Until the 1930s, the Spotted Lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) was known mainly from Shanxi, Shandong, and Hebei provinces in northern China. Today, it is found across China (recorded from Anhui, Beijing, Guangdong, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Zhejiang), as well as from Taiwan, Vietnam, and India, where temperatures are relatively higher than those in northern China (Xiao 1992 and Hua 2000, both cited in Kim et al. 2013). This species was reported sporadically from Japan (Okinawa, Honshu, and Kyushu) since the 1930s, but what its actual distribution was in Japan is uncertain. More recently, mass occurrences of L. delicatula have occurred in Japan in Hakusan, Ishikawa Prefecture, in 2008. This occurrence of sudden outbreaks of L. delicatula in Japan is very similar to what was seen in Korea, where this species was first identified in 2004 and over the next few years spread rapidly throughout the Korean Peninsula, where it is now widely distributed (Kim & Kim 2005 cited in Park et al. 2013; Han et al. 2008). This species appears to have become fully established in Korea as a consequence of the increase in winter temperatures in recent years, which has resulted in reduced mortality of overwintering eggs (Lee et al. 2011).
Spotted Lanternfly egg masses are often found on host plants and huge numbers of first instar nymphs can be observed every spring. Because of the importance of this species as an invasive pest, which can cause serious damage to grapevines (Shin et al. 2010; Lee et al. 2011) and other crops, it has been the subject of a number of investigations focused on its taxonomy, biology, ecology, ethology, and control within Korea. The Spotted Lanternfly damages its host plants primarily through the sucking of plant sap (Kim et al. 2011) and, secondarily, by spreading sooty mold disease (Lee et al. 2009).
In addition to grapes, this species is known to use at least 38 woody and four herbaceous species (Park et al. 2009). The main host is the Chinese Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima), on which the lanternflies feed, mate, and overwinter (as eggs). Tree-of-heaven, which is now widespread in Korea (as it is also in Australia, Europe, and North America), may facilitate the settlement and proliferation of Spotted Lanternflies (Lee et al. 2011).
(Kim et al. 2013 and references therein)
In 2014, the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture confirmed the presence of this species in Berks County, Pennsylvania (U.S.A.), the first record from North America. This discovery sparked considerable concern about its potential to become a serious agricultural pest (Bureau of Plant Industry, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture).
The complete mitiochondrial genome of Lycorma delicatula has been sequenced (Song et al. 2012).
Die Gepunktete Laternenträgerzikade (Lycorma delicatula), im Englischen „Spotted lanternfly“, in Asien auch „White Cicada“ genannt, gehört innerhalb der Ordnung der Schnabelkerfe (Hemiptera) zur Familie der Echten Laternenträger (Fulgoridae). Sie kommt ursprünglich aus subtropischen Regionen Südost-Asiens (China).[1] Im Jahr 2004 wurde sie vermutlich durch Warenimporte nach Südkorea verschleppt.[2] 2014 konnte sie erstmals in den USA nachgewiesen werden.[3] Ihr Wirtsspektrum umfasst mehr als 70 holzige Pflanzenarten.[4]
Ursprünglich wurde die Art als Aphaena delicatula (White, 1845) beschrieben.[5][6] Des Weiteren entstand in der Vergangenheit durch eine häufig falsche Schreibweise der Artname Lycorma delicatulum, der daher auch als Synonym anzusehen ist.[7]
Adulte:
Die Adulten werden etwa 12 mm breit. Die männlichen Adulten erreichen eine Körperlänge (vom Kopf bis zum gefalteten Flügel) von etwa 20,5 bis 22 mm, die Weibchen erreichen 24 bis 26,5 mm. und Sie besitzen einen schwarzen Kopf und graubraune Vorderflügel, die mit schwarzen Flecken geschmückt sind. Die Flügelspitzen der Vorderflügel sind dunkler und retikuliert (mit einem netzartigen Muster versehen). Der basale Teil des Hinterflügels ist leuchtend rot mit schwarzen Flecken. Im Ruhezustand sind die Hinterflügel teilweise durch die halbtransparenten Vorderflügel sichtbar und lassen diese rosa erscheinen. Die Flügelspitzen der Hinterflügel sind schwarz gefärbt. In der Mitte des Flügels befindet sich ein weißer Keil, der die schwarze Flügelspitze von dem rot gefärbten Teil des Flügels trennt. Das grundsätzliche Flügelmuster ist einheitlich, kann aber in der Fleckung und Helligkeit variieren. Das Abdomen (Hinterleib) ist gelblich mit quer verlaufenden schwarzen Streifen.
Eier:
Die braunen an Samen erinnernden Eier sind länglich rechteckig und werden mit gelb-braunen wachsartigen Ausscheidungen überzogen, was ihnen ein schlammartiges Aussehen verleiht. Pro Gelege werden 30–50 Eier in einer Oothek („Eipaket“) abgelegt.
Nymphen:
Die Larven-Stadien (sogenannte Nymphen-Stadien) 1 bis 3 sind schwarz mit weißen Punkten auf Körper und Beinen. Das 4. Nymphen-Stadium besitzt zusätzlich rote Flecken.
Es sind drei Unterarten beschrieben:
Weitere Arten der Gattung sind:
Die Arten lassen morphologisch deutlich voneinander unterscheiden und nur L. delicatula wurde bisher durch globalen Handel in die USA verschleppt.[3]
L. delicatula durchläuft 1 Generation pro Jahr (univoltin).[8] Die Larven schlüpfen im Mai und vollziehen vier sogenannte Nymphenstadien. Adulte sind ab Ende Juli bis November zu beobachten.[9] Die Eiablage findet von August bis Anfang November statt. Die Zikaden überwintern als Eier bevorzugt am Stamm des Götterbaums (Ailanthus altissima) oder an anderen Bäumen mit glatter Rinde. Sie können ihre Eier jedoch auch an Steinen und nicht-pflanzlichem Material, wie Ziegeln oder Kabeln ablegen. Die Farben Rot, Braun und Grau scheinen bevorzugt zur Eiablage ausgewählt zu werden. Die Schlupfrate beträgt im Freiland zwischen 60 und 90 Prozent.[10]
Die Adulten sind schlechte Flieger. Sie nutzen ihre Flügel bevorzugt zur Unterstützung ihrer Sprünge. Die Nymphen hüpfen oder krabbeln, um ihre potentiellen Wirtspflanzen zu erreichen.[11] Über den Transport von befallenen Pflanzen oder nichtpflanzlichem Material kann L. delicatula über größere Entfernungen verschleppt werden. Sie können bei Importen aus Asien oder den USA unabhängig von Pflanzen als Eiablagen z. B. an Pflastersteinen oder Fliesen verschleppt werden, die ursprünglich in der Nähe von Befallsorten gelagert wurden.[10] In Seoul finden sich Massenvorkommen der Art auch innerhalb des Stadtgebietes, so am und rund um den touristisch stark frequentierten N Seoul Tower.
