to three months, a litter of one to eight kittens is born.[15] Lynx reproductive cycles and litter sizes have been observed to vary with prey availability; litter size would typically contract in years of snowshoe hare decline (along with high infant mortality rates), and increase when hares were abundant.[65][66][67] Kittens weigh from 175 to 235 g (6.2 to 8.3 oz) at birth and initially have greyish buff fur with black markings. They are blind the first fourteen days and weaned at twelve weeks. Most births occur from May to July. Kittens leave the den after about five weeks and begin hunting at between seven and nine months of age. They leave the mother at around ten months, as the next breeding season begins, but they do not reach the full adult size until around two years of age. Female offspring typically settle in home ranges close to their mothers and remain in contact with them for life, while male offspring move far from their mother's range. Females reach sexual maturity at ten months but often delay breeding another year; males mature at age two or three. Canada lynxes have been reported to live sixteen years in the wild, though most do not survive ten; in captivity they may make it to twenty-seven.[15][22][68]
The Canada lynx is known to host several parasites including Cylicospirura felineus, Taenia species, Toxocara cati, Toxascaris leonina and Troglostrongylus wilsoni.[69][70] Canada lynxes could have played a role in the transmission of the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii to the Inuit in North America.[71][72] A study in 2019 identified a gammaherpesvirus species in the Canada lynx for the first time. The study discovered a novel percavirus, named LcaGHV1, in spleen samples of Canada lynxes from Maine and Newfoundland.[73] A study identified plague as a major cause of mortality in reintroduced populations in Colorado.[74]
Fishers are known to hunt Canada lynxes occasionally in the northeastern United States; a study in northern Maine identified predation by fishers as the leading cause of Canada lynx mortality over twelve years, though it did not appear to affect population growth in the lynxes.[75][76]
Canada lynxes are trapped in specific seasons in most of Alaska and Canada; hunting seasons and quotas are set based on population data. Alberta typically leads in the production of pelts, accounting for nearly a third of Canada's total. Following a cyclic fall in populations during the mid to late 1980s, there was a sharp decline in the prices and harvest of Canada lynx furs—the average number of pelts exported from Canada and the United States fell from 35,669 in 1980–1984 to 7,360 between 1986 and 1989. Subsequently, the numbers have increased to 15,387 during 2000–2006. Average illegal trade in fur and live animals appears to be negligible on the national scale.[55][77] Even without regulation, the lynx-hare cycles and the distribution of the lynx have remained unaffected over the last century.[1]
A survey of the international wildlife trade between 1980 and 2004 recorded that among all lynxes, the Canada lynx accounted for thirty percent of legal items and had little part in illegal trade. While it was unclear which lynxes were preferred in North America, bobcat and Canada lynx furs appeared to be in greater demand than those of other lynxes in Asian and European markets.[78]
In eastern Canada the lynx is threatened by competition with the eastern coyote, whose numbers in the region have risen in the last few decades. Habitat loss is the main threat in the contiguous United States, while trapping is a relatively insignificant cause of mortality.[1] Hybridization between Canada lynxes and bobcats has been reported in the southern periphery of the range. Hybridization between closely related species might significantly delimit the geographic range of the species, especially if they are endangered as reproductive success in females would be reduced by the birth of sterile offspring; on the other hand, fertile hybrids can compete and breed further with the parent species, potentially reducing the numbers of the parent species. Canada lynx-bobcat hybrids have shown signs of reproductive success and do not appear to pose any big threat to the parent species.[79][80] The Canada lynx is abundant over its broad range and has not been significantly threatened by legal trade for centuries. Therefore, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the Canada lynx as Least Concern.[1]
