Ball pythons are carnivorous and have mobile lower and upper jaws. They use chemical and visual cues to hunt for their prey. Ball pythons sit and wait to ambush prey. As heavy-bodied snakes, they are less active and instead choose good ambush sites. The feeding strategy is to retract the head and neck and strike rapidly. After the rapid strike, they swallow prey alive or immobilize by constriction. They feed almost exclusively on rodents and eat infrequently. Infrequent feeders have adapted by having the capacity to widely regulate gastrointestinal functioning with feeding and fasting. Ball pythons prey on rodents and are vital to controlling these pests, especially in rural communities. Rodent prey includes African giant rats (Cricetomys gambianus), black rats (Rattus rattus), rufous-nosed rats (Oenomys species), shaggy rats (Dasymys species), and grass mice (Lemniscomys species).
Animal Foods: mammals
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
Ball pythons attempt to avoid detection by predators and to seek cover. Defenses include camouflage, escape attempts, bluffing displays, and biting. Ball pythons are best known for “balling,” in which they form a tight ball with the head at the center. There are few known predators of adults, although the trappers of Ghana have reported that black cobras (Naja nigricollis) prey on small and medium pythons. Some known predators, especially of young pythons, include humans (Homo sapiens), carnivorous mammals, and birds of prey.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
At birth, ball pythons range from 25 to 43 centimeters in length and grow to 1 to 1.5 meters as adults. There are some reports of ball pythons found in the wild at 1.83 meters in length. Their heads are larger than their relatively slender necks and they are considered heavy-bodied. The typical ball python has large brown markings with lighter medium-brown spots interspersed between the darker spots. They may also have yellow stripes from the nostrils through the eyes. The belly is generally ivory white. Adult female ball pythons are larger than adult males. This sexual dimorphism is not present in neonates, but is apparent in adults. Adult females also have longer jaws than their male counterparts. The resultant increase in swallowing capacity may improve their hunting ability.
Range length: 1 to 1.83 m.
Other Physical Features: heterothermic ; polymorphic
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
The average lifespan of ball pythons in captivity is 20 years. Reports document the maximum lifespan in captivity ranges from 28 years (at the Oakland Zoo) up to 50 years (reported by the Philadelphia Zoo). Average life span in the wild is reported to be 10 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 48 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20 years.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 10 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20 years.
Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: captivity: 30.5 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 8.7 years.
Ball pythons spend most of their time on or under the ground in burrows. They are most active at dawn and dusk. They inhabit savanna grasslands or open forests and are found in areas that have been cleared for farming.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland
Ball pythons (Python regius), also known as royal pythons, are found in the grasslands and open forests of West and Central Africa. They are native to the Sudanese subprovince west of the Nile, in southern Sudan, the Bahrel Ghazal and Nuba Mountains Region, from Senegal to Sierra Leone in West Africa, and in the Ivory Coast and some parts of Central Africa.
Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )
Ball pythons are found in western to central Africa, just north of the equator. They are found in grasslands and open forests, and in areas with some cover. They are typically found near open water so they can cool themselves during hot weather. They spend most of their time on or in burrows under the ground, although they are able to climb. They are primarily nocturnal and active during the wet season. Bush fires can also affect ball pythons. In addition, farmers may kill ball pythons out of fear.
Ticks are primary parasites, with a slightly higher tick burden in males than females. This may be due to the prolonged periods of immobility in females during the two months of brooding their clutch. Male movement to capitalize on encounters with females may increase their risk of exposure to ticks. There are also internal parasites found in ball pythons including, Trypanosoma varani, Helpatozoon (Apicomplexa: Adelorina), and Spinicauda regiensis.
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
The economic importance of ball pythons to rural communities of central and western Afria is the control of rodents. The magnitude of this benefit is in the millions of dollars per year. Even though ball pythons are exported, there is little direct economic benefit to rural communities except the economic impact of providing lodging and food for trappers. There are some areas where ball pythons are considered sacred and are fully protected. In these areas there seems to be an awareness of the benefits of these pythons. Although ball pythons can be bred in captivity, most are imported from Africa. Approximately 30,000 to 50,000 ball pythons are exported annually to America, mostly as hatchlings from wild pythons. Ball pythons are easily handled snakes, which is what makes them good pets. Trappers of ball pythons tend to be economically vulnerable, which drives them towards trapping these snakes for export. Ball pythons are also occasionally eaten.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; controls pest population
There are few negative effects of ball pythons on humans, as these snakes do not tend to be aggressive.
Negative Impacts: household pest
Ball python hatchlings range from 25 to 43 centimeters; adults from 0.9 to 1.5 meters. The gestation period is about 44 to 54 days. Most ball pythons lay their eggs during the second half of the dry season, from mid-February to the beginning of April. Eggs are then hatched from mid-April to mid June. Approximately 3 weeks after ovulation, a female ball python begins to shed its skin. Eggs are laid about 4 weeks later.
Because of their large range and high, stable population numbers, ball pythons are not considered threatened currently. A change to highly mechanized farming and substantial use of agrochemicals may change survival rates of ball pythons, affecting populations.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Vision plays an important role in a ball python’s ability to secure prey. Research on the way these snakes behaved under bright light determined that ultraviolet activity may be a factor in capturing prey. Other research suggests that ball pythons may follow the scent trails of their mammalian prey because those trails reflect ultraviolet light.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; infrared/heat ; tactile ; vibrations ; chemical
After laying their clutch of eggs, female ball pythons coil around their clutches until hatched (after approximately 2 months). Hatchlings are immediately independent, but remain in the vicinity for months after.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Ball pythons have long reproductive lives that last from about 27 months to 30 years. The breeding season is primarily from mid-September through mid-November, correlating with the minor rainy season. A clutch is from 1 to 11 eggs. The eggs typically adhere to each other. A few days before hatching they lose their adhesion. After the eggs are no longer attached and are ready to hatch, baby ball pythons slit the shells with their egg tooth and work their way out. Weight at birth is 65 to 103 grams, with an average of 86 grams. Female ball pythons reach reproductive maturity from 27 to 31 months. Males reach reproductive maturity at 16 to 18 months. Both male and female ball pythons have large cloacal spurs.
Humans can determine python sex by placing a probe through the cloacal spur and into the inverted hemipenis. The probe will travel deeper into the base of the tail for male ball pythons, spanning 8 to 10 subcaudal scales in contrast to females in which the probe may be only inserted a distance of 2 to 4 subcaudal scales.
Breeding interval: Breeding occurs yearly.
Breeding season: Breeding is from mid-September through mid-November, correlating with the minor rainy season.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 11.
Range gestation period: 44 to 54 days.
Average time to independence: 1 minutes.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 27 to 31 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 16 to 18 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; sexual ; oviparous
Average number of offspring: 7.
Once female ball pythons lay their eggs, they consistently ball around the eggs for protection. Ball pythons also stay in close proximity to eggs to protect them from predators.
Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Female)
The ball python (Python regius), also called the royal python, is a python species native to West and Central Africa, where it lives in grasslands, shrublands and open forests. This nonvenomous constrictor is the smallest of the African pythons, growing to a maximum length of 182 cm (72 in).[2] The name "ball python" refers to its tendency to curl into a ball when stressed or frightened.[3]
Boa regia was the scientific name proposed by George Shaw in 1802 for a pale variegated python from an indistinct place in Africa.[4] The generic name Python was proposed by François Marie Daudin in 1803 for non-venomous flecked snakes.[5] Between 1830 and 1849, several generic names were proposed for the same zoological specimen described by Shaw, including Enygrus by Johann Georg Wagler, Cenchris and Hertulia by John Edward Gray. Gray also described four specimens that were collected in Gambia and were preserved in spirits and fluid.[6]
The ball python is black, or albino and dark brown with light brown blotches on the back and sides. Its white or cream belly is scattered with black markings. It is a stocky snake with a relatively small head and smooth scales.[3] It reaches a maximum adult length of 182 cm (6 ft 0 in). Males typically measure eight to ten subcaudal scales, and females typically measure two to four subcaudal scales.[7] Females reach an average snout-to-vent length of 116.2 cm (45+3⁄4 in), a 44.3 mm (1+3⁄4 in) long jaw, an 8.7 cm (3+7⁄16 in) long tail and a maximum weight of 1.635 kg (3 lb 9.7 oz). Males are smaller with an average snout-to-vent length of 111.3 cm (43+13⁄16 in), a 43.6 mm (1+23⁄32 in) long jaw, an 8.6 cm (3+3⁄8 in) long tail and a maximum weight of 1.561 kg (3 lb 7.1 oz).[8] Both sexes have pelvic spurs on both sides of the vent. During copulation, males use these spurs for gripping females.[9] Males tend to have larger spurs, and sex is best determined by manual eversion of the male hemipenes or inserting a probe into the cloaca to check the presence of an inverted hemipenis.[10]
The ball python is native to west Sub Saharan Africa from Senegal, Mali, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria through Cameroon, Chad, and the Central African Republic to Sudan and Uganda.[1] It prefers grasslands, savannas, and sparsely wooded areas.[3]
Ball pythons are typically nocturnal or crepuscular, meaning that they are active during dusk, dawn, and/or nighttime.[11] This species is known for its defense strategy that involves coiling into a tight ball when threatened, with its head and neck tucked away in the middle. This defense behavior is typically employed in lieu of biting, which makes this species easy for humans to handle and has contributed to their popularity as a pet.[3]
In the wild, ball pythons favor mammal burrows and other underground hiding places, where they also aestivate. Males tend to display more semi-arboreal behaviors, whilst females tend towards terrestrial behaviors.[11]
The diet of the ball python in the wild consists mostly of small mammals and birds. Young ball pythons of less than 70 cm (28 in) prey foremost on small birds. Ball pythons longer than 100 cm (39 in) prey foremost on small mammals. Males prey more frequently on birds, and females more frequently on mammals.[11] Rodents make up a large percentage of the diet; Gambian pouched rats, black rats, rufous-nosed rats, shaggy rats, and striped grass mice are among the species consumed.[12]
Females are oviparous and lay three to 11 rather large, leathery eggs.[7] The eggs hatch after 55 to 60 days. Young male pythons reach sexual maturity at 11–18 months, and females at 20–36 months. Age is only one factor in determining sexual maturity and the ability to breed; weight is the second factor. Males breed at 600 g (21 oz) or more, but in captivity are often not bred until they are 800 g (28 oz), although in captivity, some males have been known to begin breeding at 300–400 g (11–14 oz). Females breed in the wild at weights as low as 800 g (28 oz) though 1,200 g (42 oz) or more in weight is most common; in captivity, breeders generally wait until they are no less than 1,500 g (53 oz). Parental care of the eggs ends once they hatch, and the female leaves the offspring to fend for themselves.[10]
The ball python is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List; it experiences a high level of exploitation and the population is believed to be in decline in most of West Africa.[1] The ball python is primarily threatened by poaching for the international exotic pet trade. It is also hunted for its skin, meat and use in traditional medicine. Other threats include habitat loss as a result of intensified agriculture and pesticide use.[1] Rural hunters in Togo collect gravid females and egg clutches, which they sell to snake ranches. In 2019 alone, 58 interviewed hunters had collected 3,000 live ball pythons and 5,000 eggs.[13]
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Ball pythons are the most popular pet snake and the second most popular pet reptile after the bearded dragon.[14] According to the IUCN Red List, while captive bred animals are widely available in the pet trade, capture of wild specimens for sale continues to cause significant damage to wild populations.[1] Wild-caught specimens have greater difficulty adapting to a captive environment, which can result in refusal to feed, and they generally carry internal or external parasites. This species can do quite well in captivity, regularly living for 15-30 years with good care.[15] The oldest recorded ball python in captivity is 62 years, 59 of those at the Saint Louis Zoo.[16]
Captive ball pythons are often bred for specific patterns that do not occur in the wild, called "morphs."[17] Breeders are continuously creating new designer morphs, and over 7,500 different morphs currently exist.[18][19] Most morphs are considered solely cosmetic with no harm or benefit to the individual animal. However, the "spider" morph gene has been linked to neurological disease, specifically related to the snake's sense of balance.[20] Due to the ethical concerns associated with intentionally breeding a color pattern linked to genetic disease, the International Herpetological Society banned the sale of spider morphs at their events beginning in 2018.[21]
The ball python is particularly revered by the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria, who consider it symbolic of the earth, being an animal that travels so close to the ground. Even Christian Igbos treat ball pythons with great care whenever they come across one in a village or on someone's property; they either let them roam or pick them up gently and return them to a forest or field away from houses. If one is accidentally killed, many communities on Igbo land still build a coffin for the snake's remains and give it a short funeral.[22] In northwestern Ghana, there is a taboo towards pythons as people consider them a savior and cannot hurt or eat them. According to folklore a python once helped them flee from their enemies by transforming into a log to allow them to cross a river.[23]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) The ball python (Python regius), also called the royal python, is a python species native to West and Central Africa, where it lives in grasslands, shrublands and open forests. This nonvenomous constrictor is the smallest of the African pythons, growing to a maximum length of 182 cm (72 in). The name "ball python" refers to its tendency to curl into a ball when stressed or frightened.
