Basket Oak

Quercus michauxii is easily distinguished from other chestnut-leaved oaks by the felty hairs of the abaxial leaf surface and rather large acorn cups with attenuate-acute, loose scales. This species is no longer extant in Oklahoma. Historical reports from Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York have not been confirmed; possibly populations are no longer extant. (See Quercus montana for a discussion of nomenclature and the uncertain application of the name Q . prinus ).

Trees , deciduous, to 20 m. Bark light brown or gray, scaly. Twigs brown or reddish brown, 2-3 mm diam., with sparse spreading hairs or glabrate. Buds reddish brown, ovoid, apex rounded or acute, glabrous or minutely puberulent. Leaves: petiole 5-20 mm. Leaf blade broadly obovate or broadly elliptic, (60-)100-280 × 50-180 mm, base rounded-acuminate or broadly cuneate, margins regularly toothed, teeth rounded, dentate, or acuminate, secondary veins 15-20 on each side, parallel, straight or somewhat curved, apex broadly rounded or acuminate; surfaces abaxially light green or yellowish, felty to touch because of conspicuous or minute, erect, 1-4-rayed hairs, adaxially glabrous or with minute simple or fascicled hairs. Acorns 1-3, subsessile or more often on axillary peduncle to 20-30 mm; cup hemispheric, broadly hemispheric or even short-cylindric, 15-25 mm deep × 25-40 mm wide, enclosing 1/2 nut or more, scales very loosely appressed, distinct to base, gray or light brown, moderately to heavily tuberculate, tips silky-tomentose; nut light brown, ovoid or cylindric, 25-35 × 20-25 mm, glabrous. Cotyledons distinct.

Ala., Ark., Del., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ind., Ky., La., Md., Miss., Mo., N.J., N.C., Pa., S.C., Tenn., Tex., Va.

Flowering early-late spring.

Bottomlands, rich sandy woods and swamps, on variety of soils; 0-600m.

Quercus houstoniana C. H. Muller

More info for the terms: swamp, tree

chestnut oak
rock chestnut oak
rock oak
tanbark oak

TAXONOMY:
This Species Review covers 2 closely related oaks:

Quercus michauxii Nutt., swamp chestnut oak
Quercus montana Willd., chestnut oak

These 2 taxa have frequently been lumped in scientific literature as
Quercus prinus L. [38,49], and referred to as "chestnut oak". Since much
of the literature does not distinguish between Quercus michauxii and
Quercus montana, the 2 taxa are referred to as chestnut oak in the broad sense
(chestnut oak IBS)in this Species Review.

Chestnut oak and/or swamp chestnut oak may naturally hybridizes with the
following species [38]:

x Q. alba (white oak): Q. X saulii Schneid.
x Q. bicolor (swamp white oak)
x Q. robur (English oak): Q. X sargentii Rehd.
x Q. stellata (post oak): Q. X bernardiensis W. Wolf


LIFE FORM:
Tree

FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS:
No special status

OTHER STATUS:
Chestnut oak is listed as endangered in Maine's Official List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants [15].





DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus michauxii, Q. montana
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION:
Swamp chestnut oak is distributed from Illinois and New Jersey south to
Texas and Florida. Chestnut oak distributed from Upper Michigan and
Maine south to Louisiana and Georgia [38,49].

Chestnut oak is listed as endangered in Maine's Official List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants [15].

More info for the term: swamp

Swamp chestnut oak is distributed from Illinois and New Jersey south to
Texas and Florida. Chestnut oak distributed from Upper Michigan and
Maine south to Louisiana and Georgia [38,49].



Distributions of swamp chestnut oak and chestnut oak, respectively [72].

More info for the terms: hardwood, relative dominance, tree

Prescribed fire is often used to control hardwoods and promote the
establishment of pine.  In a study on the South Carolina Piedmont,
spring felling of leafed-out residual oaks (chestnut, scarlet, and
black) followed by summer burning produced greater reductions of
dominant sprout height and sprout clump crown diameters at the end of
the first postfire growing season than did winter felling followed by
summer broadcast burning.  Spring felling was probably more effective
because carbohydrate root reserves are low after leaves emerge [22].

