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The black or thorny corals (Antipatharia) make up an order of about 230 recognized species, many found in deep water. The colonies often grow in whiplike or branching tree-like formations up to 6 meters tall, supported by a skeletons are made of a hard protein called antipatharin. The skeletons of many species contain dark pigments, and most produce spine-like structures on the surface of the skeleton. Usually the polyps have six nonretractable tentacles, but they can have multiples of six up to 24, arranged in an irregular branching pattern; this is key to distinguishing these corals from the gorgonian corals (octocorals, having eight tentacles), which they otherwise resemble (Kozloff 1990).
These corals are heavily impacted by overharvesting for the jewelry trade, and are threatened by activities associated with commercial fishing, such as bottom trawling which damages coral beds. Like other corals they are also susceptible to death and disease due to increased water temperatures and ocean acidification resulting from increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. All Antipatharian black corals are listed under Appendix II of the CITES list of endangered species (http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.shtml). Antipatharian corals support complex fish and invertebrate communities and there is a call for further research on their importance in marine ecosystems (Ospresko and Sanches 2005).
Most Antipatharian corals inhabit tropical and subtropical regions, although they have been found world-wide, including species in Antarctica.
Unlike most corals, it is thought that Antipatharia polyps do not have zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae) dependent on photosynthesis, and thus often live in deep and dark waters (Ospresko and Sanchez 2005)
One genus in the Antipatharia shows extreme longevity. Researchers have recently carbon-14 dated tissue from Hawaiian specimens of the species Leiopathes glaberrima, finding it to be one of the oldest known marine organisms, at more than 4200 years old. In addition, Leiopathes shows very slow growth; radiocarbon testing estimates radial growth rates at about 15 microns per year (Roark et al. 2009)
The name Antipatharia “against disease” derives from an old belief that their skeletons were thought to repel sickness, and were commonly made into healing amulets. Many species of Antipatharia are prized for their beautiful look especially when polished and are commercially valuable. The structure of the skeleton is such that if it is heated, it can be bent (for example, into the shape of bracelets).
(Ospresko and Sanches 2005)
Qara mərcanlar və ya antipatarilər (lat. Antipatharia) — Dəniz bağırsaqboşluqluların dalayıcılar tipinin mərcan polipləri sinfinə mənsub dəstəsi. Bir-birinə bərkidilmiş ağacabənzər koloniyalar əmələ gətirən xırda (0,5–3 mm-ədək) poliplərdir. Əsasən, tropik dənizlərdə 10–1000 m. dərinlikdə yaşayır. 150-dək növü var. Qara mərcanın skeleti bəzək məmulatının hazırlanmasında istifadə olunur. [1]
Qara mərcanlar və ya antipatarilər (lat. Antipatharia) — Dəniz bağırsaqboşluqluların dalayıcılar tipinin mərcan polipləri sinfinə mənsub dəstəsi. Bir-birinə bərkidilmiş ağacabənzər koloniyalar əmələ gətirən xırda (0,5–3 mm-ədək) poliplərdir. Əsasən, tropik dənizlərdə 10–1000 m. dərinlikdə yaşayır. 150-dək növü var. Qara mərcanın skeleti bəzək məmulatının hazırlanmasında istifadə olunur.
Els antipataris (Antipatharia) són un ordre de cnidaris antozous relacionats amb les anemones de mar. El seu aspecte recorda a un arbust. Els seus teixits vius són intensament brillants.
Potser l'espècie més coneguda és el coral negre que pren el seu nom del color negre del seu esquelet; és la "gemma oficial" de Hawaii. El coral negre està llistada en l'Apèndix II de la Convenció Tractat Internacional d'Espècies en Risc d'Extinció (CITIS). Viu en aigües profundes (per sota dels 30 m), per la qual cosa ha sobreviscut a la sobrepesca, ja que és utilitzat en joieria.
Die Schwarzen Korallen (Antipatharia), wegen ihres stacheligen, organischen Skeletts auch Dörnchenkorallen genannt, sind eine weltweit verbreitete Ordnung der Blumentiere (Anthozoa). Meistens leben sie in tropischen Meeren in Tiefen über 100 Metern. Im flachen Wasser lebende Arten wachsen meist in Höhlen. Sie bilden immer Kolonien. Derzeit kennt man etwa 235 Arten, die in sieben Familien mit über 40 Gattungen eingeordnet werden.
Die kleinen, 1 bis 1,5 mm im Durchmesser messenden Polypen haben sechs Tentakel und ernähren sich von winzigen planktonischen Organismen. Die Kolonien sind strauch-, feder- oder fächerförmig, Cirrhipathes spiralis sieht aus wie eine Peitsche, deren Ende spiralig aufgerollt ist. Die verwandte Art Cirrhipathes rumphii ist mit 6 Meter Höhe die größte Art.
Das braune oder schwarze Skelett besteht aus einer sehr harten, hornartigen, proteinhaltigen Substanz. Es wird bei einigen Arten, vor allem das der Gattung Antipathes, zu Schmuckstücken verarbeitet. In letzter Zeit wurden die Bestände so stark ausgebeutet, dass sie vielerorts verschwunden sind. In einigen Ländern sind sie deswegen geschützt.
Lebende Exemplare der Gattung Leiopathes wurden vor Hawaii auf ein Alter von 4265 Jahren datiert.[1]
Nach den Revisionen von Dennis Opresko in einer Reihe von Publikationen von 2001 bis 2006 besteht die Ordnung Antipatharia nun aus sieben Familien:
Die Schwarzen Korallen (Antipatharia), wegen ihres stacheligen, organischen Skeletts auch Dörnchenkorallen genannt, sind eine weltweit verbreitete Ordnung der Blumentiere (Anthozoa). Meistens leben sie in tropischen Meeren in Tiefen über 100 Metern. Im flachen Wasser lebende Arten wachsen meist in Höhlen. Sie bilden immer Kolonien. Derzeit kennt man etwa 235 Arten, die in sieben Familien mit über 40 Gattungen eingeordnet werden.
