Humans are primary predators of P. livingstonii, both for food and as a secondary result of forest destruction. Other predators have not been documented, but large arboreal snakes and raptors make take young and adults.
Known Predators:
Comoro black flying foxes have black pelage with golden or tawny tinges on the rump, sides of the belly, and at times on each shoulder. They have unique, semicircular ears. Both of these features distinguish them from other pteropodids. They weigh from 500 to 800 grams, have a wingspan up to 1.5 meters, and are about 30 cm in body length.
Range mass: 500 to 800 g.
Average length: 30 cm.
Average wingspan: 1.5 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
There is very little information known about the longevity of Comoro black flying foxes in either captivity or in the wild. Other Pteropus species are known to live up to 30 years in captivity, and around 10 years or more in the wild.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 15 years.
Comoro black flying foxes prefer dense, upland mountain forests which have steep sided valleys.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest
Pteropus livingstonii (Comoro black flying fox) is found on only two islands in the Comoro island chain, just off the coast of Africa. These islands are Nzwani, also called Anjouan, and Mwali, also called Moheli.
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: island endemic
In general, Pteropus species use olfaction to find fruiting trees and determine if fruit is ripe enough to eat. They have good vision and often use vocalizations to communicate. Like most mammal, chemoreception is important in communicating sexual receptiveness.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Comoro black flying foxes are one of the most critically endangered bat species, with an estimated population size of 400 individuals. Rapid destruction of the forest habitats they rely on indicates these flying foxes may become extinct within 10 years.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered
There are no adverse effects of Comoro black flying foxes on humans.
Comoro black flying foxes are sometimes food for humans. They are also important members of their native ecosystems, helping to disperse fruiting tree species and sometimes pollinate plants.
Positive Impacts: food ; pollinates crops
Members of the genus Pteropus are important in the dispersal of seeds in the forests they inhabit. They are often seen as keystone species because they maintain forest regeneration patterns.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates
Comoro black flying foxes are frugivorous. In the dry season they tend to be much more selective on what and where they feed, preferring fig trees. A very important tree for P. livingstonii and P. seychellensis is the giant-leaved fig tree (Ficus lutea). This tree is chosen over many other fig trees. In the rainy season Comoro black flying foxes feed on a larger variety of fruits because more are available.
Plant Foods: fruit; flowers
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )
Comoro black flying foxes are polygynous. Females will mate with more than one male throughout their lifetime and males attempt to mate with as many females as they can. Males do not stay around after mating, leaving the females to raise and care for the young.
Mating System: polygynous
The breeding season for P. livingstonii is from January through June. Gestation lasts 4 to 6 months, after which a single young is born between July and October. Young are weaned within 4 to 6 months of being born.
Breeding interval: Comoro black flying foxes breed once each year.
Breeding season: Comoro black flying foxes breed from January through June.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Range gestation period: 4 to 6 months.
Range weaning age: 4 to 6 months.
Average time to independence: 1 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
There was no information specifically on parental investment in P. livingstonii. In general, members of the genus Pteropus form maternity colonies where females and their young gather. Females forage at night and return to their young in the maternity roost to nurse them.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
Livingstone's fruit bat (Pteropus livingstonii), also called the Comoro flying fox, is a megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is an Old World fruit bat found only in the Anjouan and Mohéli islands in the Union of the Comoros in the western Indian Ocean.
