The original classification of this species was Zapus insignis (Miller) in 1891. Differences found in the dental morphology, ear ossicles, and the bacula later led to the creation of the new genera of Napaeozapus and Euzapus. Currently, N. insignis is in the family Dipodidae with jerboas, jumping mice, and birch mice. However, some systematists place woodland jumping mice in their own family, Zapodidae. Dipodidae is divided into seven subfamilies; jumping mice are in the subfamily Zapodinae.
Not much is known about the communication in woodland jumping mice. In captivity, individuals are very tolerant of each other and show few signs of aggression. Individuals are normally silent; however young mice are constantly squeaking and making suckling sounds shortly after being born. Adults utter a soft clucking sound while sleeping or just before hibernation.
Although not specifically reported for this species, there is undoubtedly tactile communication between mates, as well as between mother and offspring. It is also likely that, as in other small rodents, chemical signals pass between individuals helping to identify individuals, sexes, and the reproductive condition of any particular mouse.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Woodland jumping mice have no special status on the IUCN Red List, US Federal List, or CITES.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
There are no known adverse affects of woodland jumping mice on humans.
Little is known about how woodland jumping mice benefit humans. The disperal of mycorrhizal fungi by these animals benefits many species of trees, some of which may be economically important.
Woodland jumping mice use fungi as a food source and therefore are responsible for the dispersal of mycorrhizal fungi (particularly Endogone). Mycorrhizal fungi provide trees with essential nutrients through their roots and break down detritus; both are essential roles in an ecosystem. Napaeozapus insignis is closely associated with other small mammals such as Peromyscus leucopus (white-footed mice). Also, N. insignis populations are complementary to populations of Myodes gapperi (southern red-backed voles). When one species exists, usually the other is not in that area. This may be due to aggression and not competition for resources.
External parasites of N. insignis are fleas (Epitedia sp. and Ctenophthalmus sp.), many species of mites, chiggers, ticks, fleas, and botflies (Cuterebra sp.). A tiny mite, Demacarus newyorkensis, is the most common external parasite of N. insignis, these mites can number from 1 to several 100 per mouse. Red mites (Trombicula harperi) are also found on woodland jumping mice. Internal parasites of N. insignis are protozoans (Hexamita sp.), cestodes or tapeworms (Hymenolepis bennetti), and nematodes or roundworms (Citellinoides zapodis).
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
Species Used as Host:
Mutualist Species:
Woodland jumping mice are omnivorous generalists. Primary food sources are fruits, seeds, fungi, and insects. Napaeozapus insignis is dependent on the fungus Endogone for food. Endogone was the most abundant food found in the stomachs of specimens from North Carolina, Tennessee, New York, and New Hampshire. Linzey (1973) found that Endogone was in the stomachs of 78% of the mice examined, adding up to 40% of the total food volume. This large percentage of consumed Endogone is not found in any other small mammal. Other plant materials found in the stomach of N. insignis were raspberries, may apples, blueberries, ferns, leaves, and nuts. Connor (1966) found that insects made up 22% of the stomach contents he examined. The insect species found were larval Lepidoptera, adult Coleoptera, and larval Diptera. Linzey (1973) found that Lepidoptera larvae made up over half of the animal foods consumed by his study animals. They do not cache food.
Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms
Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; bryophytes
Other Foods: fungus
Primary Diet: omnivore
Woodland jumping mice, Napaeozapus insignis, are found throughout northeastern North America, from central Manitoba to northern Quebec and south into the lower Appalachian Mountains (northern Georgia). In Michigan, N. insignis occurs in the Upper Peninsula and in the northern three tiers of counties in the Lower Peninsula.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
Boreal habitats contain higher densities of N. insignis than non-boreal habitats. Furthermore, woodland jumping mice prefer forested areas with dense woody undergrowth. Throughout their range, woodland jumping mice are found in spruce-fir and hemlock-hardwoods. They are also found in forest edge habitats that are near water or have sufficient cover (shrubs, ferns, grasses, rocks). Woodland jumping mice occur at sea level in the St. Lawrence region and at elevations of up to 2013 m in the Appalachian highlands. Due a lack of appropriate habitat, in many areas populations of woodland jumping mice are restricted to mountain tops, relict forest patches, and cool, moist coves.
