Like many other percids, darters communicate mainly through coloration. Males use their bright body coloration to display agression to other males and to court females. Similarly, females may signal to males through changes in body color contrast (McFarland and Strange, 2003).
Communication Channels: visual
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
There has been a lack of research on fish predators of E. blennioides, although both smallmouth bass and several kinds of trout (brook, brown, and rainbow) have been observed to prey on darters. A more common predator is the avian common merganser, which often stops and feeds in darter habitats during its northward spring migration (Englert and Seghers, 1983).
Many darters avoid predation by other fish through a behavior known as "freezing" -- when a predator is present, the fish will simply stop moving for a specified amount of time, and then resumes normal activity levels again. This avoidance tactic is linked to coloration. Freezing is the best strategy for non-breeding males, whose cryptic coloration helps camoflauge them against the stream bottom. However, in the breeding season, brightly colored male darters may try to flee instead of freeze. However, for E. blennioides, the bright green breeding color is actually further protection, as it blends in well with filamentous algae habitats preferred for spawning (Miller, 1968).
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Etheostoma blennioides are small members of the perch family, first discovered by naturalist Constantine Rafenesque in 1819 (Dalton, 1991). Like all darters, greensides lack a swim bladder and live on the bottom substrate (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1993). They average 76 mm in total length, with a cylindrical body (Dalton, 1991) covered with ctenoid scales (Scott and Grossman, 1998) and a broad, triangular head (Dalton, 1991). Their eyes are large and located on each side of the apex (Discover Life in America, 2004). The snout is bluntly rounded, with a small terminal mouth (Dalton, 1991). They have two separate but closely-spaced dorsal fins (Dalton, 1991); the first dorsal fin is edged in white and has 12-14 hard spines, while the second has streaks of black and contains 13-16 soft rays and extends above the first fin (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1993; Bailey et al., 2004). There is also a small sharp spine on the posterior of the opercle. The pectoral fins are large and well-developed, the pelvic fins are located anteriorly, and the caudal fin is often slightly indented (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1993). The caudal, anal, and pelvic fins are all light green in color (Dalton, 1991).
The dorsal surface is olive-green or brown with dark red spots on the upper sides and at the base of the dorsal fins (Dalton, 1991). There are also two dark lines on the face, one extending downward from the eye to the snout and one extending from the eye to the maxillary (Scott and Grossman, 1998). The dark lateral patterning lightens to pale green down the sides, and gradually fades into a white ventral surface. The lower lateral sides have a dark green pattern of five to seven V-shaped bars. These bars are especially dark and visible on juveniles, who also have more pointed pelvic fins than adults (Scott and Grossman, 1998). Males are generally larger overall and also have larger anal, pectoral, pelvic, and first dorsal fins than females (Miller, 1986). Coloration also differs between sexes during the breeding season; males develop intense green to blue-green coloration on the lower sides, anal fins, pelvic fins, and head. The spiny dorsal fin, soft dorsal fin, caudal fins, and lower portions of the pectoral fins in male greenside darters may also become bright green, while the V-shaped lateral pattern turns into green vertical bars (Discover Life In America, 2004 ).
There are 4 different subspecies of Etheostoma blennioides: Etheostoma blennioides, E. b. newmanii, E. b. gutselli, and E. b. pholidotum. The best way to tell them apart is through scale counts and number of dorsal rays. E. b. newmanii has the highest scale count, the most dorsal rays, a fully scaled belly, and a well-developed upper lip. E. b. blennioides has fewer scales and dorsal rays than pholidotum. They also have more lateral blothes and a naked (scaleless) belly. E. b. gutselli has low scale counts, an anteriorally naked belly, no upper lip tip, and lack opercle scales. E. b. pholidotum has lower scale counts than E. b. newmanii and E. b. blennioides, as well as a small lip tip, and a completely scaled belly. E. b. newmanii and E. b. gutselli are considered to be more primitive forms of darter (Miller, 1968).
Greenside darters can be distinguished from other darters by their larger size, rounded snout, and coloration pattern: the rainbow darter (Etheostoma caeruleum) is bright blue and orange and has a pointy snout, while the johnny darter (Etheostoma nigricans) is brown and tan (Bailey et al., 2004).
Average length: 76 mm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; male more colorful
Etheostoma blennioides typically lives up to 3 or 4 years in the wild. Lack of both food and habitat can potentially limit growth and survival (Bunt et al., 1998). For example, spawning will often only occur in riffle areas with filamentous algae beds. Darters such as E. blennioides are also extremely sensitive to siltation and turbidity. Excessive sediment smothers eggs, and decreases the abundance of certain common prey items, such as Ephemeroptera (Shiels, 2003), and may also affect darter reproduction by blocking light needed for filamentous algae to grow in darter spawning habitats (Dalton, 1991).