L. delicatula kommt an mehr als 70 holzigen Pflanzenarten vor:[4]
L. delicatula durchbohrt mit ihrem speziellen Mundwerkzeug, dem sogenannten Saugrüssel, das Gewebe von Laub und jungen Stielen, um am Phloem-Saft der Wirtspflanze zu saugen. Die Früchte sind davon allerdings nicht betroffen.[15] Die Zikaden treten als Adulte und späte Larven in Gruppen auf und verursachen nässende Wunden am Stamm der Wirtspflanze. Die angesaugten Äste welken und sterben ab. Die zuckerhaltigen Ausscheidungen von L. delicatula, der sogenannte Honigtau, verursachen an der Stammbasis der Wirtspflanze Sekundärschäden (indirekte Schäden) durch die rasche Ansiedlung von Rußtaupilzen (Capnodiales), sodass die Stammbasis regelrecht verschimmeln kann.[10] In Korea gibt es bereits wirtschaftliche Schäden im Wein und in Holzbeständen. Anzeichen eines Befalls können das auffällige Auftreten von Ameisen, Bienen, Hornissen oder Wespen sein, die vom Wundsaft der Wirtspflanze oder den Honigtau-Sekreten der Zikaden angelockt werden.[8]
Eine chemische Bekämpfung der Gepunkteten Laternenträgerzikade ist kaum möglich aufgrund der Vielzahl an Wirtspflanzen und der zusätzlich möglichen Eiablagen auf nicht-pflanzlichem Material. Der Einsatz von Pflanzenschutzmitteln gefährdet die natürlichen Feinde (Parasitoide, Marienkäfer) anderer Schädlinge. Außerdem lockt der Honigtau Bienen an, was die Bekämpfung von L. delicatula durch bienengefährliche Pflanzenschutzmittel einschränkt. Das Behandeln von Gebieten, die bspw. nahe an Waldgebieten liegen und geeignete Wirtspflanzen enthalten ist ebenso problematisch. Die im Wald zurückgebliebenen Individuen werden die mit Pflanzenschutzmittel behandelten Gebiete anschließend wieder neu besiedeln. In Korea konnte diese Entwicklung bestätigt werden.[8]
In Nordamerika werden zur Früherkennung der Nymphen um die Basis der Baumstämme braune Bänder als Klebefallen eingesetzt. Sie fangen die Nymphen, die vom Boden aus auf die Bäume klettern. Diese Methode ist der Ausbringung von Fangstreifen für weibliche Kleine Frostspanner (Operophtera brumata) im Obstbau ähnlich. Die braunen Bänder haben sich im Vergleich zu blauen und gelben Klebefallen als wirksamer erwiesen.[16] Für das Einfangen der Adulten sind die Klebebänder allerdings nicht geeignet, die diese stark genug sind, um sich aus der Klebefläche zu befreien.[17]
Als wirksames Kairomon hat sich ein Methylester der Salicylsäure, das sogenannte Methylsalicylat (auch Salicylsäuremethylester genannt), erwiesen. Es kann aus den Blättern des Wintergrüns (Pyrola spp.) und der Scheinbeeren (Gaultheria spp.) isoliert werden.[18]
In China erreicht die dort heimische Schlupfwespe Anastatus orientalis (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae), die ihre Eier mit Hilfe eines Legebohrers in die Eier von L. delicatula legt (Eiparasitoid), eine Parasitierungsrate von bis zu 80 Prozent. Sie wird sowohl in Südkorea als auch in den USA als potentielles biologisches Kontrollmittel untersucht.[19] Die Wegwespenarten Dryinus browni und Dryinus lycormae, die ebenfalls in China natürlich vorkommen, sind Prädatoren von L. delicatula.[20][21] Diese natürlichen Gegenspieler kommen allerdings nicht in Nordamerika vor. In den USA wurden die Raubwanze Arilus cristatus und die Baumwanze Apoecilus cynicus dabei beobachtet, wie sie an Individuen der Gepunkteten Laternenträgerzikade saugen.[22]
Die Gepunktete Laternenträgerzikade (Lycorma delicatula), im Englischen „Spotted lanternfly“, in Asien auch „White Cicada“ genannt, gehört innerhalb der Ordnung der Schnabelkerfe (Hemiptera) zur Familie der Echten Laternenträger (Fulgoridae). Sie kommt ursprünglich aus subtropischen Regionen Südost-Asiens (China). Im Jahr 2004 wurde sie vermutlich durch Warenimporte nach Südkorea verschleppt. 2014 konnte sie erstmals in den USA nachgewiesen werden. Ihr Wirtsspektrum umfasst mehr als 70 holzige Pflanzenarten.
The spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) is a planthopper indigenous to parts of China and Vietnam. It has spread invasively to Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Its preferred host is tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), but it infests economically significant plants including soybean, grapes, stone fruits, and Malus spp.[2] In its native habitat, L. delicatula populations are kept in check by parasitic wasps.
The spotted lanternfly's life cycle is often centered on its preferred host Ailanthus altissima but L. delicatula can associate with more than 173 plants. Early life stages (instars) of the spotted lanternfly are characterized by spotted black and white nymphs that develop a red pigmentation and wings as they mature. Early life instars display a large host range that narrows with maturation. Adult spotted lanternflies display a black head, grey wings, and red hind wings. Adults do not display any specialized feeding associations with herbaceous plants but have been known to cause extensive damage to crops and ornamental plants. The piercing wounds caused by their mouthparts and the honeydew waste they excrete have been found to be significantly detrimental to the health of host plants. Spotted Lanternflies lay egg masses containing 30-50 eggs, often covered with a grayish mud-like coating.[3] In temperate climates, these egg masses overwinter.[3]
The species was accidentally introduced into South Korea in 2006 and Japan in 2009, and has since been considered a pest. In September 2014, L. delicatula was first recorded in the United States, and as of 2022, it is an invasive species in much of Northeastern United States and is rapidly spreading south and west.[4] L. delicatula's egg masses have been found to be the primary vector of spread, with Ailanthus altissima populations seen as a risk factor for further infestation globally. Ongoing pest control efforts have sought to limit population growth, due to the threat L. delicatula poses to global agricultural industries.
