Fossas (Cryptoprocta ferox) are main predators of Lepilemur edwardsi (Mittermeier et al. 2006). While being pursued by a fossa, a Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur was observed “jumping rapidly from tree to tree into the vicinity of its sleeping site emitting loud bark call sequences” (Scheumann et al., 2007: 110). The variety of calls seemed to change and became more insistent in frequency and volume when the fossa came close to capturing L. edwardsi. Shrieking out of fear has been shown to draw other sportive lemurs in the area to gather and produce alarm calls as well (Scheumann et al., 2007).
Birds of prey, reptiles, such as boas, and other carnivores (apart from fossas) prey on lemurs (Scheumann et al., 2007; Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003).
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
A member of the genus Lepilemur and the family Lepilemuridae, Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs are, like other species of sportive lemurs, considered medium-sized vertical clingers and leapers (Mittermeier et al. 2006; Thalmann 2002). A saltatory species, L. edwardsi is one of the larger members of its genus and ranges from 54 to 58 cm in total length (including tail length) and 27 to 29 cm in head-body length; body weight ranges from approximately 700 to 1000 g (Mittermeier et al. 2006; Warren & Crompton 1997a). Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs have white-tipped tails and gray-brown fur covering their bodies and faces. The species has noticeably sizable ears and sometimes has a dark stripe running down the middle of its back, with chestnut-brown fur on the upper thighs, shoulders and forelimbs. The front of its coat is gray with patches of cream colored fur (Mittermeier et al. 2006). Males and females are “sexually monomorphic” and vary minimally in body size, except during pregnancy when the female is considerably larger (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006; Randrianambinina et al., 2007).
Range mass: 700 to 1000 g.
Range length: 54 to 58 cm.
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Information on the lifespan and longevity of Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs is lacking (Johnson, 2008). There are no known instances of successful breeding in captivity (Randrianambinina et al., 2007).
Lepilemur edwardsi occupies lowland dry deciduous forests in western Madagascar (Mittermeier et al., 2006). Though its available habitat is highly fragmented and decreasing in quantity and quality, Lepilemur edwardsi is frequently encountered where found (Andrainarivo et al., 2008). It has an estimated density of 60 individuals/square kilometer within Ankarafantsika National Park (Mittermeier et al., 2006). Individuals will use holes in dead or living trees as sleeping sites during the day (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006).
Range elevation: 450 (high) m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest
This species may be mistaken for the sympatric species of lemur, Avahi occidentalis, which has a similar stature (Mittermeier et al. 2006; Thalmann 2001). Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs can be differentiated by their “darker color, pointed face and more prominent ears” (Mittermeier et al., 2006: 200).
The number of species recognized as members of the genus Lepilemur and the classification of this taxon has been debated. According to Louis, Jr. et al. (2006), eleven formerly unrecognized sportive lemurs should be classified in the same genus and family with L. edwardsi, which was most closely related to Lepilemur grewcocki (Lepilemur grewcockorum) in their analysis. A study by Andriaholinirina et al. (2006), on the other hand, recognized three new species, with L. edwardsi most closely related to Lepilemur microdon. There is also disagreement in the literature as to whether Lepilemur edwardsi, and sportive lemurs in general, should be classified as members of the family Lepilemuridae or as part of the family Lepilemuridae, which includes the extinct genus of giant lemur Megaladapis (Mittermeier et al., 2006).
This species is also known as: Milne-Edwards’ weasel lemur, Lépilemur de Milne-Edwards (French), Lemur Comadreja De Edwards (Spanish), Edwards Wieselmaki (German), and Repahaka/Boeng/Boengy/Kitronto Kitanta (Malagasy) (Mittermeier et al., 2006; Andrainarivo et al., 2008).