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 5 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 3 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 3 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 5 years.
Greenside darters are benthic organisms and spend their lives associated with the substrate. They live in deep riffle habitats consisting of cobble and loose boulders covered by filamentous green algae, upon which they lay their eggs (Bunt et al., 1998). These fish also prefer moderate to fast-moving water of low turbidity (Dalton, 1991).
Habitat Regions: temperate ; freshwater
Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; lakes and ponds; rivers and streams
Etheostoma blennioides, the greenside darter, is restricted to a few major watersheds of North America. Its range extends from New York and the Potomac River drainage west to Kansas and south to Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi and Alabama, mostly within the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Etheostoma blennioides is also found in the Lake St. Clair and Thames River system in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. Greenside darters are most common in creeks and rivers in east-central North America. However they are considered to be of "special concern" in Kansas and Mississippi and rare in Canada (Dalton, 1991).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
In general, greenside darters feed on immature benthic insects in the 1-6 mm range (Wynes and Wissing, 1982), although this diet varies with season and prey availability (Gray et al., 1997). Chironomid larvae (midges/flies) are the major prey taxon consumed, Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Plecoptera (stoneflies) larvae are also common prey items (Hlohowskyj and White, 1983). Ephemeroptera and Simuloidii (blackflys) are a larger portion of the diet during the winter (Hlohowskyj and White, 1983). Prey size and taxa consumed also shifts from juvenile to adult; juveniles consume smaller prey and more chironomids than adults. Females also tend to consume more than males, expecially during the spawning season (Gray et al., 1997).
Animal Foods: insects
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )
Besides serving as both predators and prey in their ecosystems, E. blennioides also plays an integral role in the reproductive cycle of several freshwater mussels, including endangered species(Upper Thames River Conservation Authority,2003). Microscopic mussel larvae, also known as glochidia, attach to the gills of certain fish, including E. blenniodes, immediately after they are released into the water. Because mussels cannot swim, the fish provides their means of transport and distribution into other areas of the stream. As a result, the continued existence of these mussels is directly linked to that of its greenside darter hosts (Shiels, 2003).
While E. blennioides has no commerical value and are not regarded as a sport fish, they are often used as aquarium species (Dalton, 1991). They are also useful for scientific investigations of food resource partitioning and habitat selectivity because they share many characteristics with other members of their genus (i.e. Etheostoma caerulum, E. nigrum, E. flabellare) and can be easily compared (Hlohowskyj and White, 1983).
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; research and education
There are no known adverse effects of E. blennioides on humans.
At fertilization eggs are laid on algae, close to the point of attachment with a rock. Afterwards, no more parental protection is given. The eggs will hatch 18-20 days after fertilization in water between 13 and 15 degrees celsius. The fry are pelagic, totally transparent (Muller, 2000), and live off their yolk sacs for the first six days after hatching (Dalton, 1991). Greenside darters are very delicate when they first hatch, and even very small changes in feeding or water quality can cause mortality (Muller, 2000). They begin feeding on plankton eight days after hatching (Dalton, 1991). After approximately two weeks, the fry start going to the bottom and acting like adults. Initial growth is rapid; fry attain lengths of about 50-55 mm by age 1 (Discover Life In America, 2004), at which time they also reach sexual maturity. Etheostoma blennioides is short lived, typically surviving for three years, though some live up to 4 or 5 years (Dalton, 1991).
Although greenside darters are not officially listed as endangered or threatened, they are considered vulnerable in Canada and rare in Kansas and Mississippi (Dalton, 1991).
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
Both sexes of greenside darters reach sexual maturity and spawn in the spring 1 year after hatching. Breeding only occurs when the water temperature has reached and remained at at least at 10.6 degrees Celsius for several days. Spawning is also restricted to riffle habitats containing boulders and rubble covered in filamentous algae. Greenside darters spawn in pairs, although both sexes are promiscuous and will spawn with many different partners over the course of one breeding season. It takes 10-12 bouts of spawning over a 4-5 week period for each female to deposit all her eggs. Males perform an elaborate ritual to establish dominance and claim territory, although the female will choose the actual spawning site (Dalton, 1991).