Lycorma delicatula is a species in the genus Lycorma, in the planthopper family Fulgoridae, subfamily Aphaeninae. Species within this genus are found in Asia.[5] L. delicatula was originally described by Adam White in 1845 as Aphaena delicatula, and the first scientific collections were made outside of Nanking, China.[6] White described the species as similar to Aphaena variegata, another planthopper species native to Asia, and referenced prior descriptions by George Tradescant Lay in his initial classification of the spotted lanternfly.[6]
In 1863, the species was reclassified by Carl Stål as Lycorma delicatula delicatula, with two additional subspecies described: Lycorma delicatula jole and Lycorma delicatula operosa.[7][8] Taxonomic classification places two other species (L. imperialis and L. meliae) as closely related to the spotted lanternfly.[9][10] The name Lycorma delicatula derives from lyc/lyco, meaning "lamp" and delicatula, meaning "luxurious".[11] L. delicatula is also referred to as the spot clothing wax cicada ("chu-ki" or "banyi-la-chan" in Chinese) and the Chinese blistering cicada ("ggot-mae-mi" in Korean).[12][13]
In 2019, the genome of L. delicatula was fully sequenced,[14] with Aphaena amabilis, and Pyrops candelaria both being classified as close relatives.[15]
Adult L. delicatula measure about 25 millimetres (1 in) long and 12 millimetres (1⁄2 in) wide. Adult lanternflies have a black head and gray-brown forewings adorned with black spots.[16] White's original account identified L. delicatula as having a minimum of 20 black spots, with 6 spots located on the anterior margin of the forewings.[6]
When resting, the crimson hind wings are partially visible through the semi-translucent forewings, giving the lanternfly a red cast. Neatly spaced black rectangular markings color the tips of the forewings in a pattern sometimes likened to brick and mortar. In flight, the spotted lanternfly displays red hind wings with black spots on the proximal third, a white wedge in the middle of the wing, and a solid black wing tip. The abdomen is yellowish with black and white bands on the top and bottom.[16] L. delicatula displays orange, bulbous antennae covered in needle-like tips.[17] The spotted lanternfly is sexually dimorphic. Females have a set of red valvifers at the distal end of the abdomen, which males lack. When gravid (mated), the females' abdomens swell to the point where they have difficulty moving.[18] Adult females, when measured from head to wing tip, have a body length of 20 to 27 millimetres (13⁄16 to 1+1⁄16 in) while males are a smaller size, between 21 and 22 millimetres (53⁄64 and 55⁄64 in). Females also have longer legs as compared to those of their male counterparts.[19]
The lanternfly is a planthopper, and uses its wings to assist these jumps rather than making sustained flights.[20] The spotted lanternfly will perform a number of "successive collisions" upon jumping, employing both passive and active righting as it falls. This bouncing provides nymphs, and to a lesser extent adults, multiple opportunities to repeatedly attempt righting themselves following a jump. Additionally, the spotted lanternfly will also perform aerial reorientation and terrestrial righting as means to right itself, collectively giving the spotted lanternfly the ability to land on a variety of surfaces and spread rapidly through an environment.[21]
Ailanthus altissima is a tree native to China and invasive to many other areas worldwide. It is considered to be the key host for L. delicatula and plays an important role in the lanternfly life cycle.[22][23] This tree is the preferred host at all documented locations where the lanternfly and A. altissima co-occur.[24] The spotted lanternfly has a host range of over 173 plant species worldwide, including grape vines, fruit trees, ornamental trees, and woody trees, including apple trees and several Rosaceae with stone fruits.[25] Depending on the life stage of L. delicatula is in, it may prefer other hosts, such as Juglans nigra, instead of A. altissima.[26]
The spotted lanternfly has feeding behavior associated with 103 plant taxa, accounting for 33 families and 17 orders, with 56 of these occurring in the United States.[2] This host range includes many agricultural crops – most significantly soybean (Glycine max)[2] – and common forest plants, as the nymphs have been known to associate with other plants beyond A. altissima.[24] The lanternfly has also been recorded causing serious damage on at least 12 ornamental plants such as Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Phellodendron amurense, and Toona sinensis. In the United States, high populations are seen infesting common forest trees, such as maple, birch, and walnut; in Pennsylvania alone, L. delicatula has been found on more than 20 newly recorded host species of woody plants.[24]
L. delicatula feeds on woody and nonwoody plants, piercing the phloem tissue of foliage and stems with specialized mouthparts, and sucking the sap;[25] it does not eat the fruit or the leaves per se.[20] The sugary waste fluid they produce can coat leaves and stems, which encourages mold growth and can impede photosynthesis.[27]
Lycorma delicatula feed on sap from the trunk or branches of their host plants; because they can appear in such large numbers on a single plant, they can directly cause substantial damage to, and effectively kill parts or the whole of the host.[28]
L. delicatula also indirectly affects the health and productivity of their hosts and nearby plants through the production of large amounts of honeydew, the lanternfly's sugary secretions of excess waste and sap, as well as by leaving feeding scars in the host plant's branches that continue to drip sap.[29] The accumulation of this thick honeydew and tree sap on leaves below the host plant canopy can lower plants' photosynthetic potential and affect their health; this reduction is even more pronounced by the possible growth of molds over the sugary compound, which further limits light available to affected plants. The accumulation of sap and honeydew also attracts many species of ants, bees, and wasps; infestations of L. delicatula may thus be hinted at by unusual amounts of molds or stinging insects around specific plants.[30]
Beginning in late April to early May, nymphs hatch from their egg cases. A nymph passes through several immature stages, all of which are wingless. In the first instar, it is black with white spots. Later instars have red patches in addition to the white spots. The final nymphal instar has red wing pads and a red upper body, before molting to the adult form, with a black head and grayish wings with black spots.[25] Nymphs hop or crawl to search for plants on which to feed.[16] Young nymphs (first through third instars) appear to have a wider host range early on, which narrows as they grow older.[25][31] Though lanternflies have been recorded feeding on several herbaceous plants, this is most likely due to early-instar nymphs climbing or falling onto these plants; late-instar nymphs and adult lanternflies have no reliable association with herbaceous plants.[24]
As early as July, adults can be seen, and they mate and lay eggs from late September through the onset of winter.[25] During mating periods, spotted lanternflies will perform migratory flights. During these migrations, adult L. delicatula will perform a brief courtship and copulation which will last for up to 4 hours.[32] In their native Indomalayan habitat, they lay their eggs preferably on tree of heaven (A. altissima), which has toxic metabolites, and is an introduced invasive tree in North America. This host choice is thought to have evolved as a mechanism of protection from natural enemies.[25]
The spotted lanternfly has been found to be capable of completing its life cycle with hosts other than A. altissima, but generally fail to thrive unless A. altissima is present.[33] Many hypotheses are given as to why L. delicatula may have preferences for feeding on certain plants. Two examples of possible factors being investigated are the contribution of the overall sugar composition in the plant[34] and the presence of toxic chemicals.[31] The lanternfly lays eggs upon any smooth-trunked tree, stone, or vertical smooth surface, including man-made items such as vehicles, yard furniture, farm equipment, or other items stored outside.[16]
The egg masses contain 30–50 eggs[35] covered in a yellowish-brown, waxy deposit, often referred to as an egg case.[25] L. delicatula eggs undergo diapause during embryonic development, requiring two weeks of warm temperatures following winter before hatching is induced. Eggs overwintered for five months or longer demonstrate higher hatch rates and more synchronous hatching, suggesting that cold temperatures increase overall egg survival rates.[32] The lanternfly's life expectancy is one year and the majority of adults die off by the end of December.[25][18]
