The Chinese water deer has been bred extensively in captivity. Many individuals escaped from the Duke of Bedford's Woburn Park in England and established a feral population (Butzler, 1990)
Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical
In the wild, the Chinese water deer is heavily hunted. Although it is not classified as an endangered species, there recently were estimated to be only 10,000 individuals remaining in the wild in China (Butzler, 1990). IUCN -- Rare.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable
The Chinese water deer often comes into conflict with man when they eat his crops. They may also be pests of commercial forrestry (Putnam, 1988; MacDonald, 1987).
In the wild, the Chinese water deer is heavily hunted in order to obtain colostrum, which is sold for use in folk medicine. Colostrum, milk characterized by high protein and antibody content, is secreted for a few days after the deer gives birth. Also, thousands of Chinese water deer are sold as food each year in Europe (Allen, 1940; Webster, 1994).
The diet of the Chinese water deer includes reeds, coarse grasses, vegetables, and beets. The Chinese water deer has a four chambered stomach, but the rumen pillars are poorly developed. Because of this the deer cannot digest the carbohydrates from plant material very efficiently. Thus the deer must select foods low in fiber but high in soluble carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Chinese water deer are highly selective feeders, taking herbs, forbs, and young sweet grasses, rather than the coarser and more fibrous vegetation of mature grasses (Nowak, 1991; Allen, 1940; MacDonald, 1987; Putnam, 1988).
The Chinese water deer is found in the lower Yangtze Basin of east-central China and in Korea. The species was also introduced and became wild in England and France (Butzler, 1990; Allen, 1940).
Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )
Chinese water deer live among tall reeds, rushes along rivers, and in tall grass on mountains and cultivated fields. They also inhabit swampy regions and open grasslands. They are adept at hiding, and any cover seems sufficient to give them shelter. Although not adverse to water and swamps, they prefer drier land. When the the cultivated fields that they occupy are cut, they may be found lying in the furrows and hollows of open fields (Butzler, 1990; Allen, 1940; Wilson, 1993; Brown, 1991).
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 12.0 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 11.5 years.
Chinese water deer are relatively small in size, ranging in length from 775-1,000 mm. They have a short tail, 60-75 mm length. The hair is generally thick and harsh. It is longest on the flanks and rump, with a maximium length of 40 mm in the winter coat. The top of the face is grayish and reddish brown, the chin and upper throat are whitish, and the back and sides are usually a uniform yellowish brown, finely striped with black. The underparts are white. Both sexes lack antlers, but the upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming fairly long, slightly curved tusks. These saber-like upper canines are the most conspicuous feature of the bucks. Theyprotude up to about 52 mm from the upper jaw and constitute sharp, dangerous weapons. The canines of the female are much smaller, scarcely 5 mm on the inner side. A dark spot on the sides of the lower lip behind the upper canines makes the canines more conspicuous. A small scent gland is present on the face in front of the eyes on both sexes; this is the only known case of such glands in the Cervidae (Nowak, 1991; Butzler, 1990; Allen, 1940; Brown, 1991).
Range mass: 12 to 18.5 kg.
Average mass: 12.9 kg.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
The mating of the Chinese water deer is seasonal. In China mating occurs from November to January, and most young are born in late May and June. In the European zoos, mating usually occurs in May. Estimates of the gestation period range from about 170 to 210 days. Females are said sometimes to give birth to up to eight young at a time, more than are produced by any other kind of deer. In a survey of zoos, however, it was found that there were usually only two offspring per birth or occasionally three. After gestation, the female gives birth, often leaving her normal range and becoming solitary. The calf remains concealed for the first few weeks, emerging only when the mother visits to suckle it. Like many deer, the young animals have a camouflaged coat with light spots in parallel longitudinal lines. This pattern disappears with age. Lactation lasts several months, and thus the female deer are occupied with one or another aspect of reproduction for most of the year. In contrast, males contribute nothing to the rearing of their offspring. For a few weeks prior to the mating season the males compete for access to receptive females.
Males reach sexual maturity at 5-6 months, and females at 7-8 months. The lifespan of the Chinese water deer is about 10-12 years (Butzler, 1990; Allen, 1940; Nowak, 1991; Wilson, 1993; Ohtaish and Sheng, 1993; Brown, 1991; Putnam. 1988; MacDonald, 1987).
Range number of offspring: 6 (high) .
Range gestation period: 6 (low) months.
Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual
Average birth mass: 1042 g.
Average number of offspring: 2.7.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 183 days.
The water deer (Hydropotes inermis) is a small deer species native to China and Korea. Its prominent tusks, similar to those of musk deer, have led to both subspecies being colloquially named vampire deer in English-speaking areas to which they have been imported. It was first described to the Western world by Robert Swinhoe in 1870.[2]
There are two subspecies: the Chinese water deer (H. i. inermis) and the Korean water deer (H. i. argyropus). The water deer is superficially more similar to a musk deer than a true deer; despite anatomical peculiarities, including a pair of prominent tusks (downward-pointing canine teeth), and its lack of antlers, it is classified as a cervid. Yet, its unique anatomical characteristics have caused it to be classified in its own genus (Hydropotes) as well as historically its own subfamily (Hydropotinae).[3] However, studies of mitochondrial control region and cytochrome b DNA sequences placed it near Capreolus within an Old World section of the subfamily Capreolinae,[4][5] and all later molecular analysis show that Hydropotes is a sister taxon of Capreolus.[6][7][8][9][10]
The genus name Hydropotes derives from the two ancient Greek words ὕδωρ (húdōr), meaning "water", and πότης (potḗs), meaning "drinker",[11][12] and refers to the preference of this cervid for rivers and swamps.
The etymology of the species name corresponds to the Latin word inermis meaning unarmed, defenceless—itself constructed from the prefix in- meaning without and the stem arma meaning defensive arms, armor—,[13] and refers to the water deer's lack of antlers.
Archeological studies indicate water deer was once distributed among much broader range than currently during the Pleistocene and the Holocene periods; records have been obtained from eastern Tibet in west, Inner Mongolia and northeastern China in north, southeastern Korean Peninsula (Holocene) and Japanese archipelago (Pleistocene) in east, southern China and northern Vietnam in south.[14] Water deer also inhabited Taiwan historically, however this population presumably became extinct as late as the early 19th century.[15]
Water deer are indigenous to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, coastal Jiangsu province (Yancheng Coastal Wetlands), and islands of Zhejiang of east-central China, and in Korea, where the demilitarized zone has provided a protected habitat for a large number. The Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus) is one of the two subspecies of water deer. While the population of Chinese subspecies is critically endangered in China, the Korean subspecies are known to inhabit 700,000 throughout South Korea.[16] In China, water deer are found in Zhoushan Islands in the Zhejiang (600~800), Jiangsu (500~1,000), Hubei, Henan, Anhui (500), Guangdong, Fujian, Poyang Lake in Jiangxi (1,000), Shanghai, and Guangxi. They are now extinct in southern and western China.[1] Since 2006, water deer has been reintroduced in Shanghai, with population increased from 21 individuals in 2007 to 227~299 individuals in 2013.[17] In Korea, water deer are found nationwide and are known as gorani (고라니).[18]
Water deer inhabit the land alongside rivers, where they are protected from sight by the tall reeds and rushes. They are also seen on mountains, swamps, grasslands, and even open cultivated fields. Water deer are proficient swimmers, and can swim several miles to reach remote river islands. An introduced population of Chinese water deer exists in the United Kingdom and another was extirpated from France.[19][20]
Despite a listing of 'vulnerable' by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in South Korea, the animal is thriving due to the extinction of natural predators such as Korean tigers and leopards. Since 1994, Korean water deer have been designated as "harmful wildlife", a term given by the Ministry of Environment to wild creatures that can cause harm to humans or their property. Currently, certain local governments offer bounties from 30,000 won($30) to 50,000 won($50) during the farming season. However, the hunting of water deer is not restricted to the warm season, as 18 hunting grounds were currently in operation in the winter of 2018.[21][22]
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Chinese water deer were first introduced into Great Britain in the 1870s. The animals were kept in the London Zoo until 1896, when the Duke of Bedford oversaw their transfer to Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire. More of the animals were imported and added to the herd over the next three decades. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were transferred from Woburn to Whipsnade, also in Bedfordshire, and released into the park. The current population of Chinese water deer at Whipsnade is currently estimated to be more than 600, while the population at Woburn is probably more than 250.
The majority of the current population of Chinese water deer in Britain derives from escapees, with the remainder being descended from many deliberate releases. Most of these animals still reside close to Woburn Abbey. It appears that the deer's strong preference for a particular habitat – tall reed and grass areas in rich alluvial deltas - has restricted its potential to colonize further afield. The main area of distribution is from Woburn east into Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and North Essex, and south towards Whipsnade. There have been small colonies reported in other areas.
The British Deer Society coordinated a survey of wild deer in the United Kingdom between 2005 and 2007 and noted the Chinese water deer as "notably increasing its range" since the last census in 2000.[27]
A small population existed in France originating from animals that had escaped an enclosure in 1960 in western France (Haute-Vienne, near Poitiers). The population was reinforced in 1965 and 1970 and the species has been protected since 1973. Despite efforts to locate the animals with the help of local hunters, there have been no sightings since 2000, and the population is assumed to be extinct.[28]
On April 1, 2019, a water deer was spotted using a photo trap in the "Land of the Leopard" national park in the Khasan district of Primorsky Krai, Russia, 4.5 km from the border with China. In 2022, the population of water deer in Primorsky Krai was about 170 individuals. Thus, the water reindeer became the new, 327th, mammal species in the fauna of Russia.[29]
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The water deer has narrow pectoral and pelvic girdles, long legs, and a long neck. The powerful hind legs are longer than the front legs so that the haunches are carried higher than the shoulders. They run with rabbit-like jumps. In the groin of each leg is an inguinal gland used for scent marking;[32] this deer is the only member of the Cervidae to possess such glands. The short tail is no more than 5–10 cm / 1.9–3.8 in. in length and is almost invisible, except when it is held raised by the male during the rut. The ears are short and very rounded, and both sexes lack antlers.
The coat is an overall golden brown color and may be interspersed with black hairs, while the undersides are white. The strongly tapered face is reddish-brown or gray, and the chin and upper throat are cream-colored. The hair is longest on the flanks and rump. In the fall, the summer coat is gradually replaced by a thicker, coarse-haired winter coat that varies from light brown to grayish brown. Neither the head nor the tail poles are well differentiated as in gregarious deer; consequently, this deer's coat is little differentiated. Young are born dark brown with white stripes and spots along their upper torso.
The water deer have developed long canine teeth which protrude from the upper jaw like the canines of musk deer. The canines are fairly large in the bucks, ranging in length from 5.5 cm (2.2 in) on average to as long as 8 cm (3.1 in). Does, in comparison, have tiny canines that are an average of 0.5 cm (0.2 in) in length.[33]
The teeth usually erupt in the autumn of the deer's first year at approximately 6–7 months of age. By early spring, the recently erupted tusks reach approximately 50% of their final length. As the tusks develop, the root remains open until the deer is about eighteen months to two years old. When fully grown, only about 60% of the tusk is visible below the gum.
These canines are held loosely in their sockets, with their movements controlled by facial muscles. The buck can draw them backwards out of the way when eating. In aggressive encounters, he thrusts his canines out and draws in his lower lip to pull his teeth closer together. He then presents an impressive two-pronged weapon to rival males. It is due to these teeth that this animal is often referred to as a "vampire deer".[34]
The mitochondrial DNA of samples from the native Chinese population and the introduced UK population was analysed to infer each population's genetic structure and genetic diversity. It was found that the UK population displays lower levels of genetic diversity, and that there is genetic differentiation between the native and introduced population.[35] It was also found that the source population of the British deer is likely to be extinct.[35] This has implications for the conservation of the different populations, especially as Hydropotes inermis is classified as Vulnerable in its native range according to the IUCN Red List.
Apart from mating during the rutting season, water deer are solitary animals, and males are highly territorial. Each buck marks out his territory with urine and feces. Sometimes a small pit is dug and it is possible that in digging, the male releases scent from the interdigital glands on its feet. The male also scent-marks by holding a thin tree in his mouth behind the upper canines and rubbing his preorbital glands against it. Males may also bite off vegetation to delineate territorial boundaries.[36]
Water deer use their tusks for territorial fights and are not related to carnivores. Confrontations between males begin with the animals walking slowly and stiffly towards each other, before turning to walk in parallel 10–20 m (32–64 ft) apart, to assess one another. At this point, one male may succeed in chasing off his rival, making clicking noises during the pursuit. However, if the conflict is not resolved at the early stage, the bucks will fight. Each would try to wound the other on the head, shoulders, or back, by stabbing or tearing with his upper canines. The fight is ended by the loser, who either lays his head and neck flat on the ground or turns tail and is chased out of the territory. Numerous long scars and torn ears seen on males indicate that fighting is frequent. The fights are seldom fatal but may leave the loser considerably debilitated. Tufts of hair are most commonly found on the ground in November and December, showing that encounters are heavily concentrated around the rut.[36]
Females do not seem to be territorial outside the breeding season and can be seen in small groups, although individual deer do not appear to be associated; they will disperse separately at any sign of danger. Females show aggression towards each other immediately before and after the birth of their young and will chase other females from their birth territories.
Water deer are capable of emitting several sounds. The main call is a bark, and this has more of a growling tone when compared with the sharper yap of a muntjac. The bark is used as an alarm, and water deer will bark repeatedly at people and each other for reasons unknown. If challenged during the rut, a buck will emit a clicking sound. It is uncertain how this unique sound is generated, although it is possibly by using its molar teeth. During the rut, a buck following a doe will make a weak whistle or squeak. The does emit a soft pheep to call to their fawns, whilst an injured deer will emit a screaming wail.
During the annual rut in November and December, the male will seek out and follow females, giving soft squeaking contact calls and checking for signs of estrus by lowering his neck and rotating his head with ears flapping. Scent plays an important part in courtship, with both animals sniffing each other. Mating among water deer is polygynous, with most females being mated inside the buck's territory. After repeated mountings, copulation is brief.[37]
Water deer have been known to produce up to seven young, but two to three is normal for this species, the most prolific of all deer. The doe often gives birth to her spotted young in the open, but they are quickly taken to concealing vegetation, where they will remain most of the time for up to a month. During these first few weeks, fawns come out to play. Once driven from the natal territory in late summer, young deer sometimes continue to associate with each other, later separating to begin their solitary existence. Young water deer are also known to grow faster and be more precocious in comparison to other similar species.[38]
The water deer (Hydropotes inermis) is a small deer species native to China and Korea. Its prominent tusks, similar to those of musk deer, have led to both subspecies being colloquially named vampire deer in English-speaking areas to which they have been imported. It was first described to the Western world by Robert Swinhoe in 1870.
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