Equations have been developed to predict lumber value losses due to fire
wounding of chestnut oak (IBS) [42].  An equation has also been developed to
predict the size of a fire wound on a chestnut oak from the area of the
exterior discolored bark and the diameter of the damaged tree [55].

While fire has been suggested as a tool for improving upland oak
regeneration, it has been used with only mixed success [44].  Five- to
six-year-old naturally regenerating mixed hardwood stands were
prescribed burned in order to increase the relative dominance of oak.
The former harvested stands were 60 to 90 percent oak, but the
regenerating stand had a large number of yellow-poplar, black cherry,
and white ash (Fraxinus americana).  The fire retarded the development
of the young stand but did not increase the relative dominance of oak,
which was estimated to be not more than 30 to 40 percent of the future
stand.  The season of fire (spring versus fall) did not change the
outcome [47].  In such a stand, there may not be sufficient differences
in fire resistance between oak stems and those of other species for fire
to give oaks a distinct advantage [44].

More info for the terms: forest, natural, swamp

Swamp chestnut and chestnut oaks are important species of eastern upland
deciduous and coniferous forests and may occur in pure stands [17].  They
constitute important components of the subcanopy and canopy layers of
Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens) forests [80].  Chestnut oak IBS codominates
with eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) on particularly steep east-facing
slopes in the Hudson River Valley in New York [24].

Because of the high mortality of American chestnut (Castanea dentata)
caused by the chestnut blight fungus (Endothia parasitica) introduced
from Asia in the early 1900's, the former Appalachian oak (Quercus
spp.)-American chestnut forest is now dominated by swamp chestnut
and/or chestnut oak, white oak, and northern red oak (Q. rubra) [29,33,49,79]. 
Keever [33] recommends that former oak-American chestnut forests be named
chestnut oak forests.

The following published classifications list swamp chestnut oak and/or
chestnut oak as dominant or codominant:

Deciduous Forest [26] (swamp chestnut oak, chestnut oak)
Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains [79] (chestnut oak IBS)
The Natural Communities of South Carolina [54] (chestnut oak ISB)
Eastern Deciduous Forest [74] (chestnut oak IBS)
Forest Vegetation of the Lower Alabama Piedmont [25] (chestnut oak IBS)
The Natural Forests of Maryland:  an explanation of the vegetation map
    of Maryland [8] (chestnut oak IBS)

More info for the term: tree

Tree

More info for the terms: competition, density, forest, frequency, hardwood, mesic, seed, seed tree, top-kill, tree

To regenerate upland oaks successfully, advance regeneration must be 4
to 5 feet (1.2-1.5 m) tall before the overstory is removed.  Successful
regeneration of a mixed oak forest can only be accomplished after
clearcutting if there are adequate numbers of older advance regeneration
[62].  Sanders [61] recommended that there be at least 433
well-distributed oak sprouts and saplings per acre (1,070/ha).
Otherwise, a shelterwood silviculture system is needed to give oak
regeneration time and partial light to grow.  For best results, the
shelterwood cut should leave a 60 to 70 percent stocking density.  All
nonoak stems in the understory larger than 4 to 6 feet (1.2-1.8 m) tall
should be killed [62].

Forest managers have noticed a decrease in upland oak frequency in newly
regenerated stands after clearcutting, especially on good sites.  The
reason for the decrease is the inability of oak seedlings and sprouts to
compete successfully with species that have invaded the oak forest
understory in the absence of disturbance [62].  In West Virginia, 59
stands with a history of grazing, thinning, or light fire in the past
two decades had more oak regeneration than undisturbed stands [10].

The season of clearcutting appears to have an effect on the regeneration
of upland oak stands.  On lower quality sites in south-central Ohio,
upland oaks (chestnut, scarlet, black, and white) were more favored over
mixed hardwoods after summer clearcutting than after winter
clearcutting.  The season of harvest (dormant season versus growing
season) did not affect regeneration on good sites [76].