However, populations are relatively lower in the southern half of the range and are protected from the fur trade. The lynx is listed as Endangered in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.[1] On March 24, 2000, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) issued its Final Rule, which designated the Canada lynx a Threatened Species in 14 contiguous states.[81] In 2005, the USFWS demarcated six major areas for revival where lynx reproduction had been reported in the past two decades: northern Maine and New Hampshire, northeastern Minnesota, northwestern Montana and northeastern Idaho, the Kettle River Range and the "Wedge area" between the Kettle and Columbia rivers of Washington, the northern Cascade Range of Washington, and the Greater Yellowstone area of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho.[1] By 2010, after an 11-year effort, the lynx had been successfully reintroduced into Colorado. The initial introduction was in the San Juan Mountains in southwestern Colorado, but self-sustaining populations were established throughout the south-central Colorado Rockies as far north as Summit County.[82] A 2012 study showed numbers had improved in the northeastern United States; however, a 2008 study showed lynx populations were not doing well in Washington because of habitat fragmentation.[1][83] A 2017 study reported increasing numbers in many areas in the United States.[84] In January 2018, the USFWS declared that the Canada lynx no longer needed special protections in the United States following measures to preserve their populations, and their "Threatened" status may be revoked in the future.[85]
Various techniques have been employed to study Canada lynx populations; the data collected can provide useful information on the ecology and distribution of the species and pave the way for effective conservation measures. In scent stations, the lynx is typically lured into camera-monitored areas by skunk scent (sometimes catnip) and a "flasher" such as a bird wing on a string.[86] This technique, though systematic, might be too expensive to carry out in large areas. Other methods include radio telemetry and snow tracking. Snow tracking might be a challenge in areas lacking roads, and sometimes bobcat tracks can be mistaken for those of the Canada lynx.[87][88] Hair-snaring involves collecting hairs shed by the lynx, especially when they rub against objects (such as the snow); a study showed a mixture of beaver castoreum and catnip oil can strongly induce rubbing behaviour in lynxes. This method is generally inexpensive, and chances of misidentification are low as physical evidence like hairs can be genetically analysed.[88]
Between 1989 and 1992, a reintroduction attempt into New York State was made when 80 lynx were caught in from northwestern Canada and released into the Adirondacks by the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Some of the released lynx dispersed into the surrounding states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick. After the attempt, Canada lynx were officially considered extirpated in New York State, but are still fully protected under state law.[89] Nineteen individuals were killed in traffic accidents, eight were mistakenly shot by bobcat hunters, and the remaining died from unknown causes or predation.[90]
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), or Canadian lynx, is a medium-sized North American lynx that ranges across Alaska, Canada, and northern areas of the contiguous United States. It is characterized by its long, dense fur, triangular ears with black tufts at the tips, and broad, snowshoe-like paws. Its hindlimbs are longer than the forelimbs, so its back slopes downward to the front. The Canada lynx stands 48–56 cm (19–22 in) tall at the shoulder and weighs between 5 and 17 kg (11 and 37 lb). The lynx is a good swimmer and an agile climber. The Canada lynx was first described by Robert Kerr in 1792. Three subspecies have been proposed, but their validity is doubted; it is mostly considered a monotypic species.
A specialist predator, the Canada lynx depends heavily on the snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) for food. This leads to a prey-predator cycle, as Canada lynxes respond to the cyclic rises and falls in snowshoe hare populations over the years in Alaska and central Canada. The Canada lynx population increases with an increasing hare population; if the hare population decreases in a given area, it moves to areas with more hares and has fewer offspring. The Canada lynx hunts mainly around twilight, or at night, when snowshoe hares tend to be active. The lynx waits for the hare on specific trails or in "ambush beds", then pounces on it and kills it by a bite on its head, throat or the nape of its neck. Individuals, particularly of the same sex, tend to avoid each other, forming "intrasexual" territories. The mating season is roughly a month long (from March to early April). After a gestation of two to three months, a litter of one to eight kittens is born. Offspring are weaned at 12 weeks.
This lynx occurs predominantly in dense boreal forests, and its range strongly coincides with that of the snowshoe hare. Given its abundance throughout the range and lack of severe threats, the Canada lynx has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. This lynx is regularly trapped for the international fur trade in most of Alaska and Canada but is protected in the southern half of its range due to threats such as habitat loss.