Testing has been done to determine how overwintering affects the eggs of the species. The highest temperature that will still kill eggs was estimated by South Korean researchers to be between −12.7 and −3.4 °C (9.1 and 25.9 °F) on the basis of mean daily temperatures during their winter of 2009–2010.[36] This estimate contrasts with eggs having survived the much colder winter 2013–14 temperatures in Pennsylvania, United States.[37] Another study done at Rutgers University suggested that −25 °C (−13 °F) is about the temperature at which no eggs are hatched, while −15 °C (5 °F) still had limited hatching, depending upon how long they were chilled and where they were kept.[38]
The spotted lanternfly is native to subtropical regions of Southeast Asia. [39] [27] Fossil evidence indicates L. delicatula evolved between 55 and 51.6 myr, during the Ypresian Era.[40][41] Phylogenomic analysis has shown that L. delicatula originally evolved in southwest China, eventually diverging into six phylogeographic lineages. One of these lineages then moved northward, following the Yangtze River during the late Pleistocene Era.[42]
In the 1930s, L. delicatula was known to inhabit the Northern Provinces of Shanxi, Shandong and Hebei. Since then, it has expanded its range to include Anhui, Beijing, Guangdong, Henan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan and Zhejiang. In traditional Chinese medicine, the spotted lanternfly is believed to be poisonous, and has been used since the 1100s for topical relief from swelling.[25][17] L. delicatula has also been reported in Taiwan, Vietnam, and India, but ongoing research has yet to conclude if the species is native to these regions.[43]
Lycorma delicatula normally uses A. altissima for feeding and laying eggs, but if it is not present, the insect can lay its eggs on any stationary object, natural or man-made, and feeds on a wide variety of plants. Eggs can easily be moved from place to place without being noticed, giving them an easy way to spread to new areas. Its initial introduction to the United States is believed to have been through this pathway, hitchhiking on an object imported from Asia into Pennsylvania. Adults of L. delicatula jump around the area to find new host plants. As nymphs, they feed on whatever host plant the egg was laid on before moving to another in the area. L. delicatula is capable of surviving and completing its life cycle in environments without its preferred host, A. altissima, albeit with greatly reduced fitness.[33]
In 2006, the spotted lanternfly was introduced in Korea, and has been considered a pest since about 2007. It has since expanded its host range, attacking at least 65 plant species, uninhibited by natural predators.[20] The distribution of L. delicatula has since been predicted using a modeling approach, which showed that this pest has the potential to occur in the majority of South Korea.[44]
A possible correlation seems to exist between the widespread distribution of A. altissima and the overall damage on grapevines, as the tree is commonly found growing on the peripheries of Korean vineyards.[24] L. delicatula has been documented to be a pest to grapevines, leading to a decline in the total number and overall quality of the harvested grapes. No quantitative data has been published supporting this correlation, but it has been widely hypothesized.[45][24]
In 2009, Japan reported their first confirmed presence of the spotted lanternfly in Komatsu city (Ishikawa Prefecture). In 2013, it was confirmed to have spread into the Fukui Prefecture.[10] Researchers have estimated that the spotted lanternfly may have been entering the country sporadically since the 1930s, with it only establishing a population during the last two decades. Specimens found in Japan are genetically identical to populations in Beijing, Tianjin, Qingdao, and Shanghai, China.[43]
On 29 September 2014, the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) and the Pennsylvania Game Commission first confirmed the presence of the spotted lanternfly in Berks County, Pennsylvania, northwest of Philadelphia.[28][46] Based on its host affinities, it presented a threat to the state's grape, fruit tree, and logging industries. The greatest risk of spread was seen in transportation of materials containing egg masses laid on smooth bark, stone, and other vertical surfaces.[16]
The Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture banned the transport of items that could harbor the egg masses, including firewood, lawn mowers, outdoor chairs, trucks, and recreational vehicles from seven municipalities on 1 November 2014.[16] Given the presence of old egg masses found, it has been estimated that the spotted lanternfly may have been in the United States since at least 2012, having survived the unusually cold 2013–14 winter.[37] Since then, over 34 counties in Pennsylvania have declared quarantine.[47][48]
Pennsylvania State University has estimated statewide costs of the spotted lanternfly to be $99.1 million in agricultural losses, and $236.3 million to the forestry industry, annually. Models of the spotted lanternfly's spread have projected an annual loss of $554.0 million, with an additional loss of 4,987 jobs, should it continue to spread to the entirety of Pennsylvania.[49] A national working group led by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, consisting of Penn State Researchers and USDA scientists, was organized "to determine what is known about the lanternfly and what research is needed, including DNA analysis to pinpoint where the infestation originated."[20]
Other states began seeing spotted lanternflies as soon as 2018, and by 2021, they were also confirmed to be established in at least parts of Connecticut,[50] Maryland,[50] Massachusetts,[51] Delaware,[52] New Jersey,[53] New York,[54] Ohio,[55] Indiana,[56] Virginia,[57] and West Virginia,[50] with several of these states issuing quarantine orders.[50] In 2022, the species was confirmed to be present in North Carolina.[58] A large potential range exists for the spotted lanternfly to become established if not prevented, covering almost all of the eastern part of the country, as well as critical wine- and hop-growing valleys of the Pacific coastal states.[59]
Interceptions of dead spotted lanternfly specimens have been reported in Michigan,[60] Kansas,[61][62] Oregon[63] and California,[64] although no live sightings have been reported from these states as of 2021. This increases concerns for possible accidental introduction of the insect to yet more states where they can potentially become established.[65]
Canadian Food Inspection Agency has identified a risk of the Spotted Lanternfly entering the country and has previously intercepted adult lanternflies traveling to Ontario in shipping crates. The primary concern is the potential damage the lanternflies could cause to the wine, fruit, and vegetable industries.[66][59] The Canadian government and agricultural industries are concerned about maintaining quarantine and have expressed hope that quarantine efforts in the United States are successful.[67] Although most of Canada is an unsuitable habitat for L. delicatula, southwestern Ontario and southerly parts of other provinces are modeled to have low suitability for inhabitation.[59] L. delicatula has been theorized to be capable of maintaining a small population in the region although no specimens have yet been discovered.[59]
The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization classifies L. delicatula as an A1 pest and anticipates it becoming invasive in Europe.[68] CLIMEX modeling of potential habitats for L. delicatula has found that the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy may be capable of supporting small L. delicatula populations.[69] Risk analysis of the spotted lanternfly to become established in Europe has been classified as a moderate to high risk, predominately due to the pervasiveness of A. altissima.[24]
Modeling for the life cycle of the spotted lanternfly in Australia has found that development and survival may vary throughout the country, should the spotted lanternfly be introduced. Australia's southwest coastal regions are estimated to have a high viability for the spotted lanternfly but Australian Great Dividing Range and Tasmania were found to have the lowest suitability. Both the pervasiveness of A. altissima and the lack of consistent freezing seasons are considered risk factors in L. delicatula establishing populations in the country.[70]
Pest control measures and guidelines have been issued by the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture and its PennState Extension. These guidelines include killing L. delicatula eggs between the months of October and May by scraping them off surfaces, "double bag them and throw them in the garbage."[16] People can scrape the eggs directly into plastic bags containing alcohol and/or hand sanitizer to kill them. The PDA has recommended removal of preferred spotted lanternfly hosts, such as tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), saving only male trees to use as "trap" trees, since the spotted lanternfly is attracted to its preferred hosts.[71] The remaining male "trap trees" should be wrapped with sticky bands starting in early spring to catch any nymphs. Wildlife experts have warned to cover the sticky bands on trees with chicken wire or another similar wire after many reports of other animals (e.g. birds) becoming trapped on them, resulting in injury and/or death.[72]
As of 2020, the PDA recommended several different pesticides to treat infestations, including insecticidal soaps, neem oil, pyrethrins, and essential oils, as well as bifenthrin, carbaryl, dinotefuran as bark spray, imidacloprid, spinosad, tebuconazole, and zeta-cypermethrin.[71] Infested trees can be treated with systemic pesticides from June to August. The PDA recommends tree injection and bark sprays, applied by professional applicators, and soil drench and foliar sprays, which can be applied by homeowners.[71]
In Pennsylvania and Korea, use of brown sticky traps has been effective at capturing nymphs, though adults may be strong enough to escape the adhesive.[24][73] The spotted lanternfly is known to avoid changes in tree texture and obstacles along the tree trunk, and inward facing traps have shown the greatest efficacy with minimized ecological impact.[74] L. delicatula has been found to be attracted to certain kairomones released by their host plants, and adults and second- to fourth-instar nymphs are also attracted to spearmint oil. Such chemicals (like methyl salicylate) may be used to lure them into sticky traps to augment this pest control method.[75]
Researchers using infrared thermography have found that the spotted lanternfly emits long-wavelength infrared (8–14 μm) light during active feeding and rapid hemolymph circulation, indicating a means of early detection.[76] Trained dogs are capable of detecting winterized egg masses.[77]
As of 2013, researchers are investigating another method of controlling lanternfly populations through reduction of Ailanthus altissima populations; the use of a fungal pathogen, Verticillium nonalfalfae, has been found to effectively kill the invasive trees by causing vascular wilt.[78] It is thought that lanternflies, which feed on this host plant by piercing and sucking the sap from its vasculature, may be able to "aid" in the ongoing removal of A. altissima by functioning as a vector for the V. nonalfalfae pathogen between different individuals of the insects' preferred host. Researchers have not yet found this to be an effective method, and more research is needed to confirm if this is possible in field settings with V. nonalfalfae or other pathogens.[79]
Four species of fungal entomopathogens native to the United States have been identified to cause co-epizootics in the spotted lanternfly.[80] Beauveria bassiana, Batkoa major, Metarhizium pemphigi and Ophiocordyceps delicatula (in the family Entomophthoraceae) have been found to parasitize and kill the spotted lanternfly, with Beauveria bassiana having also shown an ability to kill spotted lanternflies in biopesticide trials.[80][81][82]
A few natural predators have been identified in the lanternfly's native habitat in China, but are not yet used in biocontrol. Dryinus sinicus, a dryinidae wasp, and Ooencyrtus kuvanae, a chalcid wasp, have been found to parasitize spotted lanternfly eggs and nymphs.[83][84] Ooencyrtus kuvanae was previously introduced into the United States in 1908 for population control of Lymantria dispar dispar and was first documented to parasitize spotted lanternfly egg masses in 2017.[83] Another biocontrol predator being tested is the eupelmid wasp Anastatus orientalis, due to its high rates of parasitism of eggs. This wasp is under investigation in South Korea[85] and in the United States, where it is being evaluated under quarantine until researchers are certain it will not become an invasive species and attack other insects.[86]
Spotted lanternfly DNA has been confirmed in southeast Pennsylvania honey samples, presumably caused by honeybees consuming lanternfly honeydew. The honeydew secreted by lanternflies which had feasted on the tree of heaven not only led to changes in flavor deemed beneficial to the marketing of late-summer Pennsylvania honey, but was reported to have less ash content than aphid honeydew. This property makes lanternfly honey a better cold-weather food source for bee colonies and confers some resistance to parasitic mite infestations.[87]
Late-instar nymphs of spotted lanternfly on Vitis labrusca in Berks County, Pennsylvania, in late July 2018
.jpg)
Adult spotted lanternflies in Brooklyn Botanic Garden
Adult spotted lanternfly caught and eaten by a spider in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
.jpg)
Spotted lanternfly late-instar nymph
Spotted Lanternfly early-instar nymph on a grape leaf
.jpg)
.jpg)
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) The spotted lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) is a planthopper indigenous to parts of China and Vietnam. It has spread invasively to Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Its preferred host is tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), but it infests economically significant plants including soybean, grapes, stone fruits, and Malus spp. In its native habitat, L. delicatula populations are kept in check by parasitic wasps.
The spotted lanternfly's life cycle is often centered on its preferred host Ailanthus altissima but L. delicatula can associate with more than 173 plants. Early life stages (instars) of the spotted lanternfly are characterized by spotted black and white nymphs that develop a red pigmentation and wings as they mature. Early life instars display a large host range that narrows with maturation. Adult spotted lanternflies display a black head, grey wings, and red hind wings. Adults do not display any specialized feeding associations with herbaceous plants but have been known to cause extensive damage to crops and ornamental plants. The piercing wounds caused by their mouthparts and the honeydew waste they excrete have been found to be significantly detrimental to the health of host plants. Spotted Lanternflies lay egg masses containing 30-50 eggs, often covered with a grayish mud-like coating. In temperate climates, these egg masses overwinter.
The species was accidentally introduced into South Korea in 2006 and Japan in 2009, and has since been considered a pest. In September 2014, L. delicatula was first recorded in the United States, and as of 2022, it is an invasive species in much of Northeastern United States and is rapidly spreading south and west. L. delicatula's egg masses have been found to be the primary vector of spread, with Ailanthus altissima populations seen as a risk factor for further infestation globally. Ongoing pest control efforts have sought to limit population growth, due to the threat L. delicatula poses to global agricultural industries.
Lycorma delicatula est une espèce de fulgore indigène de certaines régions du sud de la Chine, de Taïwan et du Viêt Nam et qui s'est répandue au Japon, en Corée du Sud et aux États-Unis. Bien que cet insecte ait deux paires d'ailes, comme les autres fulgores, il saute plus qu'il ne vole. Il a pour plantes-hôtes les vignes, les arbres fruitiers à noyaux et les espèces du genre Malus, bien qu'il préfère l'Ailante glanduleux (Ailanthus altissima)[1].
Dans son habitat d'origine, il est limité par des prédateurs naturels ou des pathogènes. Il a été introduit en Corée du Sud par accident en 2006 et y est depuis considéré comme nuisible. En septembre 2014, il a été signalé pour la première fois aux États-Unis[2] et en 2020 il constitue une espèce envahissante dans la vallée du Delaware, le nord du Delaware, l'est du Maryland[3] l'est de la Pennsylvanie[4], le sud du New Jersey, l'État de New York, le Connecticut, la Virginie septentrionale et l'Ohio[5],[6].
L'espèce est originaire de certaines régions du sud de la Chine, de Taïwan et du Viêt Nam[7]. C'est un fulgore appartenant à la sous-famille des Aphaeninae. Il a été décrit pour la première fois par Adam White en 1845 sous le nom Aphaena delicatula à proximité de Nankin[8].
Les adultes mesurent environ 25 mm de long et 12 mm de large. Ils ont la tête noire et les ailes antérieures gris-brun, ornées des points noirs. Ces ailes sont semi-translucides et leurs ailes postérieures rouges sont partiellement visibles à travers, ce qui donne à l'insecte au repos une dominante rougeâtre. De fines marques noires rectangulaires colorent aussi l'extrémité des ailes antérieures, formant un motif parfois comparé à un mur de briques. En vol, les ailes postérieures montrent leur partie rouge et le noir de leur partie extérieure, barrée d'une bande blanche. Leur abdomen est jaunâtre, avec des bandes noires et blanches au-dessus et en-dessous[9]. Les femelles ont des pièces génitales rouges à l'extrémité de l'abdomen ; quand elles sont sur le point de pondre, leur abdomen est si gonflé qu'elles ont du mal à voler[10].
Cette espèce est un bon sauteur, qui utilise ses ailes pour augmenter ses sauts plutôt que pour des vols prolongés[11]. Dans la médecine traditionnelle chinoise, elle est considérée comme empoisonnée et utilisée par voie locale contre les gonflements[12].
Fulgoromorpha Lists On the Web admet trois sous-espèces :
L'Ailante glanduleux (Ailanthus altissima) est un arbre originaire et Chine et envahissant dans beaucoup d'autres régions du monde ; il est considéré comme la plante hôte principale de L. delicatula et joue un rôle important dans son cycle biologique[13],[14]. Cet arbre est l'hôte préféré à tous les endroits où il se trouve en même temps que L. delicatula[15].