Site quality affects the ability of upland oaks to regenerate.  In the
abovementioned study in south-central Ohio, medium-quality sites had
higher absolute and relative oak densities 18 to 20 years after
clearcutting than did good sites.  The oaks showed good early
establishment on both medium and good sites but were unable to compete
with the faster growing mesic hardwoods on good sites [76].  The seed
tree silviculture method was used on fair and good sites in an
Appalachian hardwood forest which contained chestnut oak.  Twelve years
after the seed-tree harvest cut and 9 years after seed trees were cut,
chestnut oak regeneration was abundant only on the fair site [68].

Thinning may or may not improve the growth of established chestnut oak
(IBS) stands.  Five years after thinning a sawtimber-sized stand, the 75- to
80-year-old chestnut oaks had not responded to the release [67].  Thinning
upland oak stands to retain the best acorn producers for wildlife
habitat enhancement did not improve acorn yields enough to justify the
efforts [16].  Information on thinning, stocking, growth, and yields of
upland oaks is detailed [23].

Planting chestnut oak (IBS) seedlings in old fields in the southern
Appalachian Mountains is generally unsuccessful unless the competition
is controlled for more than 3 years [18].  Information on storage,
seeding, and planting techniques for upland oaks is detailed [60].

In 26 chestnut oak stands in Pennsylvania and Maryland, advance
regeneration responded to the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) defoliation
of the canopy by increasing in height.  However, there was a large
influx of competing vegetation, and the oak component of future stands
will probably be reduced [30].

Chestnut oak (IBS) is one of the two most preferred host species of the
introduced gypsy moth, which defoliates trees [49].  Crow and Hicks [14]
developed hazard rating equations from site and stand characteristics
associated with chestnut oak mortality caused by insect defoliation.
The discriminant function equations correctly classified as dead or
alive 59 percent of the chestnut oaks in a study area in West Virginia.
The equations use the following variables:  d.b.h., height, site index,
percent slope, aspect, host preference of insect, shade tolerance, and
the number of years of defoliation [14].

Other insects which defoliate chestnut oak (IBS) include spring and fall
cankerworms (Paleacrita vernata and Alsophila pometaria), the forest
tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), the half-wing geometer (Phigalia
titea) [49], oak leafrollers (Archips spp.) [59], and the linden looper
(Erannis tilaria) [49].  Chestnut oak is susceptible to wood-boring
beetles, including the Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus columbianus),
Platypus spp., and Xyleborus spp.  Other wood borers that attack
chestnut oak include the oak timberworm (Arrhenodes minutus), the
carpenterworm (Prionoxystus robiniae), the little carpenterworm (P.
macmurtrei) [49], and the two-lined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus)
[51].

Chestnut oak (IBS) is susceptible to many oak diseases including oak wilt
(Ceratocystis fagacearum), twig-blight fungus (Diplodia longispora), and
stem cankers caused by Nectria galligena, Strumella coryneoidea, and
Botryodiplodia spp.  Important decay-causing fungi include Spongipellis
pachyodon, Stereum gausapatum, Armillaria mellea, Fistulina hepatica,
Wolfiporia cocos, Inonotus dryophilus, Xylobolus frustulatus, and
Perenniporia compacta.  Decay is common in stump sprouts, although the
incidence is lower for those that originate near the ground [49].

Chestnut oak (IBS) is also susceptible to, but rarely killed by, several gall
wasps (Cynipidae), a pit scale (Asterolecanium quercicola), and the
golden oak scale (A. variolosum).  Acorns are destroyed by nut weevils
(Curculio spp. and Conotrachelus spp.), the moth Valentinia glandulella,
and cynipid gall wasps [49].

Chestnut oaks (IBS) that are stressed from drought, gypsy moth defoliation,
spring frost defoliation, old age, fire, poor site conditions, or other
factors often succumb to secondary agents such as the two-lined chestnut
borer.  This scenario, in which a primary agent stresses the tree and a
secondary agent kills it, is known as "oak decline" and is responsible
for considerable chestnut oak mortality [51].