Антипатарийлер (лат. Antipatharia) — шурулар классындагы бир түркүм.
கரும்பவளம் (Black corals; Antipatharia) கடற் சாமந்திகளுடன் தொடர்புபட்ட மரம் போன்ற பவளங்கள் ஆகும். இவை கடலின் ஆழத்தில் காணப்படும்.
இவை பொதுவாக வெப்ப வலயம் உள்ள பகுதிகளில் காணப்படும். இவற்றில் கிட்டத்தட்ட 280 தெரிந்த இனங்கள் உள்ளன.[1]
கரும்பவளம் (Black corals; Antipatharia) கடற் சாமந்திகளுடன் தொடர்புபட்ட மரம் போன்ற பவளங்கள் ஆகும். இவை கடலின் ஆழத்தில் காணப்படும்.
Antipatharians, also known as black corals or thorn corals,[2] are an order of soft deep-water corals. These corals can be recognized by their jet-black or dark brown chitin skeletons, surrounded by the polyps (part of coral that is alive). Antipatharians are a cosmopolitan order, existing at nearly every location and depth, with the sole exception of brackish waters. However, they are most frequently found on continental slopes under 50 m (164 ft) deep. A black coral reproduces both sexually and asexually throughout its lifetime. Many black corals provide housing, shelter, food, and protection for other animals.
Black corals were originally classified in the subclass Ceriantipatharia along with ceriantharians (tube-dwelling anemones), but were later reclassified under Hexacorallia. Though they have historically been used by Pacific Islanders for medical treatment and in rituals, its only modern use is making jewelry. Black corals have been declining in numbers and are expected to continue declining due to the effects of poaching, ocean acidification and climate change.
Despite its name, a black coral is rarely black, and depending on the species can be white, red, green, yellow, or brown. The corals get their name from their black skeletons, which are composed of protein and chitin.[3] Black corals have several different names. One of the more common names is thorn coral, so called because of the microscopic spines all along the skeleton.[4]
The name Antipatharia comes from the Ancient Greek word antipathes ("against disease"). In the Hawaiian language, a black coral is called ʻēkaha kū moana ("hard bush growing in the sea"); it is the official state gem of Hawaii.[5] In Malay, the corals are called akah bahar ("root of the sea"), likely named for their tendency to grow at low-light depths.[6]
Black corals have historically been difficult to classify due to poor-quality specimens. They have few distinguishing morphological characteristics, and the few that there are vary across species, similar to other corals. When black corals were first documented by Henri Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime, two French zoologists in 1857, all species of Antipatharia were placed in the family Antipathidae.[4] From 2001 to 2006, marine biologists Dennis Opresko and Tina Molodtsova helped transform the taxonomic system into what it is today.[1] A 2007 phylogenetic study confirmed the new taxonomic system.[7]
Blacks corals are classified in the order Antipatharia with 7 families, 44 genera, and 280 distinct species.[2] The families are Antipathidae, Aphanipathidae, Cladopathidae, Leiopathidae, Myriopathidae, Schizopathidae, and Stylopathidae.[8] Black corals can be distinguished from other corals by their black, flexible skeletons and near-total lack of any kind of protection from sediment. All black corals have small or medium-sized polyps and a chitin skeleton, lined with small spines.[9]
List of genera according to the World Register of Marine Species:[10]
The skeleton grows of these corals grow in many patterns unique to black corals, such as whips, trees, fans, or coils. These range in size from 10 to 300 cm (3.94 to 118 in), though polyps can be as small as 1 mm (0.0394 in) in size.[4][11] Skeletons are also lined with tiny spikes.[4] These spikes are roughly 0.5 mm (0.0197 in) in size, and vary widely in terms of size, length, proportion, and sharpness.[2] A layer of "bark" forms around the skeleton as the coral grows. The polyps that live inside this bark are less than 2 mm (0.0787 in) [12] and are gelatinous and have six tentacles (the same as hard corals and unlike soft corals, which have eight).[13] These polyps can be nearly any color.[3] Some corals also have "sweeper tentacles", which can grow up to 15 mm (0.591 in) long.[12] Though individual polyps are either male or female, entire colonies are typically hermaphroditic.[14]
Unlike the vast majority of other corals, black corals have no protection against abrasive materials such as sand and rocks and lack muscular development which can help the corals to hide. These factors can lead to sediment tearing the soft tissue, resulting in death. In response, corals live near crevices, which allows much of their body to be protected.[9]
Black corals occur throughout all the oceans from the surface down to the deep-sea, though nearly 75% of species are only found at depths below 50 m (164 ft). The sole oceanic area in which black corals have not been found are brackish waters, though they can inhabit areas with decreased salinity.[15] Black corals are found on reefs, and may contribute to overall reef building, but are also often found as solitary colonies on isolated outcroppings. Most individuals require a hard surface for attachment. They will frequently grow where undersea currents flow, which allows them to feed on the meiofauna that is swept by. Since undersea currents benefit the corals, they will often grow on or by geographic structures that cause currents, such as continental slopes, cliffs, caves, or undersea plateaus.[9] Species distributions of black corals are poorly understood, and while many deep sea black corals have large distributions, more recent work has indicated that shallow black coral species—such as Antipathes grandis—can be found spanning from the Indian to the Pacific Ocean.[16]
Black corals are carnivorous, with the coral's polyps allowing it to feed mostly on meiofauna such as zooplankton.[17][4] The polyps of cnidarians have an oral disk in their center which serves as the mouth for the coral. The disk is surrounded by the tentacles, which stings and digests food.[9] The reason many corals are fan-shaped is to catch meiofauna. Many corals only have polyps on the downstream side of the coral,[17] allowing them to catch nearly the same number of animals without wasting energy keeping unnecessary polyps alive.[17]
Vertebrate predation is not a major threat to black corals.[15] There are rare reports of parrotfish and butterflyfish gnawing and eating at the polyps of black corals and even if a polyp is gnawed off, it will not affect the coral. The skeleton of a black coral is hard and inert, due to its composition of protein and chitin, making it nearly inedible. Though black coral skeletons have been found in the stomachs of green sea turtles and sharks, these incidents are rare; it has thus been suggested that black corals are not a major part of any vertebrate diets.[9]