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
The breeding season of Estheostma blennioides is from April to June; spawning activity peaks in May. Spawning will not occur until the water temperature warms to at least 10.6 degrees Celsius. Greenside darters prefer to spawn in riffle areas with large amounts of filamentous algae. However, they have been observed to spawn over substrate alone. Males select a small area (100 cm in diameter or less) to defend as their mating territory, and then proceed to initiate spawning through elaborate courtship dances (Radabaugh, 1989). The pair may also chase each other around prior to spawning (Muller, 2000). Once a pair is formed, the female selects a site in algae and takes up an angled postion. The male will then mount and the two fish vibrate in unison for several seconds while the eggs are released and fertilized (Miller, 1968). Eggs are typically laid in batches of anywhere from 2 to 192 (Smith, 1985). These fertilized eggs are demersal and adhesive; the female lays them on the algae right above where it attaches to the rock, where they remain until hatching (Dalton, 1991). Males will sometimes remain in the area to guard the eggs until hatching (Smith, 1985). A pair may spawn more than once at short time intervals (Miller, 1968). Both sexes will also spawn with many different partners over the breeding season (Dalton, 1991).
Breeding season: April to June
Range number of offspring: 370 to 1400.
Average gestation period: 19 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 365 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 365 days.
Most darters provide little or no parental care other than attaching their fertilized eggs to the bases of filamentous algae where they are less visible to predators (Dalton, 1991). The only additional parental investment observed in E. blennioides is the guarding of fertilized eggs by the male parent (Radabaugh, 1989). This may become more difficult over the course of the spawning season as these males continue to mate with multiple females.
Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male)
The greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides) is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish, a darter from the subfamily Etheostomatinae, part of the family Percidae, which also contains the perches, ruffes and pikeperches. It inhabits swift riffles in the eastern United States and southern Ontario.
Greenside darters typically live for three to five years, grow to a maximum of 5.2 inches (132 mm) standard length and sexually mature at one to two years of age. Greenside darters are reproductively active from February to April in the Midwest and Southeastern United States. Spawning occurs over algae- or moss-covered rocks in deep, swift riffles that are guarded by males that vigorously defended against intruders. Females linger in pools below the riffle and move into a male's territory when ready to spawn. Eggs are viscous and stick together in small clumps on green algae (Cladophora), moss (Fontinalis), and riverweed (Podostemaceae). E. blennioides is insectivorous, with analyzed gut contents containing Nematocera larvae, more specifically black fly and midge (Chironomidae) larvae. Significant numbers of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) and caddisfly (Trichoptera) nymphs were also found.
The greenside darters have an elongated body with a long and rounded snout. The dorsum is greenish-brown, with six or seven dark quadrate saddles and the sides with five to eight dark green, typically U- or W-shaped blotches. The nape, cheeks, opercle, and belly are completely scaled, with the breast naked. The anal fin has six to 10 rays (usually eight) and 13-16 pectoral fin rays, and both are bright green in breeding males; caudal fins are yellowish to clear; dorsal fin rays number 12-15, with red basal bands; breeding males have intensely bluish-green nasal and oral areas and sometimes black on the head.[3]
E. blennioides is currently secure throughout its range, except in Mississippi, where its habitat was altered by the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway.
The E. blennioides subspecies are believed to have diverged in separate drainage systems and glacial refugia during the Pleistocene ice ages,[4] which destroyed older connections and shaped new river systems.[5]
Greenside darters inhabit gravel riffles of large creeks to medium rivers and often are found in swift waters over large boulders and large rubble.[3]
The greenside darter was first formally described in 1819 by the French naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1783-1840) with the type locality given as the Ohio River.[7] Rafinesque placed the new species in a new genus Etheostoma and it was subsequently designated as the type species of that genus by Louis Agassiz in 1854.[8] Rafinesque gave the species the specific name blennoidies because of its resemblance to the blennies.[2]
As previously stated, Miller (1968) concluded the E. blennioides complex consists of the four subspecies above.[4] Unpublished studies by Richard L. Mayden and colleagues indicate E. b. newmanii from the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers may be a valid species and distinct from other members of the complex.[3] The former subspecies, E. b. gustelli has recently been re-elevated to species status, Etheostoma gustelli (Tuckasegee darter) based on lack of hybridization.
Etheostoma blennioides belongs to the subgenus Etheostoma that contains these species:
Etheostoma blennioides is further nested within the greenside darter group that contains E. blennius, E. gutselli, E. inscriptum, E. swannanoa, and E. thalassinum.[6]
The greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides) is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish, a darter from the subfamily Etheostomatinae, part of the family Percidae, which also contains the perches, ruffes and pikeperches. It inhabits swift riffles in the eastern United States and southern Ontario.