Lepilemur edwardsi lacks "specialized glands” for marking territory and therefore does not use scent or urine to establish territories. Instead, these lemurs use loud calls to communicate territoriality. Calls occur both in the mornings and evenings and are sex-specific. Nine types of calls have been identified with 3 used exclusively by females, 5 used exclusively by males, and 1 used by both sexes. Most calls are related to sleeping or feeding sites, and they are hypothesized to be related to mate defense and attraction as well as resource defense. It is thought that loud vocalizations also serve in "regulating spacing and cohesion” (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006: 598).
Members of pairs "duet" with one another; both males and females participate equally in duetting, and this behavior is witnessed more frequently during the period of offspring care and at feeding sites as opposed to sleeping sites. Duetting causes the "synchronization" of different types of behavior, especially movement. Because this vocal synchronization behavior most often occurs following birth of offspring and when the female is lactating, Méndez-Cárdenas and Zimmermann (2009) proposed that duetting serves to lessen the risks of infanticide and to protect a pair's territory, particularly their food resources.
Communication Channels: acoustic
Other Communication Modes: duets
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Habitat destruction due to clearing of forest with fires for agriculture and livestock grazing pasture, as well as the species' role as a food source for humans, pose threats to Lepilemur edwardsi (Andrainarivo et al., 2008; Mittermeier et al., 2006; Randrianambinina et al., 2007). Its small number of offspring each year puts this species at higher risk (Randrianambinina et al., 2007). In addition, the species does not exhibit an innate fear of new and potentially threatening organisms such as humans even in areas with poaching (Randrianambinina et al., 2007). Ankarafantsika National Park is currently the single protected area in which Lepilemur edwardsi is found, but they are also present in a 50,300 hectare proposed protected area on the Bongolava Massif (Mittermeier et al. 2006).
US Federal List: endangered
CITES: appendix i
There are no known adverse effects of Lepilemur edwardsi on humans.
Humans will occasionally consume Lepilemur edwardsi (Mittermeier et al., 2006).
Positive Impacts: food
In Ankarafantsika, Lepilemur edwardsi is sympatric with Avahi occidentalis, Propithecus verreauxi coquereli, Eulemur fulvus, Eulemur macaco, Microcebus murinus, and Cheirogaleus medius, and may compete with Propithecus verreauxi coquereli, Eulemur fulvus, and Eulemur macaco (Warren & Crompton, 1997b). Sportive lemurs serve as prey for numerous taxa (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003).
Individuals of both sexes forage solitarily at night, but a sleeping pair will search for food within the same range (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006; Thalmann, 2001). This species is primarily folivorous, however, they will consume plump seeds, flowers, and fruits (Mittermeier et al., 2006). They are relatively undiscriminating and will select from common species of trees. Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs have a larger food resource base when compared to the sympatric Avahi occidentalis (Thalmann, 2002). Though there is little overlap between these two species with regards to food resources, competition with Avahi occidentalis may explain the tendency of Lepilemur edwardsi to eat leaves of poorer nutritive value in Ankarafantsika compared to other habitats in which it occurs (Thalmann, 2006; Mittermeier et al. 2006).
Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )
Lepilemur edwardsi is limited to the western tropical dry deciduous forests of Madagascar and has a range of less than 20,000 square kilometers (Mittermeier et al., 2006; Andrainarivo et al., 2008). It is more specifically found from “north of the Betsiboka River to the Bay of Loza and the Maevarano River, and including the Bongolava Massif” (Mittermeier et al., 2006: 200).
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Other Geographic Terms: island endemic
Lepilemur edwardsi individuals form dispersed pair-bonds that correlate to territories, which include sleeping sites and feeding sites. Sociality in this species of lemur appears very much related to "sleeping pair-bonds" (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006). Pairs have been observed to restrict themselves to the usage of 1 to 4 sleeping sites either simultaneously or alternatively (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003; Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006). The species has been described as monogamous and more generally as pair-living (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003; Thalmann, 2006). Though L. edwardsi is considered spatially monogamous, this does not preclude the potential for extra pair breeding (Méndez-Cárdenas & Zimmermann, 2009).
Mating System: monogamous
Lepilemur edwardsi exhibits seasonal reproduction with a main mating season occurring for about two months of the year between May and June, correlating with the beginning of this region's dry season in May. Females go into estrus for three months of the year, May through July, and males exhibit apparent seasonal variation in the size of their testes (Randrianambinina et al., 2007). Neighboring females in different home ranges may synchronize estrus periods (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2006). Male and female body weight remains similar during the mating season, although females have a noticeably higher body mass in August and November, most likely due to pregnancy. The observed litter size for Lepilemur edwardsi is limited to one young. Duration of gestation is 4 to 5 months, with offspring typically born in October or November (Randrianambinina et al., 2007). Lactation typically begins at the same time as the rainy season of the region, which begins in November (Randrianambinina et al., 2007; Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003).
Breeding interval: Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs breed once yearly.
Breeding season: The breeding season occurs from May to June.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average gestation period: 4-5 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 (low) years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 (low) years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
There is little to no male parental investment in Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2000). For the first few days after birth, offspring are left alone in sleeping trees (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003). Mothers later carry infants in their mouths during foraging activities (Randrianambinina et al., 2007). They also park their infants while foraging (Thalmann, 2003).
There has been one observed incidence of infanticide in this species in Ankarafantsika National Park. A mother was out foraging with her two infants and parked the younger one on a branch nearby. A strange, unknown male came and repeatedly attacked the younger infant. This occurrence of infanticide, however, was most likely a consequence of “incidental aggression” as opposed to an action out of competition for resources because the male did not attack the other infant foraging nearby. This event suggests that association with males may benefit females due to increased survival of offspring (Rasoloharijaona et al., 2000; Rasoloharijaona et al., 2003).
Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur (Lepilemur edwardsi), or Milne-Edwards' weasel lemur, is a species of lemur in the family Lepilemuridae. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.[1]
An enormous problem for these animals is the limited resource of safe sleeping sites. These are essential for their survival since they provide shelter from predators and weather conditions.[4]
The Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs occupy the northern-eastern region of Madagascar, and is commonly known to live in the National Park of Akanrafantsika, but can be found in the Mariarano Classified Forest.[5] They are arboreal and terrestrial, mainly prioritizing broadleaves trees in equatorial climate.[5] They are also establishing their habitat over one hectare of forest.[5] The habitat undergoes important changes in vegetation, temperature, and climate between the rainy and dry seasons.[6]
Deforestation in Madagascar rises to nearly 1% per year on the entire territory.[7] Conservation efforts of Madagascar have been under work since the 1980s, with aid from countries such as the US and France, aiding with funds and management. This aid includes developing strategies for conservation as well as the development of sustainable agriculture to help the population. There is currently a shift in forest density in Madagascar from the coast to the inland parts of the island, meaning species that live within the coastal area, including the Milne-Edward sportive lemurs that occupy the north-west part of the island, will be affected by this shift.[8]
The Milne-Edward's sportive lemurs are seasonal breeders, where males and females are ready to mate during the months of May to July, and stop from August to December.[9] Studies show that their main breeding season only last two months per year on average.[9] As mammals, females hold a gestation period of about four to five months, and typically give birth around October. Giving birth during the rainy time of the year is optimal for the female Milne-Edward's sportive lemur, because it will allow them to produce lactation during the seasonal bounties of their habitats.[9] Annually, females only breed a single offspring, contributing to population decline since they are opposed to anthropogenic degradation.[9][5]
This species of sportive lemur is entirely folivorous.[9] They tend be in competition for food resources with other species from the areas, therefore second-class leaves are often their only available form of sustenance.[5] Observation shows that the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur generally travels in groups of two to five individuals during the night to feed on the same trees as a group, without showing signs of aggressiveness.[10]
Studies have also found that their distribution and group size are intrinsically linked to availability of food resources, hence males and females compete for food together, but they find more benefits in defending the scarce resources as pairs even though feeding two mouths is more difficult than feeding one.[11]
They mainly form dispersed pairs and live in groups, showing signs of polyandrous social organization.[9] Sportive lemurs males tend to have smaller testicular size, as they generally breed and engage in cohesive pairs.[9] However, the male Milne-Edwards' show to have bigger testicular volume size compared to the average measurements of sportive lemurs during the breeding time of the year.[9] Hence, this statistic coincides with the sperm competition theory, since a bigger volume in testes might increase chances of reproduction among a community living under an extra-pair copulation social organization.[9]
Nonetheless, the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs practice duetting, which is uncommon for extra-pair copulation species, meaning that they are actually involved in bounded pairs for taking care of the offspring.[12] Studies also found that bounded pairs share a common sleeping and feeding sites during gestation.[12] This shows that these lemurs must compete for reproduction during the breeding season, but when the females give birth, lemurs actually form pair-partners relationships for the purpose of taking care of the youngster. Males and females engage equally in duetting behaviour; no particular sex difference as of who is starting the calls and who is deciding the order, course, or route of the locomotion, suggesting that they live in an equal society where no gender is dominating the other.[12]
Other than the fact that duetting is commonly used for territorial defense, the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs do not produce any sort of territorial markings than its callings.[11] The males' glands do no secrete a form of liquid for scent marking, and they are not known to urinate on their lands to prevent predation.[11] However, some preliminary researches have observed these lemurs to bite the tree trunks of their sleeping sites; perhaps it is a way for them to recognize their sleeping sites among the community, or it might even be a small means of asserting their territory on the sleeping sites.[13]
In short, the bounded-pairs are joining their forces together to defend the sleeping sites, especially during offspring care, but when it is the breeding season they tend to compete for reproduction as pairs are not formed yet.[13]
Studies show that the Milne-Edwards' male and females engage in duetting activities during the nights, especially for predator avoidance, protection of the territory, and communicational exchanges when pairs are raising an offspring.[12] Duetting in pair-living species is an evolutionary process of a verbal connection made to signal and call the other mate, engaging in duets where one individual will start a call and the other will respond, creating a cooperative vocalization increasing survivability chances through long-distance communication.[14]
Typically, duetting is common among birds and monogamous primates who need to defend a territory collectively.[15] Yet, the Milne-Edward's sportive lemurs practice antiphonal callings and shrills when pairs are raising a youngster, even though they live among a dispersed pair-living social organization.[12] They tend to use duets more often to synchronize their activities during nighttime with their pair-partner, with an emphasis on activities of locomotion.[12]
Researchers believe that they have evolved to use duetting in their social structure for the same intentions of monogamous species, which is for joint territory defense, protection of resources, and offspring care.[12] It is also believed that antiphonal callings increase the bounds between pair-living species, proving the bounding relationships of the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur in an extra-pair copopulation society.[11]
There have been no known studied case of infanticide committed by a nocturnal species other than the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur. Observations show that infanticide may be a common issue with this species, as it happened relatively frequently during the study timeframe.[16] According to studies, males tend to attack babies when they are unsupervised, typically when the female is out foraging.[16] At first, males do not want to kill the offspring; rather they want to attack it enough for it to cry for help, so that the female can come to exposed grounds.[16] Then, males take their shots to the females by approaching them to eventually try to reproduce with them, but observations show that females do not typically accept the invitations.[16]
More research is needed to understand the motives behind infanticide, but an hypothesis would be that killing the offspring of one allows for some sort of sexual competition by ensuring that the offspring comes from a particular gene.[16] Other scientists believe that infanticides might be a form of anxiety relief in resource-scarce environments.[16]
Nonetheless, to cope with infanticide and encourage the health of the offsprings, bounded-pairs can practice duetting to make sure that their offsprings are safe, since duetting is a form of territorial defense and communication.[12]
The Milne-Edward sportive lemur carries a relatively low amount of parasites in relation to other mammals.[17] It also has been observed that there is not a difference in parasites carried between individuals of different body mass and health, indicating that these two factors do not contribute to more or less parasites on the host.[17] Parasites are more commonly found on individuals during the wet season.[17] Although health does not seem to be an important factor for the presence of parasites on the Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur, there is also the possibility that the individuals who carry more parasites die off rapidly, influencing the data.[17] There also seems to be a trend of higher amount of parasites among males over females, which is most likely due to testosterone levels.[18]
The species is currently classified as endangered, due to a constant known decline in population from hunting practices in Madagascar and other human actions that leads to a diminution in its territory size and environmental conditions.[5]
Its population suffers from an estimate decline of more than half of its individuals over less than three decades.[5] Specific information on the current number of individuals is unavalailable, but researchers are finding less and less species over hectares of territory, hence showing concerns on this species population levels.[5] Hunting is a major factor that contributes to population loss, which is intrinsically linked to an issue of shortages in nutrition from the surrounding villages of Akanrafantsika, leading villagers to hunt wild animals as one of the primary food sources.[19] Inequalities in resources sharing obligates Akanrafantsika's population to find means to cope with food insecurity; in fact, half of the children living there are underweight due to malnutrition, which inevitably force the population to hunt wild animals such as lemurs for survival.[19]
The Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur's habitat is currently considered threatened, as its habitat is the target of burning to create pastures for livestock, mining projects or coal.[20] Rainforests in Madagascar are currently subject of debate, as the government has lost control over the rates at which land gets cut down for exploitation, as well as the due rent to the government for used land.[19]
Multiple animal and plant species rely on the forests of Madagascar. Its rich biodiversity mixed with the poverty of the country makes it even more prone to habitat loss, meaning that it is even more imperative to establish a strong conservation plan to protect these rare species.[19] Madasgascar is also home to the lemuriformes infraorder, which comprises about for about a quarter of all primate species.[19]
The conservation of Madagascar's natural resources goes back as far as 1896, where France officially annexed Madagascar as a colony with the goal of protecting its forests from the man-made fires, while exploiting timber.[8] In fact, research shows that Madagascar, before human presence was completely covered in forests. The first national park in Madagascar, the Botanical and Zoological Garden of Tsimbazaza, was created by France in 1925.[8] Soon after, the first ten national parks of Madagascar were established, aiming at controlling logging and deforestation for agriculture.[8]
As Madagascar's economic situation kept declining, the government left its forests as an open access for exploitation in early 1980's.[8] Forests both in and out of the protected areas were being cut down by investors from outside of Madagascar.[8] In the 1984, the USAID helped as a donor to stop deforestation.[8] Policies and laws in Madagascar greatly changed starting from 1985, mostly influenced by the donors.[8] In 1988, the Madagascar's National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) was signed by the government, with the goal of protecting Madagascar's forests.[8] In 2003, Marc Ravalomanana, then president, announced the government would put in motion a plan to triple the area of protected lands of Madagascar.[8] It took twelve years to attain this goal, with donations from several organizations.[8]
As of 2009, the USAID conducted an analysis of the conservation efforts over the past 25 years, putting out results that show these efforts were either not ambitious enough or that the plan was not respected, as the precarious situation of the forests of Madagascar has actually worsened since 1985.[8] There is a clear conflict between conservation and the needs of the population, as the protection of the forest hinders the development of food production and revenue, and poverty is often associated with conservation without help from foundations or the government.[8] As population increases, the interest into exploiting protected land grows since it is the only solution for locals to have an income or food, meaning aid for conservation is even more necessary that it ever was.[8]
The Milne-Edwards' sportive lemurs have been under the Appendix I of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Conservation actions needed to mitigate their habitat loss and population decline would require many forms of managements regarding land practices, it would also necessitate an executive authority to monitor and actually impose sanctions to work towards the preservation of the species.[5]
Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur (Lepilemur edwardsi), or Milne-Edwards' weasel lemur, is a species of lemur in the family Lepilemuridae. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.
An enormous problem for these animals is the limited resource of safe sleeping sites. These are essential for their survival since they provide shelter from predators and weather conditions.