Ce fulgore a cependant beaucoup d'autres hôtes possibles, plus de 70 espèces comprenant les vignes, des arbres fruitiers, ornementaux ou cultivés pour leur bois, particulièrement les pommiers et les Rosaceae à noyaux[12]. Beaucoup de ces espèces sont des plantes agricoles et forestières communes[15]. L. delicatula cause des dommages à au moins 12 plantes ornementales comme la vigne vierge (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), l'arbre au liège de l'Amour (Phellodendron amurense) et l'acajou de Chine (Toona sinensis). Aux États-Unis, d'importantes populations infestent des arbres forestiers communs comme les érables, les bouleaux et les noyers ; dans la seule Pennsylvanie, L. delicatula a été découvert sur plus de 20 nouvelles espèces de plantes ligneuses[15].
L. delicatula se nourrit sur des plantes ligneuses et non-ligneuses, perçant le phloème des feuilles et des jeunes pousses grâce à ses pièces buccales spécialisées pour sucer la sève élaborée[12] ; il ne consomme pas les fruits ou les feuilles eux-mêmes[11]. Leurs déjections sucrées souillent les feuilles et les tiges, ce qui peut encourager le développement de moisissures[7].
Les nymphes éclosent entre fin avril et début mai. Ces nymphes passent par plusieurs stades, tous sans ailes. Leur premier stade est noir avec des points blancs. Les stades suivants ont des taches rouges en plus. Le dernier stade nymphal a des palettes alaires rouges et le dessus du corps de la même couleur. Il mue une dernière fois pour devenir un adulte à la tête noire et aux ailes grises tachetées de noir[12]. Les nymphes sautent ou rampent à la recherche des plantes dont elles se nourrissent[9]. Les nymphes des trois premiers stades ont une plus grande variété de plantes hôtes que les plus âgées[12],[16]. Si l'espèce a été signalée sur des plantes herbacées, c'est très probablement parce que la jeune nymphe a escaladé ou est tombée sur celles-ci, car les stades plus âgés et les adultes n'ont pas d'association durable avec ce type de plantes[15].
Les adultes apparaissent dès le début du mois de juillet et ils peuvent s'accoupler et pondre de la fin septembre au début de l'hiver. Dans leur aire indomalaise d'origine, ils pondent de préférence sur l'ailante glutineux (Ailanthus altissima), qui produit des métabolites toxiques et est une espèce envahissante en Amérique du Nord. On pense que ce choix d'hôte a évolué comme un mécanisme de protection contre leurs ennemis naturels[12]. On ignore si L. delicatula pourrait achever son cycle biologique en l'absence complète d'ailantes et des expériences sont prévues aux États-Unis sur ce point. Il existe plusieurs hypothèses sur les raisons de ses préférences alimentaires. Deux facteurs possibles étudiés sont la richesse globale de la plante en sucres[17] et la présence de composés toxiques[16].
L. delicatula peut déposer ses œufs sur n'importe quelle surface lisse, qu'il s'agisse d'un tronc, d'une pierre ou d'une surface verticale quelconque, même d'origine humaine comme un véhicule, du mobilier de jardin, du matériel agricole ou d'autres objets stockés en extérieur[9]. Les œufs sont rassemblés par groupes de 30 à 50[18] couverts d'un dépôt cireux jaune-brun souvent appelé oothèque[12]. L'espérance de vie de l'animal est d'un an[12].
Certains chercheurs pensent qu'une période de froid marqué est nécessaire au développement des œufs, mais cela n'a pas encore été confirmé[15]. Des tests ont été menés pour déterminer si un hiver prolongé les affectait. La température minimale nécessaire pour les tuer a été estimée par des chercheurs sud-coréens entre -12,7 et -3,4°C sur la base des températures quotidiennes moyennes de l'hiver 2009/2010[19]. Cette estimation contraste avec le fait que des œufs ont survécu en Pennsylvanie à la vague de froid de l'hiver 2014, nettement plus sévère[20]. Une autre étude en Corée du Sud suggère que -25°C est la température approximative après laquelle aucun œuf n'éclot, tandis qu'à -15°C il en éclot encore quelques-uns, selon la durée de ce froid et l'endroit où ils se trouvent[21].
L. delicatula endommage directement les plantes en suçant leur sève élaborée ; des dommages significatifs peuvent se produire quand de nombreux insectes attaquent la même plante et conduire au flétrissement des branches ou même de la plante entière[22]. Il provoque aussi des dommages indirects, par exemple par sa production de miellat et par la sève qui suinte des trous qu'il fait sur les troncs ; ces accumulations peuvent attirer des fourmis, des abeilles, des bourdons et des guêpes[9]. Elles suscitent aussi le croissance de moisissures qui réduisent le potentiel photosynthétique de la plante, ce qui peut même causer sa mort[15],[12].
L. delicatula choisit normalement l'ailante glutineux (Ailanthus altissima) pour se nourrir et pondre, mais si cette espèce n'est pas présente, il peut pondre sur n'importe quel objet immobile, naturel ou artificiel, et consommer une grande variété de plantes. Les œufs sont facilement transportés par mégarde, ce qui leur permet d'étendre leur aire de répartition. On pense que l'espèce est arrivée de cette manière aux États-Unis, par des œufs collés sur un objet importé d'Asie en Pennsylvanie.
À l'âge adulte, L. delicatula vole à la recherche de nouvelles plantes hôtes, mais ne prospère pas si A. altissima est absent. À l'état de nymphe, il se nourrit aux dépens de la plante sur laquelle ont été posés les œufs. On ignore encore si l'espèce pourrait achever son cycle biologique en l'absence complète d'ailantes ; des études en laboratoire suggèrent que les adultes ont du mal à survivre sur d'autres plantes[17].
Lycorma delicatula a été accidentellement introduit en 2006 en Corée du Sud, où il est considéré comme une espèce envahissante depuis 2007. En l'absence d'ennemi naturel, il a depuis augmenté sa gamme de plantes hôtes, attaquant au moins 65 espèces[11]. Sa distribution a été prévue grâce à l'utilisation d'un modèle informatique, montrant qu'il a le potentiel de s'installer dans la plus grande partie du pays[23]. Plus encore, il semble y avoir une corrélation entre la distribution de l'ailante glanduleux et les dégâts sur les vignes, dans la mesure où cet arbre pousse couramment à proximité des vignobles sud-coréens[15]. L. delicatula est considéré comme un ravageur de la vigne, provoquant un déclin du nombre et de la qualité des raisins récoltés. Il n'existe pas de données chiffrées confirmant cette corrélation, mais elle est largement supposée[24],[15].
Lycorma delicatula a été détecté pour la première fois aux États-Unis dans le comté de Berks, au nord-ouest de Philadelphie[25]. Le 29 septembre 2014, le département de l'agriculture de Pennsylvanie et sa commission de la chasse ont confirmé sa présence. Ses préférences en matière de plantes hôtes en font un danger pour la viticulture, les arbres fruitiers et l'industrie du bois. Le plus grand risque de dissémination étant le transport de matériaux contenant des groupes d'œufs sur des écorces, des pierres et d'autres surfaces lisses[9], le département de l'agriculture de Pennsylvanie a interdit le 1er novembre 2014 le transport depuis sept municipalités d'objets pouvant en abriter, notamment le bois de chauffage, les tondeuses à gazon, les chaises de jardin, les camions et les véhicules de loisir[9]. La présence de groupes d'œufs anciens a montré que l'insecte était sans doute sur place depuis au moins 2012, et qu'il avait survécu au froid inhabituel de l'hiver 2013-2014[20]. Un groupe de travail constitué d'universitaires et de scientifiques du département de l'Agriculture des États-Unis, a été formé sous la direction de celui-ci « pour déterminer ce qui est connu sur [L. delicatula] et quelles recherches sont nécessaires, y compris quelles analyses ADN pour préciser l'origine de l'infestation[11] ».
L. delicatula a aussi été signalé au Connecticut, au Maryland, au Delaware, dans le New Jersey, dans l'État de New York, en Pennsylvanie, en Virginie et en Virginie-Occidentale[26]. En juillet 2018, sa présence a été confirmée dans trois comtés du New Jersey[27] et un ordre de quarantaine a été diffusé pour huit comtés en août 2020[28]. En septembre 2018, il a été découvert à deux endroits de l'État de New York[29] et en Virginie[30]. Le 28 février 2019, le département de l'agriculture du Delaware a émis des règlements d'urgence établissant une quarantaine pour l'espèce[31]. Celle-ci a été signalée pour la première fois dans l'Ohio en octobre 2020[5],[6].
Le 14 août 2020, le département de l'agriculture de l'État de New York a annoncé que L. delicatula avait été découvert à Staten Island[32]. Des individus morts ont aussi été interceptés dans l'Oregon et en Californie, bien qu'aucun insecte vivant n'ait été observé[33]. Ceci augmente les craintes d'introduction accidentelle dans d'autres États.
L'extension potentielle de l'espèce est importante si elle n'est pas stoppée. Elle couvrirait tout l'est du pays, ainsi que des vallées viticoles et agricoles cruciales des États de la côte Pacifique[34] (vignoble de Californie).
Dans les semaines précédant le 16 novembre 2020, le département de l'Agriculture des États-Unis a détecté plusieurs individus morts dans des cargaisons au Michigan et le département de l'Agriculture et du développement rural du Michigan (en) a demandé aux transporteurs, aux entrepôts et aux conducteurs d'être à l'affût d'autres arrivée dans l'État[35],[36],[37],[38],[39].
Le risque d'introduction depuis les États-Unis est minime[34]. Le gouvernements canadiens sont soucieux de maintenir la quarantaine et espèrent qu'elle réussira[40],[41]. La plus grande partie du pays est bien trop froide pour l'espèce, mais les modélisations montrent que la Sud-ouest de l'Ontario et le sud d'autres provinces lui seraient modérément favorables, ce qui veut dire qu'elle pourrait s'y installer en petits nombres[34].
Le département de l'agriculture de Pennsylvanie a émis les recommandations suivantes[42] :
En 2020, le département de l'Agriculture de Pennsylvanie recommande plusieurs pesticides différents, dont des savons insecticides, l'huile de neem, les pyréthrines, des huiles essentielles ainsi que la bifenthrine, le carbaryl et le dinotéfurane pour pulvériser sur les troncs, l'imidaclopride, le spinosad, le tébuconazole et la zeta-cyperméthrine[1].
Des pièges collants à la base des arbres ont aussi été utilisés[15]. En Pennsylvanie, des pièges collants bruns ont été efficaces pour capturer les nymphes, même si les adultes peuvent être assez forts pour s'en échapper[15]. Des études ont montré que les pièges bruns sont plus efficaces que les bleus ou les jaunes[44]. On a aussi découvert que L. delicatula est attiré par certaines kairomones émises par leurs plantes hôtes et les adultes comme les nymphes des stades deux à quatre semblent aussi attirés par l'huile de menthe douce. On suppose que ces produits (comme le salicylate de méthyle) pourraient être utilisés pour améliorer l'attractivité des pièges collants[45].
En 2019, des chercheurs du laboratoire d'Ann Hajek (en) à l'Université Cornell ont découvert que deux champignons indigènes, Beauveria bassiana et Batkoa major, tuent L. delicatula[46],[47] ; Beauveria bassiana a aussi montré sa capacité à le tuer dans des essais de biopesticides[48]
Quelques prédateurs de l'espèce ont été identifiés dans son habitat naturel en Chine, mais ils ne sont pas encore utilisés en lutte biologique. Le plus notable testé est la guêpe parasitoïde Anastatus orientalis (famille des Eupelmidae), en raison de son taux élevé de parasitisme des œufs de L. delicatula ; elle fait l'objet d'études en Corée du Sud[49] et aux États-Unis, où elle est évaluée en quarantaine jusqu'à ce que les chercheurs soit certains qu'elle ne devienne pas elle-même une espèce envahissante susceptible de s'attaquer à d'autres insectes[50].
Lycorma delicatula est une espèce de fulgore indigène de certaines régions du sud de la Chine, de Taïwan et du Viêt Nam et qui s'est répandue au Japon, en Corée du Sud et aux États-Unis. Bien que cet insecte ait deux paires d'ailes, comme les autres fulgores, il saute plus qu'il ne vole. Il a pour plantes-hôtes les vignes, les arbres fruitiers à noyaux et les espèces du genre Malus, bien qu'il préfère l'Ailante glanduleux (Ailanthus altissima).
Dans son habitat d'origine, il est limité par des prédateurs naturels ou des pathogènes. Il a été introduit en Corée du Sud par accident en 2006 et y est depuis considéré comme nuisible. En septembre 2014, il a été signalé pour la première fois aux États-Unis et en 2020 il constitue une espèce envahissante dans la vallée du Delaware, le nord du Delaware, l'est du Maryland l'est de la Pennsylvanie, le sud du New Jersey, l'État de New York, le Connecticut, la Virginie septentrionale et l'Ohio,.
Lycorma delicatula je vrsta polkrilca iz družine svetivcev, izvorno razširjena v subtropskih predelih Vzhodne Azije, ki se trenutno širi po Korejskem polotoku in Severni Ameriki, kjer velja za invazivno vrsto.[1]
So razmeroma velike žuželke, ki v mirovanju od glave do konice kril merijo 2 do 3 cm, pri čemer so samci manjši od samic. Imajo tudi skoraj tako dolge noge. Od daleč zaradi velikosti in obarvanosti kril spominjajo na nočne metulje, od katerih pa jih je možno preprosto ločiti po obliki glave in debelem zadku. Glava in noge so črne ali temnorjave, osnovna barva zadka pa je živorumena s črnimi progami po trebušni in hrbtni strani. Prvi par kril je sivkaste barve, pri konici z mrežo svetlejših žil na temni podlagi, pri bazi pa svetlosivo osnovo, posejano s črnimi pikami. Zadnji par kril ima na sprednji strani (bližje glavi) črne in bele proge ter živordečo osnovno obarvanost s črnimi pikami na zadnji strani. Samce je možno hitro ločiti od samic po izrastkih na konici zadka, ki so rdeči (pri samicah črni).[2]
Iz območij, kjer je Lycorma delicatula domorodna, je malo podatkov, v Južni Koreji in ZDA pa se razvije en rod na leto. Samica jeseni izleže maso 30–50 jajčec na gladko površino (največkrat lubje velikega pajesena, lahko pa tudi na steno ali kak gladek predmet v okolici) in jo prekrije z voskasto prevleko, ki se na zraku strdi v ooteko. Odrasli prek zime poginejo. Maja naslednje leto se izležejo nimfe, ki do konca julija preidejo skozi štiri stadije, nato pa se preobrazijo v odraslo žival. Prvi trije stadiji so črne barve z belimi pikami po telesu in nogah, osnovna obarvanost četrtega pa je rdečkasta, prav tako s pikami.[2]
Odrasli so dnevno aktivni. Tako ličinke kot odrasli se aktivno premikajo in hitro kolonizirajo nove primerne habitate, poleg tega lahko jajčeca, prilepljena na predmete, nevedoč razširja človek z mednarodno trgovino, tako da je bil prihod na druge celine samo vprašanje časa.[2]
Je polifaga vrsta, ki se prehranjuje na olesenelih delih različnih rastlin. Med pogostejšimi gostitelji so drevesa in grmovnice, kot so veliki pajesen (Ailanthus altissima), kitajska tona (Toona sinensis), mandžurski oreh (Juglans mandshurica), cedrovec vrste Cedrela fissilis in indijska lipovka (Melia azedarach).[1] Skupno je bilo zabeleženih že več kot 70 vrst gostiteljev, pri čemer so ličinke manj »izbirčne« kot odrasli. Jajčeca najpogosteje odlagajo na veliki pajesen.[2]
Osebki se radi združujejo v gruče in se prehranjujejo skupaj.[2] S prebadanjem lubja povzročajo temnenje in izpostavlja tkivo okužbi s plesnimi, zato velja vrsta za škodljivca v parkovnih nasadih.[3] Ob prehranjevenju večjih gruč ličink poganjki ovenijo in odmrejo.[4] Problematično pa je predvsem dejstvo, da izločajo velike količine odvečnih rastlinskih sokov in voska, s čemer popackajo rastlino in okolico. Gručo je možno že na daleč opaziti po mravljah, osah, sršenih in čebelah, ki jih privabljajo ti izločki. Na njih se hitro razvije tudi plesen.[2]
Vrsta se naravno pojavlja po jugovzhodnem delu Kitajske, v Laosu, Tajvanu in Vietnamu.[1] Na Kitajskem jo uporabljajo v tradicionalni medicini za izdelavo pripravka proti otekanju.[2]
Po več desetletjih negotovosti glede opažanj se je Lycorma delicatula leta 2004 potrjeno pojavila v Južni Koreji in v roku dveh let postala zelo številčna na nekaterih območjih zahodnega dela države, zato je očitno, da se tam uspešno razmnožuje. Poleg običajnih gostiteljev napada tudi druge rastline, med njimi divjo trto (rod Vitis), hkrati pa zbuja nelagodje zaradi svoje velikosti, če prileti v stanovanje ali sadovnjak – osebki namreč ne kažejo pretiranega strahu pred človekom.[4]
Desetletje kasneje, 2014, so jo prvič opazili v Severni Ameriki, natančneje v ameriški zvezni državi Pensilvanija na vzhodni obali celine, kjer se je ustalila in se zdaj širi kljub poskusom iztrebitve. Tam po eni strani predstavlja možnost, da bo pripomogla k zatiranju velikega pajesena, ki je sam invazivna vrsta, po drugi strani pa že povzroča težave v sadjarstvu in vinogradništvu.[2] Poleg Pensilvanije so jo opazili tudi že v nekaj sosednjih zveznih državah.[1]
Zaradi tveganja za prihod v Evropo Evropska in sredozemska organizacija za varstvo rastlin (EPPO) priporoča uvedbo tarčnega monitoringa in karantenskih ukrepov v državah članicah.[5]
Lycorma delicatula je vrsta polkrilca iz družine svetivcev, izvorno razširjena v subtropskih predelih Vzhodne Azije, ki se trenutno širi po Korejskem polotoku in Severni Ameriki, kjer velja za invazivno vrsto.
꽃매미 또는 주홍날개꽃매미는 노린재목 꽃매미과에 속하는 곤충이며, 매미아목에 속하지만 매미보다는 뛰는 방식이나 생활방식 등이 매미충 종류에 가깝다. 주로 중화인민공화국 남부와 동남아시아 일대를 주요 서식지로 하며, 주로 포도나무 열매와 가죽나무를 해치는 해충이다. 꽃매미라는 이름보다는 '중국매미'라는 별명으로 더 알려져 있다. 대한민국의 생태계교란 야생생물로 지정되어 있다.
꽃매미의 주요 서식지는 중국 중남부, 베트남, 대만, 인도 등 아시아 일대를 중심으로 서식하고 있다[1] 2014년에는 미국 펜실베이니아에서 처음 발견되어[2] 퇴치 노력에도 불구하고 뉴저지, 필라델피아, 버지니아, 델라웨어, 메릴랜드 등 주변 지역으로 빠르게 영역을 넓히며 심각한 피해를 입히고 있다.[3]
산림에서 서식하다가 포도, 배, 복숭아 등 과수에 피해를 입히고 있다. 유충과 성충은 나무의 즙액을 빨아서 성장을 저해하고, 피해가 심한 줄기는 죽는다. 많은 양의 분비물 배설로 그을음병을 유발하여 과실의 품질이 저하된다.[8]또한 생태계에 좋은 영향을 주지 않아 생태계교란동식물12종에 포함되어 있다. 성충과 약충 모두 과수원이나 야산의 다양한 나무에 모여 즙을 빤다.
1～3령 약충기간인 5월 상순부터 6월 중순까지가 방제 적기이므로 이미다클로프리드 액제(4%) 1,000배액으로 희석하여 2주 간격으로 2회 살포한다. 4령 성충은 페니트로티온, 티아클로프리드 등을 1,000배액으로 희석하여 2주 간격으로 2회 살포한다.
꽃매미는 흔히 천적이 없다고 알려져 있지만, 실제로는 거미, 사마귀, 파리매, 밀잠자리, 쌍살벌등 곤충을 먹이로 하는 동물들의 먹이가 된다. 애벌레도 거미에게 잡아먹힌다. 하지만 워낙 수가 많은지라 만만치 않다.
2015년 토착곤충인 벼룩좀벌이 꽃매미의 알에 자신의 알을 낳는 방식으로 번식하여 천척이 됨이 발견되었다.[9]
이후 농촌진흥청에서는 2018년 벼룩좀벌의 대량증식 방법을 찾아내었다.[10]
나무줄기를 기어오르는 습성이 있기 때문에 나무밑둥 50～100 cm 부근에 끈끈이트랩을 설치하여 방제하고, 월동기에 나무껍질을 벗겨 알덩어리를 제거한 후 잔재물과 함께 불태우면 다음해 발생량을 줄일 수 있다. 하지만 나무 밑둥에 끈끈이를 붙여도 날아오르면 아무 소용이 없다. 또, 포도나무에는 다량의 농약을 뿌려야만 꽃매미를 막을 수 있다.
樗鷄(저계), 斑衣(반의사선)라고도 한다. '주홍날개꽃매미'라는 이름으로 널리 알려져 있지만 2010년부터 '꽃매미'가 국명이 되었으며 기존의 '꽃매미'라 불리던 종인 Limois kikuchii는 희조꽃매미로 이름이 바뀌었다. 이후 2019년 국립생물자원관 국가생물총목록에 따르면 국내종인 희조꽃매미는 학명이 Limois emelianovi Oshanin, 1908로 바뀌었고, 외래종인 꽃매미는 주홍날개꽃매미로 다시 국명이 바뀌었다.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