However, invertebrates such as muricids and ovulids[9] feed on black corals and similar corals regularly. These mollusks mimic the polyps that the coral typically feeds on and is taken inside of the coral. They will then consume the polyps from the inside out.[9] Various mollusks, such as Coralliophila kaofitorum and Phenacovolva carneptica live solely where various species of black corals are found, suggesting that they prey exclusively on the species.[15]
Black corals around the world provide a unique environment for crustaceans, bivalves, and fish. Some species, such as Dascyllus albisella and Centropyge potteri inhabit specific coral trees. Due to this abundance of species, nighttime predation around the coral beds has been observed.[18][19][20]
Due to the slow life cycle and deep-water habitats of black coral, little is known about their life cycle and reproduction.[8] As with other cnidarians, the life cycle of these corals involves both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction (also known as budding), is the first method of reproduction used by a black coral during their lifespan.[17] Once a polyp is anchored, it builds a colony by creating a skeleton, growing new branches and making it thicker, similar to the growth of a tree. This method of growing creates "growth rings" which can be used to estimate the age of a colony.[21] Asexual reproduction can also occur if a branch breaks off and a replacement is needed.[17] Though light is not required for growth or development, mature colonies will grow towards light. Why they do so is unknown.[22]
Little is known about sexual reproduction in these corals. Sexual reproduction occurs after the coral colony is established. A colony will produce eggs and sperm, which meet in the water to create larvae that use currents to disperse and settle in new areas.[17] The larval stage of the coral, called a planula, will drift along until it finds a surface on which it can grow. Once it settles, it metamorphoses into its polyp form and creates skeletal material to attach itself to the seafloor. It will then begin to bud, which will create new polyps and eventually form a colony.[17] In areas with ideal conditions, black coral colonies can grow to be extremely dense, creating beds.[9] In some black corals that have been closely examined, colonies will grow roughly 6.4 cm (2.52 in) every year. Sexual reproduction occurs after 10 to 12 years of growth; the colony will then reproduce annually for the rest of its life. The male to female polyp ratio is 1:1, with females producing anywhere from 1.2 million to 16.9 million oocytes.[23] A large 1.8 m (5.91 ft) tall coral tree is somewhere between 30 and 40 years old.[17]
The estimated natural lifespan of a black coral colony in the epipelagic zone is 70 years. However, in March 2009 around 4,265 years old specimens of Leiopathes glaberrima were found at depths of nearly 300 to 3,000 m (984 to 9,840 ft), making them some of the oldest living organisms on earth. The researchers showed that the "individual colony longevities are on the order of thousands of years."[24][25] Rarely, black corals will grow too large to support their own weight, and collapse.[9]
Black corals have historically been associated with mystical and medicinal properties in Indonesian, Chinese, and Hawaiian culture.[9][26] More recent harvesting has been for use as jewelry.[26][27] Many Indo-Pacific peoples believed that black coral has curative and anti-evil powers and made them into necklace and bracelets; however, black corals are not ideal for jewelry-making due to it being soft as opposed to stony,[4] causing jewelry made with it to dry out and break.[4] If a real black coral is boiled in milk, it will smell of myrrh; this test can be used to determine if a sample is genuine.[28]
The best studied and regulated black coral fisheries are in Hawaii, where they have been harvested since the 1960s.[26][29] In the Caribbean harvesting is typically done to produce jewelry for sale to tourists, and has followed a boom-and-bust cycle, where new coral populations are discovered and overexploited leading to rapid declines.[26] For example, Cozumel, Mexico, was famed for dense black coral beds that have been harvested since the 1960s[30] leading to widespread black coral population declines.[31] Despite improvements in management in Cozumel, including no harvesting permits issued since the mid-1990s, the black coral population had failed to recover when assessed in 2016.[32] Though it is illegal to move black corals across international borders without authorization, as they are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), it is still possible to buy them.[33]
Though various methods have been tried to rejuvenate black coral colonies quicker and more efficiently, none have worked to the point where it would work for full restoration.[34]
Though black corals are not listed on the IUCN Red List, a number of factors threaten them today. The largest single threat is poaching— though the majority of black coral fisheries are heavily regulated, there is still a black market for the corals.[35] Particularly on tropical islands and Madagascar, the market for illegally-harvested black corals is large.[35][36] Due to overfishing of mature corals, in some areas nearly 90% of corals are juveniles (less than 50 cm (19.7 in) tall.)[37]
Global warming is the primary threat to black corals worldwide, as well as all other corals.[38] Though black corals rarely builds reefs (the most threatened areas), threats caused by climate change such as coral bleaching, rising sea temperatures, changing underwater currents, and changing salinity and pH also affect deep-sea corals.[39] Invasive species such as Carijoa riisei, which were introduced to Hawaiian waters by humans, may pose a significant threat to black corals.[36]
Antipatharians, also known as black corals or thorn corals, are an order of soft deep-water corals. These corals can be recognized by their jet-black or dark brown chitin skeletons, surrounded by the polyps (part of coral that is alive). Antipatharians are a cosmopolitan order, existing at nearly every location and depth, with the sole exception of brackish waters. However, they are most frequently found on continental slopes under 50 m (164 ft) deep. A black coral reproduces both sexually and asexually throughout its lifetime. Many black corals provide housing, shelter, food, and protection for other animals.
Black corals were originally classified in the subclass Ceriantipatharia along with ceriantharians (tube-dwelling anemones), but were later reclassified under Hexacorallia. Though they have historically been used by Pacific Islanders for medical treatment and in rituals, its only modern use is making jewelry. Black corals have been declining in numbers and are expected to continue declining due to the effects of poaching, ocean acidification and climate change.
Los antipatarios (Antipatharia), también conocidos como corales negros, por el color de sus esqueletos, son un orden de cnidarios antozoos relacionados con las anémonas de mar, ya que ambos pertenecen a la subclase Hexacorallia, y comparten una simetría hexameral en su estructura anatómica.
Su aspecto recuerda a un arbusto. Sus tejidos vivos son intensamente brillantes. Quizá una de las especies más conocida es Antipathella subpinnata o Antipathes subpinnata.[1]
El coral negro está listado en el Apéndice II de la Convención del Tratado Internacional de Especies en Riesgo de Extinción (CITES). Vive en aguas profundas, por lo cual ha sobrevivido a la sobre pesca, ya que es utilizado en joyería.
La organización taxonómica de las especies, géneros, familias, órdenes y subclases de la clase Anthozoa viene siendo, desde el siglo XIX, materia apasionante para los científicos. Dado el que se vienen descubriendo y describiendo gran cantidad de nuevas especies, y, a que la observación de las mismas mediante análisis mitocondriales y por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa, revelan resultados que obligan a reclasificar muchas de ellas.
Actualmente, hay un mayor consenso entre taxonomistas[2] en la clasificación, aceptada así mismo por el Registro Mundial de Especies Marinas, WoRMS en inglés, que sitúa los géneros y familias enmarcados inicialmente en la subclase Ceriantipatharia, en dos órdenes de Hexacorallia: Ceriantharia y Antipatharia.
La actual clasificación taxonómica incluye 40 géneros y 235 especies.[3]
Este orden está compuesto de antozoos coloniales sin esqueleto calcáreo, caracterizados por un esqueleto, o corallum, compuesto de la proteína antipatharin.[4] El esqueleto es secretado por el tejido epitelial axial de los pólipos en capas concéntricas alrededor de un pequeño núcleo central.
Otras características distintivas de las especies del orden son las espinas que recubren el esqueleto o axis, que pueden tener formas diferentes, y cuyos tamaños son entre 0,02 y 1 mm de largo; así como la ausencia de escleritos o espículas, tanto en el esqueleto, como en el tejido de la colonia.
Obsérvense las espinas del esqueleto.
Pólipo de Leiopathes, con sus dos tentáculos mayores.
Las colonias pueden ser sin ramificar, a modo de tallo erecto o en forma de espirales; o ramificadas, bien en forma arbustiva, flabeliforme o simétricamente pinnadas. Algunos ejemplares alcanzan más de 6 m de alto,[4] conteniendo decenas de miles de pólipos.
Los pólipos tienen forma redondeada, alargada o comprimida hacia el axis o rama del corallum. Miden unos pocos milímetros, entre 0,5 y 9 mm, y máximo 1 cm de diámetro, y poseen 6 tentáculos simples no retráctiles, aunque sí contráctiles; pueden tenerlos en múltiplos de 6, hasta 24. Dos de los tentáculos, que corresponden con el eje de simetría de la boca, son el doble de tamaño que los cuatro restantes.
También tienen 6 mesenterios (divisiones de la cavidad gastrovascular) primarios, y 0, 4 o 6 mesenterios secundarios.
El número de mesenterios, y la morfología del corallum, los pólipos y las espinas axiales, son las características taxonómicas usadas en su clasificación.[5]
Los pólipos pueden ser de color blanco, gris, verde, amarillo, naranja, marrón o rojo. El esqueleto puede ser de color negro, marrón o marrón rojizo.[6]
Alguna de sus especies, como Leiopathes glaberrima, sometida al test de carbono 14 ha evidenciado en algunos individuos una antigüedad de más de 4000 años. Situándola entre las especies animales de mayor expectativa de vida conocidas, ya que los siguientes organismos marinos vivos de mayor edad conocida son especímenes del género de "coral dorado" Gerardia, con 2390 años, y, a continuación almejas, con unos pocos cientos de años.[7]
Se encuentran en todas las cuencas oceánicas, tanto del Atlántico, como del Indo-Pacífico; en aguas tropicales, subtropicales, y frías; y desde Groenlandia a la Antártida.[8]
Desde 2,5 a 8.600 m de profundidad.[9] La mayoría se localizan a más de 100 m de profundidad. Su rango de temperatura está entre −0.55 y 28.95 °C.[10]
Estos corales sirven de hábitat para comunidades complejas de diversos peces e invertebrados, lo que supone un motivo más para considerar su importancia en los ecosistemas marinos.[11]
Los antipatarios (Antipatharia), también conocidos como corales negros, por el color de sus esqueletos, son un orden de cnidarios antozoos relacionados con las anémonas de mar, ya que ambos pertenecen a la subclase Hexacorallia, y comparten una simetría hexameral en su estructura anatómica.
Su aspecto recuerda a un arbusto. Sus tejidos vivos son intensamente brillantes. Quizá una de las especies más conocida es Antipathella subpinnata o Antipathes subpinnata.
El coral negro está listado en el Apéndice II de la Convención del Tratado Internacional de Especies en Riesgo de Extinción (CITES). Vive en aguas profundas, por lo cual ha sobrevivido a la sobre pesca, ya que es utilizado en joyería.
Mustakorallit (Antipatharia) on korallieläinten lahko. Siihen kuuluu kuusi heimoa.[1] Ne ovat litteitä, piikikkäitä rakenteeltaan hiukan puuta tai saniaisen lehtiä muistuttavia koralleja. Useimmat niistä elävät trooppisissa merissä yli 100 metrin syvyydessä. Monilla lajeilla ei ole symbioottisia leviä.[2]
Mustakorallit ovat saaneet nimensä mustasta tukirangastaan. Tukirangasta on valmistettu koruja, ja siksi mustakorallit ovat uhanalaisia[3]
Mustakorallit (Antipatharia) on korallieläinten lahko. Siihen kuuluu kuusi heimoa. Ne ovat litteitä, piikikkäitä rakenteeltaan hiukan puuta tai saniaisen lehtiä muistuttavia koralleja. Useimmat niistä elävät trooppisissa merissä yli 100 metrin syvyydessä. Monilla lajeilla ei ole symbioottisia leviä.
Mustakorallit ovat saaneet nimensä mustasta tukirangastaan. Tukirangasta on valmistettu koruja, ja siksi mustakorallit ovat uhanalaisia
Les Antipatharia sont un ordre des cnidaires anthozoaires communément appelés coraux noirs.
Ce sont des organismes qui se retrouvent généralement au niveau de la zone intertropicale et qui possèdent la particularité de ne pas avoir recours à la photosynthèse pour leur croissance, ce qui leur permet de vivre dans des endroits sombres ou à grande profondeur. Contrairement aux coraux Scléractiniaires (coraux tropicaux bâtisseurs de récifs), ils ne possèdent pas de squelette calcaire et tirent leur nom d'antipathaires de la substance organique qui compose leur exosquelette, l’antipathine (protéine proche de la chitine disposée en couches concentriques)[1]. C'est également cette substance qui est responsable de la couleur sombre et brillante de leur squelette, leur donnant leur nom vernaculaire (mais quand ils sont vivants, ils sont généralement colorés, leur coenenchyme dissimulant le squelette)[1].
Le squelette est recouvert par de fines petites épines[1]. Les polypes ont 6 tentacules, qui sont rarement de taille égale, et dépourvus de disque oral[1]. Ces polypes peuvent être très denses, et leurs tentacules peuvent s'étendre dans de grandes proportions. Certaines colonies rappellent par leur forme les gorgones, mais d'autres sont en forme de fouet (non ramifiées), d'autres encore de plumes, et peuvent mesurer entre 10 cm et jusqu'à plus de 3 m de long[1]. Les colonies semblent unisexuées, et la reproduction, déclenchée par signal chimique, se fait en pleine eau. Quand la larve (planula) se fixe, elle développe rapidement un crampon d'attache depuis lequel elle grandit, à un rythme d'environ un ou deux centimètres par an (sur cette base, une colonie abyssale a été estimée à 4 000 ans)[1].
Les coraux noirs se retrouvent dans toutes les mers ouvertes, de l'Arctique à l'Antarctique, mais ne supportent pas les eaux douces ou saumâtres. On les trouve des premiers mètres aux abysses (jusqu'à 8 600 m), le pic de diversité étant entre 20 et 1 000 m[1].
Les coraux noirs sont appréciés en bijouterie, même s'ils y sont moins adaptés que leurs cousins comme le corail rouge, leur squelette étant moins minéralisé[1]. Du fait de leur croissance extrêmement lente, toutes les espèces sont protégées par la CITES, et leur récolte strictement soumise à autorisation[1].
On estime le nombre d'espèces à environ 280, réparties en 44 genres dans 7 familles[1]. Ces familles sont souvent séparées par leur bathymétrie, deux seulement se retrouvant en faible profondeur, deux en profondeur intermédiaire et trois dans les abysses. Ces familles se différencient principalement par le nombre de partitions internes, et les genres par la forme des polypes et les épines squelettiques[1].
Selon World Register of Marine Species (29 janvier 2014)[2] :
Trissopathes sp., un Cladopathidae
Leiopathes sp., un Leiopathidae
Bathypathes sp., un Schizopathidae
Les Antipatharia sont un ordre des cnidaires anthozoaires communément appelés coraux noirs.
Gli Antipatari (Antipatharia Milne-Edwards & Haime, 1857) sono un ordine di coralli della sottoclasse degli esacoralli[1], che comprende i cosiddetti coralli neri.
Sono esacoralli che formano colonie ramificate, con scheletro assiale di colore marrone o nero, composto da una sostanza organica nota come antipatina, ricoperto da un sottile cenosarco.
I polipi hanno una simmetria esamerica, con setti singoli presenti in multipli di sei, una caratteristica in comune coi soli Ceriantharia (le anemoni tubiformi). I tentacoli, al numero di sei, sono spessi e corti[2]. I polipi possono essere di quasi tutti i colori.[3] Alcuni coralli hanno anche "tentacoli spazzini", che possono crescere fino a raggiungere i 15 mm.[4] Anche se i singoli polipi sono sessuati singolarmente, le colonie intere sono tipicamente considerate emafrodite.[5]
Lo scheletro di questi coralli cresce seguendo forme peculiari. Così ritroviamo nei coralli neri formazioni a frusta, albero, ventaglio o spirale. Le dimensioni delle colonie variano, da 10 a 300 cm di lunghezza, anche se i polipi possono essere piccoli, in generale nell'ordine del millimetro.[6][7] Gli scheletri sono anche rivestiti da piccole punte sui 0,5 mm[6] e con grosse variazioni in termini di dimensioni, proporzioni e struttura.[8] Uno strato di "corteccia" si forma intorno allo scheletro mentre il corallo cresce.[4]
A differenza della maggior parte degli altri coralli, i coralli neri non hanno alcuna protezione contro materiali abrasivi, come sabbia e rocce, e mancano di sviluppo muscolare che possa aiutarli a nascondersi. A causa di ciò, i sedimenti marini possono lacerare i tessuti molli, provocando la morte dei coralli. In risposta a questo pericolo, i coralli vivono vicino alle fessure, il che gli permette di proteggere gran parte del loro corpo.[9]
A causa della loro predilezione per le acque profonde e povere di luce, gli antipatari sono tradizionalmente stati considerati come coralli azooxantellati, cioè prive di zooxantelle endosimbionti. Recenti studi hanno permesso di dimostrare, almeno in alcune specie delle famiglie Antipathidae, Aphanipathidae e Myriopathidae, la presenza di zooxantelle del genere Symbiodinium.[10][11]
Gli antipatari sono diffusi in tutti i mari del mondo, compresi i mari polari, a profondità comprese tra 20 e 8600 m.[8]
L'ordine comprende le seguenti famiglie[1]:
Gli Antipatari (Antipatharia Milne-Edwards & Haime, 1857) sono un ordine di coralli della sottoclasse degli esacoralli, che comprende i cosiddetti coralli neri.
Antipatharia (zwarte- of doornkoralen) vormen een minder bekende orde uit de onderklasse van Hexacorallia.
Zij vormen vertakte op planten gelijkende kolonies die in hoogte kunnen variëren van enkele centimeters tot enkele meters. De slanke takken zijn verstevigd door een bruin of zwart skelet van hoornachtig materiaal. De poliepen zijn als een levende huid rond het skelet gegroepeerd en zijn klein en cilindervormig, met 6-14 tentakels. Zij kunnen niet worden ingetrokken. De skeletten van de dikkere takken worden na gepolijst te zijn gebruikt in de juwelenindustrie.
Antipatharia zijn voornamelijk bewoners van dieper water in subtropen en tropen.
De bekendste familie is Antipathidae. Deze familie kent weer enkele geslachten zoals het zweepkoraal Cirripathes en struikvormige koraal Antipathes.
Antipatharia (zwarte- of doornkoralen) vormen een minder bekende orde uit de onderklasse van Hexacorallia.
Antipatharia é uma ordem de Anthozoa (corais pertencentes ao filo Cnidaria) de profundidade e com aspecto de arbustos relacionados com as anémonas. Apesar de ocorrerem essencialmente nos trópicos, podem também ser encontrados em águas não-tropicais pouco profundas, como em Milford Sound, Nova Zelândia, onde podem ser observados a partir de um observatório subaquático.
Os membros desta ordem, apesar de possuírem um tecido vivo com colorações brilhantes, possuem um esqueleto de cor negra ou castanha escura. Devido a isto são também conhecidos como corais negros. Uma outra característica única deste grupo são os pequenos espinhos que revestem a superfície do seu esqueleto, pelo que também podem ser chamados de corais espinhosos.
Em havaiano, o coral negro designa-se ‘ēkaha kū moana e é a pedra preciosa oficial do estado do Hawaii. O coral negro encontra-se incluído no Apêndice II da Convenção sobre o Comércio Internacional das Espécies da Fauna e da Flora Selvagens Ameaçadas de Extinção (CITES).
Svarta koralldjur (Antipatharia) är en grupp djupvattenslevande träd-lika koraller som växer främst i tropikerna, men återfinns även på grunt vatten i icke-tropiska klimat. Det finns runt 230 kända arter inom Antipatharia uppdelat i 42 släkten.[1]
Svart koralls levande vävnad är färgsprakande, och har istället fått namnet ifrån sina karaktäristiskt svarta eller mörkbruna skelett. Utstickande hos svart korall är också de tunna taggar som täcker skelettens yta, varefter de fått sitt engelska smeknamn little thorn coral. Svart korall står listat i Appendix II av Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), vanligen också kallad Washingtonkonventionen.
I mars 2009 publicerades en undersökning på djupvattenlevande (djup ~300 till 3 000 m) koraller över hela världen. Där upptäcktes att arter av två släkten av svarta koralldjur, Gerardia sp. och Leiopathes sp., tillhör de organismer på jorden som lever längst, omkring 4265 år. Forskningen visar också på att den radiella tillväxten var ungefär 4 till 35 mikrometer per år.[2][3]
Svarta koralldjur (Antipatharia) är en grupp djupvattenslevande träd-lika koraller som växer främst i tropikerna, men återfinns även på grunt vatten i icke-tropiska klimat. Det finns runt 230 kända arter inom Antipatharia uppdelat i 42 släkten.
Svart koralls levande vävnad är färgsprakande, och har istället fått namnet ifrån sina karaktäristiskt svarta eller mörkbruna skelett. Utstickande hos svart korall är också de tunna taggar som täcker skelettens yta, varefter de fått sitt engelska smeknamn little thorn coral. Svart korall står listat i Appendix II av Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), vanligen också kallad Washingtonkonventionen.
Особое строение описано для полипов в колониях представителей рода Schizopathes. Каждый из них подразделён на три части: центральную и две латеральных (боковых). Латеральные части таких полипов, названных их первооткрывателем Джорджем Бруком диморфными зооидами, несут по одному боковому щупальцу и содержат половые железы.
Непосредственное исследование онтогенетического развития чёрных кораллов осложнено слабой доступностью мест, где они обитают. По данным радиоуглеродного анализа, характерная продолжительность жизни представителей многих видов составляет сотни лет[2]. Рекордный возраст среди исследованных экземпляров составил 4 265 лет (род Leiopathes). При этом рост колонии в толщину протекает со скоростью 4—35 микрометров в год.
Особое строение описано для полипов в колониях представителей рода Schizopathes. Каждый из них подразделён на три части: центральную и две латеральных (боковых). Латеральные части таких полипов, названных их первооткрывателем Джорджем Бруком диморфными зооидами, несут по одному боковому щупальцу и содержат половые железы.
黑角珊瑚是鈍膠珊瑚亞綱之黑珊瑚目（Antipatharia）下的珊瑚，一般稱為黑珊瑚(black coral)，其橫膈膜不成對，數目不定，單體或群體，外胚層能分泌幾丁質骨釉，體壁能分泌膠狀物，將周圍泥沙膠結成管狀物，稱為護鞘，可保存為化石。 它們棲息在深海，外觀像樹。其下已知有約42屬230種。[1]
黑角珊瑚的組織色彩鮮艷，其名字的由來是黑色或深褐色的骨骼。其骨骼表面上有一些細小的棘覆蓋。它們是夏威夷的州石象徵，已禁採。全球黑珊瑚目的所有種黑珊瑚都受到《瀕危野生動植物種國際貿易公約》（簡稱華盛頓公約）附錄二的保護，屬瀕臨危險絕種動物。2011年7月15日，美國司法部公佈美屬維爾京群島公司被判非法貿易受保護的瀕危物種黑珊瑚被運到美國，違反了瀕危物種法案和雷斯法案，總計超過四百萬美元的總罰款爲非法貿易珊瑚有史以來最高罰款，無華盛頓公約合法許可，走私、運輸、攜帶黑珊瑚入境美國皆屬犯罪。
未骨骼化的黑角珊瑚極少是全黑色的，黑珊瑚骨骼上附著的珊瑚蟲顏色非常豐富，白色、紅色、綠色、黃色和棕色的都有。而他們的形狀也有很多種，從樹狀到扇狀到鞭狀均有。與石珊瑚不同，這些骨骼是由不連續的骨針組成，因而骨骼上通常能看到很小的骨刺（其骨骼表面上有一些細小的棘覆蓋），縱截面現實環繞原生枝管軸的同心環結構，有的縱表面具有獨特的小丘疹狀外觀。黑珊瑚為鈍膠珊瑚，遇酸不起泡，燃燒有明顯的蛋白質焦臭味道。
2009年3月，科學家發布了他們對深海珊瑚（水深300〜3000米）於世界各地的研究成果。他們發現深海黑珊瑚是已知全世界最古老的珊瑚品種，地球上最古老的連續生物體，也是全世界壽命最長的生物，其徑向增長率每年只生長約4-35微米（微米micro meter/百萬之一公尺: 換算主幹直徑增長至3.5公分至少需要1000年），個別群體壽命已經達到了4265歲。
黑珊瑚與其他珊瑚不同的一個特性是他們的珊瑚蟲內沒有共生海藻（很多珊瑚需要靠共生海藻為其提供養分），因而黑珊瑚不需要依賴於陽光。這正是黑珊瑚經常能生長在陽光到達不了的深海的原因。
黑珊瑚存在印度尼西亞多處深海海域，人員必須濳至數十至百米深海採撈作為珠寶首飾原料，印度尼西亞國語稱作Akar Bahar，巴里島方言稱作 Kayu Uli，在民間普遍被誤認是植物稱之爲海底神木，因水浸不爛，火焚不毀，在印度尼西亞各個不同種族中共通被視為抵擋黑巫術的傳家辟邪聖物。巴里島人將一截黑珊瑚以火加熱使之彎曲後再以冷水降溫定型成手環隨身配帶，常見於巴里祭司、王公貴族。
（路透社羅馬2009/09/17電），意大利科學家在地中海海底進行了一項新勘測，發現了世界最大的黑珊瑚森林。這片黑珊瑚森林隱藏在墨西拿海峽的狹長水域中，通過水下機器人，意大利環境保護與研究院的海洋生物學家發現有近3萬群學名爲「Antipathella subpinnata coral」的黑珊瑚位於55~100米深的水域中。科學家是在意大利南部卡拉布裡亞（Calabria）區海上的六頭女妖岩礁附近發現這些珊瑚群。 意大利生物學家伊娃薩爾瓦特說：「在此水域中，機器人拍下的圖像表明此片海景完全由壯觀的黑珊瑚森林構成，有些黑珊瑚樹高達1米多。這是首次在自然棲息地裡發現這種珍稀珊瑚。」此黑珊瑚像植物一樣在深海裡生長，此稱呼來源於希臘語的科學名稱「抗病」。黑珊瑚被用作護身符。由於環境破壞嚴重，目前所有黑珊瑚被列入瀕危野生動植物物種國際公約（CITES）的附錄II名單中，如果貿易不加控制，此名單中的物種都將面臨滅絕的危險。
2014年2月，台灣首見黑珊瑚，台灣台東縣潛水教練林銘聲在綠島馬蹄橋外海104公尺深處，拍攝記錄到一株前所未見的珊瑚，經中研院生物多樣性研究中心研究員鄭明修從拍攝影帶初步鑑定應屬黑珊瑚類，是台灣首見紀錄品種，極奇珍貴。65歲林銘聲是台灣目前唯一IANTD（國際混合氣技術潛水協會）系統教練長，帶領一名學員到綠島馬蹄橋外海進行教練資格的深潛訓練，林銘聲說：「潛至104公尺時，見到一片平坦的白砂，當中只有這株珊瑚挺立而出，10公尺外我就看見牠了！」「這株珊瑚外觀為白色帶透明呈枝狀，高約50公分，株寬約30公分。」他潛水47年，在綠島最深潛至160公尺，從未見過。在水壓限制下，以海底相機勉強拍攝到14秒影片後上岸，放上網後引發新聞報道。
於2009年，一項研究發現了全世界最古老的珊瑚：深海黑珊瑚屬。它們是全地球活得最長的生物，約有4265歲。科學家發現它們每年只生長約4-35毫米，個別的壽命也是以千年來計算。[2][3]
4.《中国动物志 腔肠动物门》 ISBN 9787030083678
5.《珊瑚图鉴》 ISBN 9787122076328
黑角珊瑚是鈍膠珊瑚亞綱之黑珊瑚目（Antipatharia）下的珊瑚，一般稱為黑珊瑚(black coral)，其橫膈膜不成對，數目不定，單體或群體，外胚層能分泌幾丁質骨釉，體壁能分泌膠狀物，將周圍泥沙膠結成管狀物，稱為護鞘，可保存為化石。 它們棲息在深海，外觀像樹。其下已知有約42屬230種。
黑角珊瑚的組織色彩鮮艷，其名字的由來是黑色或深褐色的骨骼。其骨骼表面上有一些細小的棘覆蓋。它們是夏威夷的州石象徵，已禁採。全球黑珊瑚目的所有種黑珊瑚都受到《瀕危野生動植物種國際貿易公約》（簡稱華盛頓公約）附錄二的保護，屬瀕臨危險絕種動物。2011年7月15日，美國司法部公佈美屬維爾京群島公司被判非法貿易受保護的瀕危物種黑珊瑚被運到美國，違反了瀕危物種法案和雷斯法案，總計超過四百萬美元的總罰款爲非法貿易珊瑚有史以來最高罰款，無華盛頓公約合法許可，走私、運輸、攜帶黑珊瑚入境美國皆屬犯罪。
未骨骼化的黑角珊瑚極少是全黑色的，黑珊瑚骨骼上附著的珊瑚蟲顏色非常豐富，白色、紅色、綠色、黃色和棕色的都有。而他們的形狀也有很多種，從樹狀到扇狀到鞭狀均有。與石珊瑚不同，這些骨骼是由不連續的骨針組成，因而骨骼上通常能看到很小的骨刺（其骨骼表面上有一些細小的棘覆蓋），縱截面現實環繞原生枝管軸的同心環結構，有的縱表面具有獨特的小丘疹狀外觀。黑珊瑚為鈍膠珊瑚，遇酸不起泡，燃燒有明顯的蛋白質焦臭味道。
2009年3月，科學家發布了他們對深海珊瑚（水深300〜3000米）於世界各地的研究成果。他們發現深海黑珊瑚是已知全世界最古老的珊瑚品種，地球上最古老的連續生物體，也是全世界壽命最長的生物，其徑向增長率每年只生長約4-35微米（微米micro meter/百萬之一公尺: 換算主幹直徑增長至3.5公分至少需要1000年），個別群體壽命已經達到了4265歲。
黑珊瑚與其他珊瑚不同的一個特性是他們的珊瑚蟲內沒有共生海藻（很多珊瑚需要靠共生海藻為其提供養分），因而黑珊瑚不需要依賴於陽光。這正是黑珊瑚經常能生長在陽光到達不了的深海的原因。
黑珊瑚存在印度尼西亞多處深海海域，人員必須濳至數十至百米深海採撈作為珠寶首飾原料，印度尼西亞國語稱作Akar Bahar，巴里島方言稱作 Kayu Uli，在民間普遍被誤認是植物稱之爲海底神木，因水浸不爛，火焚不毀，在印度尼西亞各個不同種族中共通被視為抵擋黑巫術的傳家辟邪聖物。巴里島人將一截黑珊瑚以火加熱使之彎曲後再以冷水降溫定型成手環隨身配帶，常見於巴里祭司、王公貴族。
（路透社羅馬2009/09/17電），意大利科學家在地中海海底進行了一項新勘測，發現了世界最大的黑珊瑚森林。這片黑珊瑚森林隱藏在墨西拿海峽的狹長水域中，通過水下機器人，意大利環境保護與研究院的海洋生物學家發現有近3萬群學名爲「Antipathella subpinnata coral」的黑珊瑚位於55~100米深的水域中。科學家是在意大利南部卡拉布裡亞（Calabria）區海上的六頭女妖岩礁附近發現這些珊瑚群。 意大利生物學家伊娃薩爾瓦特說：「在此水域中，機器人拍下的圖像表明此片海景完全由壯觀的黑珊瑚森林構成，有些黑珊瑚樹高達1米多。這是首次在自然棲息地裡發現這種珍稀珊瑚。」此黑珊瑚像植物一樣在深海裡生長，此稱呼來源於希臘語的科學名稱「抗病」。黑珊瑚被用作護身符。由於環境破壞嚴重，目前所有黑珊瑚被列入瀕危野生動植物物種國際公約（CITES）的附錄II名單中，如果貿易不加控制，此名單中的物種都將面臨滅絕的危險。
2014年2月，台灣首見黑珊瑚，台灣台東縣潛水教練林銘聲在綠島馬蹄橋外海104公尺深處，拍攝記錄到一株前所未見的珊瑚，經中研院生物多樣性研究中心研究員鄭明修從拍攝影帶初步鑑定應屬黑珊瑚類，是台灣首見紀錄品種，極奇珍貴。65歲林銘聲是台灣目前唯一IANTD（國際混合氣技術潛水協會）系統教練長，帶領一名學員到綠島馬蹄橋外海進行教練資格的深潛訓練，林銘聲說：「潛至104公尺時，見到一片平坦的白砂，當中只有這株珊瑚挺立而出，10公尺外我就看見牠了！」「這株珊瑚外觀為白色帶透明呈枝狀，高約50公分，株寬約30公分。」他潛水47年，在綠島最深潛至160公尺，從未見過。在水壓限制下，以海底相機勉強拍攝到14秒影片後上岸，放上網後引發新聞報道。
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