It is the largest and rarest bat of all Comorian species. Its preferred habitat is montane forest above 200 metres (660 ft) on Mohéli and above 500 metres (1,600 ft) on Anjouan, the destruction of which is a major threat to the bat population. As of 2003, the total population was estimated at 1,200 individuals. Other threats to the bats' survival include storms, hunting, and their struggles to readapt to new habitats.[2]
The black-bearded flying fox is believed to be one of the closest relatives of Livingstone's fruit bats, but experts differ as to whether or not these species belong to the same species group.[3][4] No subspecies have been recognized.[5]
Livingstone's fruit bats are mostly black in colour, with a scattering of golden or tawny hairs over the rump, belly, and flanks.[6] The amount of golden hair varies between individuals, with some also having a narrow band of golden fur down the back, or golden patches on the shoulders, and others being pure black without any paler hair at all. The wings are black and hairless, as are the legs, nose, and large, rounded ears.[5]
Distinguishing characteristics include their rounded ears, the colour of their fur, and their large, orange or red eyes, reflecting this bat’s well-developed vision.[7] Livingstone's fruit bats weigh 500 to 800 g (18 to 28 oz).[8] They have a body length of about 30 cm (12 in) and a wingspan up to 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in).[5] They do not exhibit sexual dimorphism.[9]
The bats have a relatively slow, flapping flight, and often circle in an attempt to gain height, but are also, unlike nocturnal bats, capable of soaring on air thermals. Their wings have an aspect ratio of 6.52, and a wing loading of 25.8 N/m2, and have been estimated to have a turning circle of 11.3 m (37 ft).[10]
Livingstone's fruit bat is found only on the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli, within the Comoros archipelago between Africa and northern Madagascar.[9] It inhabits montane forest above 200 m on Moheli and above 500 m on Anjouan. All current Livingstone’s fruit bat roosts are restricted to a narrow midaltitudinal range and are strongly associated with the presence of native and endemic trees, with the biggest roosts located in dense-canopy, old-growth forest.[11] Livingstone’s flying fox appears to show a preference for roosting in certain tree species, in particular the endemic Nuxia pseudodentata and native Gambeya spp.[11] and at forested sites that are typically found on steep slopes, next to valleys where permanent watercourses are present, and facing in a southeast direction and in depressions to provide protection from wind and the midday sun.[12] Only 15 roost-sites are currently occupied in Anjouan and six at Moheli.[11]
In captivity, a colony can have a dominant male with up to eight breeding females.[8]
Livingstone’s flying foxes are active both day and night, and are predominantly nocturnal, the highest activity was observed between 10 pm and 2 am.[11] They typically fly to a feeding site a few hours before dusk, taking advantage of hot, daytime thermals, and hang from the trees before beginning to feed after nightfall.
They forage for food primarily in the upper canopy of the forest, whereas the two other fruit bats native to the Comoros, the Seychelles fruit bat and the Comoro rousette, forage in the middle and lower canopy, respectively.[5]
The diet of Livingstone's fruit bats consists of fruit, pollen, nectar, seeds, and leaves.[13] They have also been observed to hunt and eat moths in captivity.[14]
They drive off intruders on their feeding territory with chattering sounds, clapping their wings, and chasing, sometimes culminating in clawing and biting. When alarmed, they make squeaking sounds or a deep series of "clucks".[5]
After mating, the pregnant females relocate to maternity roost sites to give birth and raise their young until they reach maturity.[9][13] They give birth to a single pup, typically in early September.[15] The young pups are born fully furred and with their eyes open; their big feet are used to grip onto their mothers directly after birth.[9] They begin to forage at 2.5 to 5.0 months of age, and males begin to establish territories at 6 months.[5]
P. livingstonii is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of fauna and flora)[16] In 1995, the IUCN developed an action plan for the species which included research, community education programs, and training of bat monitoring. A nongovernmental organization called Action Comoros initiated this action plan.[9] Action Comoros developed an environmental education program, the main goals of which were to raise awareness, develop resources, train educators, promote knowledge, foster pride, and involve locals. These plans are important in the short-term benefits of conservation and improve a strong foundation of conservation programs for the long term.[17]
A captive-breeding program was initiated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust in 1992. Having a captive-breeding program could save P. livingstonii from going completely extinct.[9] Many efforts are being made to aid in the survival of P. livingstonii, but as the populations of the natives increase on these Comoros islands, deforestation will continue to rise, as well. As stated by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, “If the bats’ natural habitat is not protected, this amazing species could be extinct within 10 years.”[9] The breeding program now includes other facilities, with the Bristol Zoo the site of 30 births from 1999–2013.[18] Of those 30 pups, 23 survived.[18] The year 2016 was a productive year for the Durrell colony, with six pups born by mid-June.[19] The Bristol Zoo and the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust exchange male bats regularly to maintain genetic diversity and avoid inbreeding depression.[18] Nonbreeding male bats have been sent to the Chester Zoo and the Zürich Zoologischer Garten.[18] Due to its imperiled status, it is identified by the Alliance for Zero Extinction as a species in danger of imminent extinction.[20]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Livingstone's fruit bat (Pteropus livingstonii), also called the Comoro flying fox, is a megabat in the genus Pteropus. It is an Old World fruit bat found only in the Anjouan and Mohéli islands in the Union of the Comoros in the western Indian Ocean.
It is the largest and rarest bat of all Comorian species. Its preferred habitat is montane forest above 200 metres (660 ft) on Mohéli and above 500 metres (1,600 ft) on Anjouan, the destruction of which is a major threat to the bat population. As of 2003, the total population was estimated at 1,200 individuals. Other threats to the bats' survival include storms, hunting, and their struggles to readapt to new habitats.
The black-bearded flying fox is believed to be one of the closest relatives of Livingstone's fruit bats, but experts differ as to whether or not these species belong to the same species group. No subspecies have been recognized.