Herbicides have been used to control chestnut oak on sites where pine
regeneration is desired.  In order to convert a North Carolina
Appalachian site to white pine (Pinus strobus), picloram was applied in
May as 10 percent acid equivalent pellets at the rate of 4.5 pounds acid
equivalent per acre (5.0 kg ae/ha).  One year later, 29 percent of the
chestnut oaks showed complete crown kill or defoliation; 67 percent
showed leaf curling, crown biomass reduction, and/or chlorosis; and 4
percent exhibited no effect from the herbicide treatment [53].

Roundup (glyphosate) was used to control chestnut oak on a white pine
plantation in West Virginia.  Three subsequent mistblower applications
in August and September on small chestnut oak sprouts were 100 percent
effective after two growing seasons.  In the fall, saplings larger than
1 inch (2.5 cm) in d.b.h. were injected with 0.05 fluid ounce (1.5 ml)
of 20 and 50 percent solutions a few inches above the groundline in
1.5-inch (3.8 cm) spacings.  Two growing seasons after the injections,
100 percent of the chestnut oak saplings were dead and did not have
sprouts [78].

In Georgia, three herbicides were tested on chestnut oak.  Each tree
received one incision for every 3 inches (7.6 cm) in d.b.h., and each
incision was injected with 0.06 ounces (2 ml) of herbicide.  One year
after injection, chestnut oak injected with Arsenal at two different
concentrations (1 and 2 lbs AC 252,925 per gallon) had 100 percent
top-kill and no sprouting.  Garlon 3A (1.5 pounds triclopyr per gallon)
resulted in 40 percent top-kill.  Chestnut oak injected with
3,6-dichloropicolinic acid at two concentrations (1.5 and 3 pounds
XRM-3972 per gallon) resulted in 0 percent and 20 percent top-kill,
respectively [50].

Dead, standing chestnut oak killed by fire had the fastest decomposition
rate (11 percent per year) of ten species studied in the Great Smoky
Mountains National Park [28].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phenology

Flowers develop in the spring at the same time as leaf development [49].
In a 3-year study of chestnut oak (IBS) phenology in Pennsylvania, staminate
flowers, borne on ephemeral catkins, usually emerged during the first
week in May, and leaves unfolded several day later.  Pistillate flowers
appeared in the axils of leaves on the current year's shoots, usually 5
to 10 days after the staminate flowers emerged [63,64].

Pollen dispersal, largely controlled by weather, usually occurs 10 to 20
days after the staminate flowers emerge [49].  Cool weather delays
pollen dispersal [64].

Acorns mature in one growing season and drop from early September to
early October, usually 2 to 5 weeks before the acorns of other upland
oaks drop.  Acorns exhibit no dormancy and germinate in the fall.  If
the temperature is below 61 degrees Fahrenheit (16 deg C), shoot
development is inhibited by an induced epicotyl dormancy, but root
development continues.  Normal shoot development resumes in the spring
[49].

More info for the term: tree

   Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/root sucker

More info for the term: swamp

This Species Review covers 2 closely related oaks:

Quercus michauxii Nutt., swamp chestnut oak
Quercus montana Willd., chestnut oak

These 2 taxa have frequently been lumped in scientific literature as
Quercus prinus L. [38,49], and referred to as "chestnut oak". Since much
of the literature does not distinguish between Quercus michauxii and
Quercus montana, the 2 taxa are referred to as chestnut oak in the broad sense
(chestnut oak IBS)in this Species Review.