Napaeozapus insignis is found in a wide variety of habitats in Michigan. These habitats include old growth dry and wet hardwoods, second growth hardwoods, mixed conifer swamp, tamarack and black spruce bog, second-growth fir and spruce, and in grassy areas with second-growth ash cover.
Range elevation: 0 to 2013 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains
Wetlands: swamp ; bog
Other Habitat Features: riparian
Zapodids have relatively long life-spans. Brown (1970) estimated that Zapus princeps lives at least 4 years in the wild and Walter (1964) found that Sicista betulina can live 3.3 years in nature. Even though woodland jumping mice have a high turnover rate in the fall, they live longer in the wild than most other North American small mammals, up to 4 years of age. Their average lifespan is 3 years. This long lifespan is at least partly due to the ability of jumping mice to hibernate. Age is estimated by the attrition of molars and since N. insignis only uses its teeth for half of the year, determining age can be difficult.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 4 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 3 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 4.0 years.
Napaeozapus insignis is a medium sized rodent that weighs between 17 and 26 g in the spring and early summer, and as much as 35 g during pregnancy or just before hibernation. Females are slightly larger than males. Total body length, from nose to end of tail vertebrae, ranges from 205 to 256 mm. They have a tricolored fur pattern with white underparts, yellowish orange sides lightly streaked with black guard hairs, and a dark dorsal stripe from nose to tail. The tops of their feet are white. Most noticeably, they have a long bicolored tail that is sparsely haired, thin, tapered, scaly, and white-tipped. Tail length ranges from 115 to 160 mm (approximately 60 % of the total body length). The number and length of tail vertebrae is increased to make this length possible. They have four pairs of mammae (1 pectoral, 2 abdominal, 1 inguinal). Adaptations of N. insignis for a saltatorial lifestyle are long hind legs with elongated ankle bones and long toe bones.
In the field, the only other rodent N. insignis could be confused with is Zapus hudsonius (meadow jumping mouse). Woodland jumping mice are rarely found in open areas, have a white-tipped tail, are larger, and are more brightly tricolored than are meadow jumping mice.
The skull of N. insignis is small, high-crowned, and similar to the skull of Z. hudsonius. Napaeozapus insignis has large, oval infraorbital foramina, small auditory bullae, a short and broad palate, and narrow zygomatic arches. They have three molariform teeth (Z. hudsonius has four) and grooved incisors that are orange or yellow. Their molars are rooted and semi-hypsodont and they do not have premolars. Woodland jumping mice have 16 total teeth and a dental formula of 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3.
Northern populations average 12% larger in body size than southern populations. Northern and eastern populations tend to be more yellowish and southern populations are reddish orange. Northwestern populations have pale colored sides and dark backs. These distinctions in appearance and geographic differences helped Whitaker (1972) to identify five subspecies of woodland jumping mice. Napaeozapus insignis insignis is found in New Brunswick, Canada, N. i. abietorum in Ontario, and N. i. saquenayensis in Quebec. Napaeozapus insignis roanensis inhabits the Roan Mountains of North Carolina, and N. i. frutectanus is found in eastern Wisconsin and in Michigan.
Woodland jumping mice have a basal metabolic rate of 1.8 ml O2/g hr. Brower and Cade (1966) found that N. insignis has precise thermoregulation when active, deep seasonal hibernation, a high lower critical temperature, and a poor ability to tolerate high ambient temperatures. These are likely adaptations to living in the cold.
Range mass: 17 to 35 g.
Range length: 205 to 256 mm.
Average basal metabolic rate: 1.8 cm3.O2/g/hr.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Average basal metabolic rate: 0.22 W.
The tricolored pattern of the pelage of N. insignis provides camouflage against dead vegetation. Napaeozapus insignis escapes from predators with a quick jump followed by a period of remaining motionless. Their coloration, escape behavior, and relative lack of odor are probably predator avoidance mechanisms. Woodland jumping mice are mostly safe from predators during hibernation. Timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus), broad-banded copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix), screech owls (Otus asio), bobcats (Lynx rufus), minks (Neovison vison), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and house cats (Felis silvestris) are all known predators of woodland jumping mice.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Males come out of hibernation approximately 2 weeks before females and mating occurs immediately after both sexes emerge and again in mid to late summer (in the case of a second litter). Very few data exist about the mating system of N. insignis. In captivity, breeding females injure the ears and tails of males when pursued. However, captive woodland jumping mice are generally passive with each other (even while breeding).
Female woodland jumping mice are reproductively receptive when they emerge from hibernation in early- to mid-May. Litters are possible from May through September, peaking in June and August. The earliest record of pregnancy is May 8, however most females do not reproduce until June. There are often 2 litters in one season, although this is more common in the southern part of the range. There are usually fewer young in second litters than in first litters. Many females have their second litters in August. The latest recorded pregnancy is September 1. Wrigley (1972) found that 70% of the individuals in a population of N. insignis collected in the fall were young from that year (based on the examination of 2,529 museum specimens collected throughout their range). Woodland jumping mice that do not reproduce tend to be mice that were born in second litters the previous year. Both females and males are reproductively mature when they emerge from hibernation the year after they are born.
Compared to most other rodents, zapodids have a longer period of development. This could be due to extra time needed for growth and coordination of specialized limbs for jumping. Litters contain 1 to 7 young (average is 4.5) and the gestation period is from 23 to 29 days. Young are blind, naked, unpigmented, and weigh about 1 g at birth. By day 10, young woodland jumping mice have visible pigment spots beneath the skin all over the body. Their bodies are covered with fine hair by day 14. Young jumping mice are fully furred by 24 days and their eyes open by 26 days. By day 34, the young are weaned and they have the appearance of adults, except they are smaller and their sides are yellowish brown (adults have orange-brown sides). A molt to the adult pelage occurs between 63 and 80 days. Most adults go through their yearly molt in August.
Breeding interval: Woodland jumping mice breed once or twice in one season (May through September).
Breeding season: Mating occurs immediately after woodland jumping mice emerge from hibernation in early May. Mating may also occur in mid-summer (second litter).
Range number of offspring: 1 to 7.
Average number of offspring: 4.5.
Range gestation period: 23 to 29 days.
Average weaning age: 34 days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 8 (low) months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 11 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 8 to 11 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 0.9 g.
Average number of offspring: 4.
Little is known about the parental care of woodland jumping mice because they are extremely difficult to observe in the wild, and most captive females kill their young shortly after they are born. Females care for the young, have smaller home ranges than males, have been observed covering the nest entrance during the day, and have been found in nests with their young. Because of their long developmental period, these mice provide a longer period of parental care than do many other small northern mice. The role of males in parental care is unknown.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
The woodland jumping mouse (Napaeozapus insignis) is a species of jumping mouse found in North America. It can jump up to 3 m (9.8 ft) using its extremely strong feet and long tail.
Representatives of the family Dipodidae are found in the northern regions of the Old and New Worlds, and are characterized by very large infraorbital foramen, and, in one of the two North American genera, Zapus, by four upper cheek teeth. Incisors are compressed and deeply grooved. These animals are common and noted for very long tails and long hind legs adapted for leaping. They live in forests, meadows, and swamps and are profound hibernators.[2]
The woodland jumping mouse was originally classified as Zapus insignis in 1891, but differences detected in dental morphology, ear ossicles, and the baculum resulted in the creation of two new genera, Napaeozapus and Euzapus.[3] N. insignis was in the family Dipodidae and some place it in the subfamily Zapodinae.[2][3]
Five subspecies of woodland jumping mice were identified by Whitaker in 1972:[3]
The woodland jumping mouse occurs throughout northeastern North America.[4]
Populations are most dense in cool, moist boreal woodlands of spruce-fir and hemlock-hardwoods where streams flow from woods to meadows with bankside touch-me-nots (Impatiens) and in situations where meadow and forest intermix and water and thick ground cover are available.[4]
The woodland jumping mouse is a medium-sized rodent. The species is darker in the south.[3][4] The mouse has adaptations to live in cold climate.[3]
The mouse has small, high-crowned skull. Three molariform teeth are present, premolars are absent, and grooved incisors are orange or yellow. Its molars are both rooted and have hypsodont. The tail is dark brown above and creamy white below with a white tip, and is sparsely haired, thin, tapered, and scaly. It is approximately 60% of total body length. Tail length is made possible by long vertebrae.[3] Long bones make it possible for the mouse to leap and jump.[3]
Captive mice are tolerant of others and display little aggression. They are normally silent, but the young squeak and make suckling sounds shortly after birth, and adults make soft clucking sounds while sleeping and just before hibernation. Tactile communication probably exists between mates and between mothers and their young. Like other small rodents, odors and chemical signals are probably emitted or exchanged that identify individuals, that distinguish the sexes, and that indicate the receptiveness of an individual to sexual congress.[3]
Diet varies with geographic location and season.[6] One hundred three mice taken in central New York had stomach contents containing the fungi of the genus Endogone and related genera. Endogone is so small the mice presumably locate it by olfaction. Fungi represent about a third of the New York diet, seeds 25%, lepidopterous larvae and various fruits about 10%, and beetles about 7.5%. Touch-me-not seeds are found in the diet.[7] Food is not consumed during hibernation and mice having insufficient fat reserves do not survive.[1]
Summertime is the peak activity period of the woodland jumping mouse. During this time, the mating season begins; mice that re-emerged from hibernation eat much food to restore body weight and fat. Some mice start to hibernate as early as September, but most wait until late November. The mice gather food and fat for more than two weeks before they plan to hibernate. During hibernation, body temperatures usually drop from 37 to 2 °C (99 to 36 °F). Even during their hibernation, they wake up about every two weeks to urinate or eat from their food stashes. Only about 1/3 of all mice that enter hibernation survive; the rest either die from hypothermia or are eaten by predators. Some mice do not enter hibernation, but move to nearby peoples' houses to live inside the walls, in old furniture, or cabinets. They eat scraps or foods that were left over. The mice that do hibernate and survive usually re-emerge around April.
The woodland jumping mouse will live in either nests or burrows. The nests are usually found in hollow logs, under roots of trees or under rocks. The burrows can be found almost anywhere, although they are usually by a plant that can cover the entrance. Their nests are made from soft grasses, reeds and leaves. The burrows usually have multiple chambers, each one dug for a different reason. There is usually a room filled with nesting materials such as grass, reeds and leaves, which is used for sleeping or hibernation. Second, most mice have a room where they store and horde food for hibernation. And finally, there is, in most cases and room with some nesting material for mating, and where the juveniles will be nursed.
Little is known about territory size and territorial behavior because observation is difficult in the wild. Males are thought to have home ranges between 0.4–3.6 ha (0.99–8.90 acres) and females between 0.4–2.6 ha (0.99–6.42 acres) with ranges of the sexes overlapping. High numbers of mice are attracted to sudden and temporary food supplies (such as ripened berries) but what appears to be a colony established in the vicinity of the food may only be a temporary camp while the supply lasts. In favorable habitat, the average population density is about 7.5 per ha, though population density estimates range though from 0.64 to 59 per ha.[3]
The mating season occurs in May, with gestation about 29 days to three to six pink-skinned and hairless young. The eyes open about the 26th day, weaning occurs about the 30th day, and by the 34th the young look like adults.
The mating season for the woodland jumping mouse starts at the beginning of summer (May) and ends at the end of summer (August). Females usually have 2 or more litters a year, each containing 1–12 juveniles. The female nurses the young while the male gets food to feed the young. The young first leave the nest after 16 days, leaving permanently after 34 days or less. About 90% of young are eaten, every 1 out of 10 lives.
Parental care is little understood because observation in the wild is difficult and females in captivity normally commit infanticide shortly after giving birth. Parental care devolves upon the female rather than the male whose role in care of the young is unknown. Mothers and their young share the nest and mothers have been observed covering its entrance during the day. The young have a longer developmental period than most small rodents, and parental care consequently covers a longer period in comparison with other small rodents.[3]
Eastern screech owls, timber rattlesnakes, bobcats, broad-banded copperheads, American mink, weasels, and striped skunks are known predators.[7]
The mouse probably has a lifespan of two years but some may live for three or four years.[7]
The woodland jumping mouse has no conservational status on the IUCN Red List, United States Federal List, or CITES.[3] No major threats exist at present (2010) but land development reduces suitable habitat for species hibernation, and insufficient layers of insulating snowfall may result in high death rates during the winter. Southern populations are already confined to higher elevations in their range and are threatened by rising temperatures. More research is needed to evaluate and assess current distribution, species abundance, and potential effects of threats. No conservation measures have been undertaken at present to address specific needs of populations in state and national parks. The IUCN has listed the species as Least Concern, because the mouse is common and widespread, populations are considered stable, and no major threats exist at present.[1]
The woodland jumping mouse (Napaeozapus insignis) is a species of jumping mouse found in North America. It can jump up to 3 m (9.8 ft) using its extremely strong feet and long tail.