Chestnut oak and/or swamp chestnut oak may naturally hybridizes with the
following species [38]:

x Q. alba (white oak): Q. X saulii Schneid.
x Q. bicolor (swamp white oak)
x Q. robur (English oak): Q. X sargentii Rehd.
x Q. stellata (post oak): Q. X bernardiensis W. Wolf

Swamp chestnut oak is found in the forest cover type Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak (Society of American Foresters Type 91), which varies widely in composition (2). Often swamp chestnut oak and cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia) make up a majority of the stocking although if many species are in the mixture, they may account for only a plurality. Other hardwoods are white ash (Fraxinus americana), shagbark (Carya ovata), shellbark (C. laciniosa), mockernut (C. tomentosa), and bitternut (C. cordiformis) hickory Chief associates are white oak Quercus alba), Delta post oak (Q. stellata var. paludosa), Shumard oak (Q. shumardii), and blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica). Occasionally, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is important on first-bottom ridges. Minor associates include willow oak Quercus phellos), southern red oak (Q. falcata var. falcata), post oak (Q. stellata), American elm (Ulmus americana), winged elm (U. alata), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and spruce pine (P. glabra).

Among the noncommercial trees or plant associates are devils-walkingstick (Aralia spinosa), painted buckeye (Aesculus sylvatica), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), swamp dogwood (Cornus stricta), dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor), Coastal Plain willow (Salix caroliniana), American snowbell (Styrax americanus), southern arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), and possumhaw viburnum (V nudum).

Swamp chestnut oak grows in a humid, temperate climate characterized by hot summers, mild and short winters, and no distinct dry season. The growing season usually averages from 200 to 250 days through the main section of its commercial range. Average annual temperature ranges from 16° to 21° C (60° to 70° F) with an average annual precipitation of 1270 to 1520 min (50 to 60 in). The average annual maximum temperature is 38° C (100° F) and the average annual minimum is about -9° C (15° F). Approximately 50 percent of the rainfall occurs from April to September. The average noonday relative humidity is about 60 percent in mid-July.

Numerous fungi and insects damage swamp chestnut oak. The fungi include wood-decaying species of Fomes, Polyporus, and Stereum. Oak leaf blister (Taphrina caerulescens) is sporadic in occurrence, as is oak anthracnose (Gnomonia veneta) (3).

Swamp chestnut oak acorns are attacked by weevils such as Curculio pardalis, Conotrachelus naso, and C. posticatus, which consume the seed. Insect defoliators that attack the swamp chestnut are June beetles (Phyllophaga spp.), orangestriped oakworm (Anisota senatoria), fall cankerworm (Alsophila pometaria), spring cankerworm (Paleacrita vernata), forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria), yellownecked caterpillar (Datana ministra), variable oakleaf caterpillar (Heterocampa manteo), and the redhumped oakworm (Symmerista canicosta).

Borers that attack healthy trees are the red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus) in cambium and outer sapwood; carpenterworms (Prionoxystus spp.), in heartwood and sapwood; and the Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus columbianus), in the sapwood. Those attacking weakened trees include the twolined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus), in cambium; and the tilehorned prionus (Prionus imbricornis), in roots. Dying trees are attacked by the oak timberworm (Arrhenodes minutus) (1).

The golden oak scale (Asterolecanium variolosum) kills reproduction and tops in older trees. The gouty oak gall (Callirhytis quercuspunctata) and homed oak gall (C. cornigera) injure small limbs, while the basswood leafminer (Baliosus ruber) attacks the leaves.

Flowers of swamp chestnut oak appear about the same time as the leaves, from April to May. Swamp chestnut oak is monoecious. The fruit or acorn is nearly sessile and may be solitary or paired. Its cup is broad based and covers about one-third of the acorn. Scales on the cup are free to the base and are pubescent. Its dimensions are 1.9 to 3.2 cm (0.75 to 1.25 in) wide by 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 in) long. The acorns ripen and fall during September and October.

Swamp chestnut oak hybridizes with Quercus alba (Q. x beadlei Trel. ex Palmer); Q. lyrata (Q. x tottenii Melvin); and Q. macrocarpa (Q. x byarsii Sudw.) (6).

Swamp chestnut oak is a medium-size tree and may attain a height of 30.5 in (100 ft) at maturity on better sites. Heights of 18 to 24 m (60 to 80 ft) with trunk diameters of 61 to 91 cm (24 to 36 in) are normal for average sites. The trunk is often free of branches for 15 to 18 m (50 to 60 ft). Stout branches ascend at sharp angles to form a very strong crown. Volume of growing stock on commercial forest land in north Georgia for all diameter classes was 5.97 million m³ (211 million ft³. It has also been reported that where swamp chestnut grows with other hardwoods, a total volume in excess of 112 m³/ha (8,000 fbm/acre) is classed as a heavy sawtimber stand. A heavy pole stand is considered to have more than 432 stems/ha (175 stems/acre) ranging from 13 to 28 cm (5 to 21 in) in diameter at breast height.

Swamp chestnut oak is classed as intolerant of shade and requires openings for establishment. It normally receives heavy competition from vines, annuals, and brush that are common to most bottom-land hardwood sites. It is reported that when mature, however, this species retards the growth of understory vegetation, probably due to an allelopathic effect (5).

No information is currently available.

Trees begin to produce seed at about age 20 to 25 and attain their optimum production around age 40. Good seed crops can be expected every 3 to 5 years with poor to fair production the balance of the time. There are about 187 cleaned seeds per kilogram (85/lb), with a range of 77 to 430 (35 to 195) (7). The acorn is very palatable and is eaten by white-tailed deer, wild hogs, and squirrels. Squirrels are perhaps the most helpful animals in disseminating the acorns because they hoard far more than they can actually eat.

Animal activity greatly inhibits regeneration of swamp chestnut oak from seed. Germination, which is hypogeal, usually starts soon after seedfall, with little or no period of dormancy. A moist, well-drained loam, covered with a light litter layer, provides an excellent seedbed. First-year height growth is related to soil type and drainage. Second-year growth is only related to soil type. This suggests that the species is site sensitive (4).

The stem of the 1-year-old seedling is generally smooth but is covered near the terminal bud with hairs. At first it is reddish brown but becomes gray after the first year, especially at the base. Small, round, inconspicuous lenticels are found on the upper stem. The terminal bud is about 6 mm (0.25 in) long and light brown. The lateral buds are of the same color but are only about 3 mm (0.125 in) long. A cluster of lateral buds around the terminal bud is common.

The species is distributed widely on the best welldrained loamy first-bottom ridges but is principally found on well-drained silty clay and loamy terraces and colluvial sites in the bottom lands of large and small streams. Bayboro clay loam is representative of the edaphic condition that promotes the best growth of swamp chestnut oak in coastal South Carolina (4). These soils are found in the orders Alfisols and Inceptisols.

Wood from swamp chestnut oak is commercially useful for lumber in all kinds of construction, for agricultural implements, cooperage, fenceposts, baskets, and fuel.

Acorns from swamp chestnut oak serve as mast for various species of birds and mammals.

Swamp chestnut oak sprouts, though not prolifically, from roots and stumps.

Fagaceae -- Beech family

M. B. Edwards

Swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii) is known also as basket oak, for the baskets made from its wood, and cow oak because cows eat the acorns. One of the important timber trees of the South, it grows on moist and wet loamy soils of bottom lands, along streams and borders of swamps in mixed hardwoods. The high quality wood is used in all kinds of construction and for implements. The acorns are sweet and serve as food to wildlife.

Swamp chestnut oak extends along the Atlantic Coastal Plain from New Jersey and extreme eastern Pennsylvania, south to north Florida, and west to east Texas; it is found north in the Mississippi River Valley to extreme southeast Oklahoma, Arkansas, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, and locally to southeast Kentucky and eastern Tennessee (6).


-The native range of swamp chestnut oak.

Quercus michauxii, the swamp chestnut oak, is a species of oak in the white oak section Quercus section Quercus in the beech family. It is native to bottomlands and wetlands in the southeastern and midwestern United States, in coastal states from New Jersey to Texas, inland primarily in the Mississippi–Ohio Valley as far as Oklahoma, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana.