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Life Cycle ( Inglês )

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Ants in general progress through four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Atta sexdens, like all hymenopterans are haplo-diploid, meaning males are haploid (one of each chromosome) and females are diploid (a pair of each chromosome). Sex is determined by the type of egg is laid. Unfertilized eggs will turn out to be males, which are strictly used for mating and are short-lived. Fertilized eggs produce females.

Three to four weeks after being layed, the egg hatches and a larva emerges. In Atta ants, the larvae are fed by secretions from gardener-nurse ants and trophic eggs (unfertilized eggs that are used as food). The larvae, after an additional 3-4 weeks, spin cocoons around themselves and pupate. After 3-4 more weeks, the pupae hatch into adult workers, ready to serve the queen and colony.

Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
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Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Associations ( Inglês )

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Like many other kinds of ants, Atta sexdens has a specialized caste devoted to fending off predators that disturb the nest. Usually, strength (and victory) depends on the number of defender-caste (called soldiers) ants that can arrive on the scene and attack the predator. Soldier ants are the largest in the colony and have evolved very sharp mandibles for use in defense of the nest or its workers. Depending on the size of the predator, smaller or larger ants will be dispatched to fend off the attack.

Known Predators:

  • birds (Aves)
  • ants (Formicidae)
  • vertebrates (Vertebrata)
  • rodents (Rodentia)
  • armadillos (Dasypodinae)
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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Morphology ( Inglês )

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Atta sexdens divides its colony members into four major castes, each differentiated by a range of head widths.

Gardener-Nurses: The smallest of the four castes, gardener-nurses have an average head width of 1.0 mm, and range from 0.6 mm to 1.2 mm.

Within-nest Generalists: The next size up, they have an average head width of 1.4 mm, and range from 1.2 mm to 1.6 mm.

Foragers-Excavators: The second-largest caste, their heads average 2.2 mm, and range from 1.6 mm to 2.4 mm, with a few individuals above 2.4 mm.

Defenders: The largest of the ant castes, defenders usually have a head width above 3.0 mm.

The queen is the largest ant in the colony, often measuring an inch or longer.

Average mass: .02 g.

Range length: 3 to 24 mm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic ; venomous

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes shaped differently

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Life Expectancy ( Inglês )

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Colonies of Atta sexdens have a success rate of approximately 2.5%, that is, only 2.5% of queens sent out to build new colonies actually succeed in doing so.

Those colonies that do survive, as a whole, live about as long as their queens do, which is 10-15 years. By this time, the original colony has likely sent out several mating flights' worth of queens to populate other areas and propagate their genes.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
10 to 15 years.

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Habitat ( Inglês )

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Colonies of Atta sexdens are found scattered throughout forest floors and fields - anywhere with an appropriate climate and abundant foliage to harvest. Rather than building upward, A. sexdens colonies will dig a nest 2-6 meters (6-18 feet) deep into the ground.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Distribution ( Inglês )

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Atta sexdens can be found throughout Central and South America from as far north as Texas down to Southern Argentina.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Trophic Strategy ( Inglês )

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Colonies of A. sexdens, like all leaf cutter ants, are mycophagic (fungus-eaters). The ants cut fresh leaves up into small pieces to use as a substrate for their fungus crop (flower petels are often used for the same purpose). Once the leaf fragments are inside the nest each is prepared with a drop of anal liquid which acts as a fertilizer. Once the leaf is placed into position a small amount of fungus is placed onto the anal drop. In addition to leaves, flower petels are often used for the same purpose. In addition to cultivating the fungus, Atta ants feed on plant sap.

Other Foods: fungus

Primary Diet: herbivore (Eats sap or other plant foods); mycophage

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Associations ( Inglês )

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The movement of leaves and waste and the construction of new canals by colonies of A. sexdens contribute a great deal to their ecosystem. By constructing and expanding the colony, A. sexdens colonies aerate and turn over almost 40,000 kg of soil before they finish.

Atta ants also redistribute vital elements into the soil through processing and removal of waste products from the colony.

Atta ants also have a mutualistic relationship with their fungal crops. The fungus provides different types of nutrition to the ants, and the ants feed the fungus and protect it from parasitic fungi (genus Escovopsis). The ants use a bacteria (genus Streptomyces) that produces antibodies to fight Escovopsis. The parasite, if left unchecked, will easily destroy the entire fungus crop, severely hampering the colony's ability to survive. Many ants, at the first sign of the infection, will abandon the crop and try to get the uninfected crop elsewhere in the colony.

Ecosystem Impact: soil aeration

Mutualist Species:

  • Subphylum Basidiomycotina (species currently unknown)
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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits ( Inglês )

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Humans in some areas of Mexico eat these ants as a source of protein.

Positive Impacts: food

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Benefits ( Inglês )

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Usually when Atta ants cross human paths, the ants are not looked upon favorably. Atta sexdens and Atta cephalotes are the principal insect pests where they are found, destroying billions of dollars worth of crops with their ability to quickly defoliate and strip crops of anything useful to the ants. In fact, Atta ants are considered the number one herbivorous pest in many areas where they are found.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Conservation Status ( Inglês )

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Atta sexdens is not listed in the IUCN Red List, CITIES appendices, or the United States Endangered Species Act.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Behavior ( Inglês )

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Communication between members of Atta sexdens involves a combination of chemicals called pheremones secreted from various glands, and touch. The gaster, the organ used for applying these chemicals, can be used to mark cut leaves, cutting sites, territory boundaries, and paths to take to get to cutting sites or rubbish heaps. If the ground is already marked, the ant will not mark it again unless the scent has faded.

Atta ants also can communicate by using a file-and-scraper mechanism that produces sound both in the air and through the ground. This mechanism is usually used to recruit workers to a particular patch of good vegetation.

Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks ; vibrations

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Reproduction ( Inglês )

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Although no one has yet observed the complete Atta sexdens mating process, it is theorized that A. sexdens queens are polyandrous. When the queen goes on her mating flight, called the revoada, she needs to obtain enough sperm to last her entire lifespan. Mated queens may contain more that 300 million sperm when all the mating is done. No one male is likely able to produce enough sperm, so it is likely that the female mates with three to eight individuals during her revoada.

Only queens and males are sexually active and able to mate. All other castes are sterile.

Mating System: polyandrous ; eusocial

Queens of Atta sexdens are the only females that mate. Mating usually occurs from late October through the middle of december. After gaining enough sperm to found a new colony, the queen will fly away from her old colony, up to approximately 11 km, shed her wings, burrow into the ground, and begin egg-laying.

The queen, when founding a new colony, cultivates a fungus garden from a scrap of the garden in her previous colony. Rather than eat the fungus, she lives on her own fat reserves, eggs, and her wing muscles (which she won't need anymore). The first batch of eggs, cared for by the queen, hatch worker ants of the gardener caste. After there are enough gardener-nurses to take care of both brood and fungus, the queen becomes strictly an egg-laying machine for the rest of her life. Queens may produce up to 150 million daughters during their lifetime. The next batches of eggs are the specialists and forager-excavators, to help expand the colony and find more material for the fungus to grow on. From this point, all four castes of ants may appear in the queen's eggs.

Atta sexdens queens determine what amount of what worker castes to produce depending on the size of the colony and the age of the queen. Wilson and Holdobler (1994) experimented with a mature colony, reducing its size in proportion to give it the appearance of a young colony. Instead of going by age and producing large workers and soldiers, the queen reverted to producing small and mid-size workers as if she were in command of a younger colony.

Breeding interval: Queens and males breed only during one mating season of their lives. Non-queen females cannot breed.

Breeding season: End of October to Middle of December

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous ; sperm-storing ; delayed fertilization

The eggs, larvae, and pupae of Atta sexdens are generally cared for by gardener-nurse caste workers, with some help from the within-nest specialists if the larvae or pupae are extremely large. The one exception to this rule is the first few clutches of eggs laid by a founding queen, as she has no workers to take care of the larvae and must take care of them herself.

These nurses feed the larvae with trophic eggs and fungus, sometimes by regurgitation. They also protect, manipulate and groom the eggs, larvae, and pupae, assisting them through their metamorphosis by licking off the last vestiges of a previous stage.

Parental Investment: female parental care

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Byrne, A. 2004. "Atta sexdens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Atta_sexdens.html
autor
Alex Byrne, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
autor
Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Matthew Wund, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Ashley Dowling, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
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Biology ( Inglês )

fornecido por Antweb
Threat of introductionA niche modeling analysis determined that temperature seasonality was the most important variable for predicting its current distribution, while precipitation seasonality was the least important (Solomon, 2007). The modeling also predicts A. sexdens could, should opportunities present themselves, expand its range to western Ecuador and islands in the Lesser Antilles, including Trinidad, and also on Hispaniola and Jamaica. Atta sexdens is a serious pest everywhere it occurs, and has been shown to readily colonize human-altered habitats such as parks and agricultural fields (Solomon, 2007; Weber, 1972; Zanncio et al., 2002). Introduction of this species into habitats outside of its native range could have devastating effects (Hlldobler & Wilson, 1990). A pest risk assessment of unprocessed Eucalyptus concluded the introduction of South American Atta species into the United States was a low probability (Kliejunas et al., 2001).
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Distribution Notes ( Inglês )

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Global. The northern most range is Mexico, and extends through Central America (Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua), into South America (Ecuador, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Surinam) and Trinidad and Tobago.Paraguay. Alto Paran, Caaguaz, Caazap, Canindey, Central, Concepcin, Cordillera, Guair, Itapa, Misiones, eembuc, Paraguar, San Pedro
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Identification ( Inglês )

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Atta sexdens vs. A. cephalotesAtta sexdens is highly variable, both within the same colony and across populations. Workers vary in shape, color, sculpture and pubescence (Borgmeier, 1959). Among intercepted attines, the species is most readily confused with A. cephalotes, but can be distinguished by the lack of wooly hairs on the heads of major workers, the duller more opaque integument caused by a dense netting of hexagonal microsculpture, and the 1-2 small teeth or dents on the head anterior to the posterolateral spines. Among other attines, A. sexdens is most readily confused with A. capiguara, but can be separated by the microsculpture netting referred to above (Borgmeier, 1959).

Translated from Borgemeir 1959bType locality. - Suriname, Paramaribo.

Workers. - Maxima (Fig. 2; Paramaribo). Length 12 mm. Herzfoermig head, posterior margin strongly bulged. Head width 5 mm, length without mandibles, 4, 2 mm. Rudimentarily ocelli, sometimes absent. Occiput cut. Vertex laterally without tooth, sometimes with tubercles. Occipitalzahn undspitz shortly. Fascias short, with teeth. Eye keels curved inward above, below with a short tooth, also with short ventral tooth. Scape 3, 4 mm. Mandibles with blunt teeth. Thorax length 5, 4 mm. Lower Pronotal zahn strong, slightly curved. The 4 Mesonotal zaehne short, the front conical. Epinotum keeled. Epinotal spines judged longer than the Mesonotal zaehne, but shorter than their mutual distance at the base, straight back. Petiole rounded. Postpetiole keeled, width 1, 3 mm, length 0, 8 mm. Gaster width 3 mm, 5 mm hind tibiae. Mandibles, clypeus and scape shiny. Body dull, densely finely punctate, forehead wrinkled in the middle of something. Protruding hair quite short, in the middle of the forehead, occiput and sides of the head scattered, abundant on the thorax, and gaster Sielchen. Pubescence on sparse, abundant pronotum. Hairy legs diagonally. Reddish brown to dark reddish brown stain. Media (Paramaribo). Length 7 mm. Head width 3 mm. Vertex with very short lateral tooth. Occipital spines just zieml. in length. Thoracic spines pointed, shorter than the front mesonotal spines epinotal spines. Matt. Forehead in the middle with Laengsrunzeln. Long hair on the head and gaster, shorter thorax, scattered pubescence. Rusty brown stain. - Minima (Paramaribo). Length 2, 2 mm. Head width 0.8 mm. Front Mesonotalzaehne very short, so long as the occipital zaehne; ​​rear mesonotal zaehne obsolete; Epinotal zaehne longer. Matt. Hairs on thorax sparse, longer on head and gaster. Wei b c hen (Paramaribo). - Length 19-20 mm. Head width 5 mm, sides converging towards the front, rear edge bulges gently. Occipital zaehne short side vertex with weak swelling or TuberkeI. Ocelli small. Eyes convex. Eye tooth keels obsolete. Fascias with teeth. Without ventral tooth. Scape 3 mm. Mandibles long, with pointed Apikalzahn and 8 blunt teeth. Thorax length 8, 5 mm. Scutellum without a furrow. Epinotum over the base of the short teeth, with swelling. Petiole and blunt postpetiole side with teeth or cusps. Gaster width 7, 5 mm. Front corners poorly marked. Hind tibiae 5 mm. Wing 27 mm. Mandibles, clypeus, scape and legs shiny. Matt body. Prominent short hairs scattered on head, thorax and gaster more abundant. Legs covered with short oblique. Pubescenz spaerJich scatters. Rusty brown color, blacked Gaster.

Males (Paramaribo). - Length 14 mm. Head over the eyes wide ~ 2 mm. Occipital zaehne short and pointed. Eyes strongly convex. Fascias without teeth. Scape 2 mm. Mandibles narrow and short, with Apikalzahn and 7 weak teeth. Thorax length 5, 75 mm. Pronotalzahn triangular shortly. Epinotum unreinforced. Gaster width of 5, 4 mm .. Tibie III, 4, 6 mm. Wing 20 mm. Genitalia (Fig. 14, 23): Stipes slender and pointed, as long as the associate volume, apical membrane with a narrow hairy. Volsellen triangular, slightly curved inwards, tapering apically. Sagittae with strong vertically erect chitinisierten sides, in profile triangular, upper margin bulged. Subgenital concave apically. Matt. Gaster shiny weak. Head, thorax and pedicel thick and long woolly hair, the legs on the ventral side. Gaster, scape pubescent, and short tracks. Wrinkled head. Stain dark brown, legs lighter.

Geographer. Dissemination. - Of all the species of Atta sexdens has the largest distribution: Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia (Guarayos, Trinidad), Venezuela, Guyana. Suriname, B ~ asilien, Paraguay, Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes), 22, 1933, p. 26 [Guatemala], and vol. 10, 1921, p. 146 [Montevideo]. Both figures are re-examined must. In Guatemala, it may also colombica urn, and perhaps in Montevideo urn Acromyrmex sp.

Variation. - Both within the same colony, as in the geograph. Proliferation zone vary the workers in paint, sculpture, gloss and hair, with some soldiers, the head is rubbed as in others he is furnished with hair, never the hair missing shots; in specimens from the south of Brazil the gaster on the sides is Zllweilen shiny ( the smallest workers may be the whole gaster shiny), and sometimes the show occipital lobes front teeth 1-2 on each side; the Epinotaldornen Zllweilen are strongly directed upwards; specimens from S. Catarina show sometimes blackened thorax and pedicel. The females are slightly smaller than the Paramaribo from Brazil, which varies between 27-30 mm Fluegellaenge. Among the males falls on the strong variation of Sagitta, the upper edge (in profile) bulges sometimes deep, sometimes even (d Borgm. In 1950, fig 18-29).

Discussion. - Atta sexdens is capiguara the next, and the soldiers can be easily confused, but differ by the micro-sculpture of the head at sexdens densely netted, so that the tegument is dull, at capiguara extensive to 50dass at high magnification, a certain luster notice is. The females have sexdens schwarzbrauntn Gaster, from the bright-red capiguara Gaster. The males of both species differ in the Sagitta, which are very similar in profile, but in dorsal view appearing Oberraender of capiguara turned inward, and the Seitenwaende are not vertical, but more oblique. Opaciceps of robusta and the soldiers of different sexdens by the scalp and through the smaller entertainments. The mean of sexdens workers are distinguished from robusta, and opaciceps laevigata little. Also, the females and males.

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Overview ( Inglês )

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Atta sexdens, along with A. cephalotes, is the most widespread member of its genus. Its northern most range is Mexico, and extends through Central America (Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua), into South America (Ecuador, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brazil, Surinam) and Trinidad and Tobago (Hlldobler & Wilson, 1990; Kempf, 1972; Weber, 1972). The species has a wider tolerance for nest habitats, and is found in closed-canopy-forest, open grassland and disturbed habitats (Solomon, 2007; Weber, 1969). Atta sexdens is a considered a serious pest throughout its range, causing damage to a wide variety of agricultural crops and ornamentals (Cherrett, 1986).

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Taxonomic History ( Inglês )

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Formica sexdens Linnaeus, 1758 PDF: 581 (w.) AMERICA MERIDIONALI. Neotropic. AntCat AntWiki HOL

Taxonomic history

[Note: type-locality Suriname, after De Geer, 1773 PDF: 608.].[Misspelled as Atta sexdentata by Latreille, 1802a PDF: 228, Smith, 1858a PDF: 183; frequently misspelled as 6dens in early literature.].Mayr, 1865 PDF: 82 (q.m.); Wheeler, 1949 PDF: 681 (l.).Combination in Oecodoma: Latreille, 1818a PDF: 225; Smith, 1858a PDF: 183; Mayr, 1863a PDF: 438.Combination in Atta: Fabricius, 1804 PDF: 422; Roger, 1863b PDF: 35; Mayr, 1865 PDF: 80.Combination in Atta (Neoatta): Gonçalves, 1942 PDF: 349.Status as species: Linnaeus, 1767 PDF: 964; De Geer, 1773 PDF: 608; Fabricius, 1775 PDF: 395; Fabricius, 1782: 493; Retzius, 1783 PDF: 76; Fabricius, 1787 PDF: 310; Gmelin, 1790 PDF: 2802; Christ, 1791 PDF: 515; Olivier, 1792: 500; Fabricius, 1793 PDF: 363; Latreille, 1802a PDF: 228; Fabricius, 1804 PDF: 422; Latreille, 1818a PDF: 225; Smith, 1858a PDF: 183; Smith, 1862b PDF: 34; Roger, 1863b PDF: 35; Mayr, 1863a PDF: 438; Mayr, 1865 PDF: 80, 82 (redescription); Emery, 1878a PDF: x (in list); Mayr, 1884 PDF: 37; Emery, 1888c PDF: 357; Emery, 1890b PDF: 66; Cameron, 1891: 95; Dalla Torre, 1893 PDF: 154; von Jhering, 1894 PDF: 386; Forel, 1895b PDF: 138; Emery, 1896h PDF: 626; Forel, 1899b PDF: 31; Forel, 1899j: 273; Forel, 1905e PDF: 157; Wheeler, 1905c PDF: 130; Emery, 1906c PDF: 167; Forel, 1907h PDF: 2; Forel, 1908a PDF: 69; Forel, 1909a PDF: 266; Emery, 1913c PDF: 259; Stitz, 1913 PDF: 207; Bruch, 1914 PDF: 216; Mann, 1916 PDF: 453; Wheeler, 1916c PDF: 11; Wheeler, 1923a PDF: 4; Emery, 1924f PDF: 354; Wheeler, 1925a: 36; Borgmeier, 1927c PDF: 137; Eidmann, 1936b PDF: 87; Borgmeier, 1939 PDF: 424; Gonçalves, 1942 PDF: 349; Weber, 1946c PDF: 165; Gonçalves, 1947a PDF: 185; Borgmeier, 1950d PDF: 251; Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 358 (redescription); Kempf, 1972b PDF: 27; Cherrett & Cherrett, 1989 PDF: 54; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Wild, 2007b PDF: 31; Bezděčková et al., 2015 PDF: 115; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160 (redescription); Fernández & Serna, 2019 PDF: 842.Senior synonym of Atta abdominalis: Mayr, 1865 PDF: 80; Dalla Torre, 1893 PDF: 154; Forel, 1899b PDF: 32; Emery, 1924f PDF: 355; Borgmeier, 1927c PDF: 137; Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Kempf, 1972b PDF: 28; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta sexdens autuorii: Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta coptophylla: Mayr, 1865 PDF: 80; Dalla Torre, 1893 PDF: 154; Forel, 1895b PDF: 138; Forel, 1899b PDF: 32; Emery, 1924f PDF: 355; Borgmeier, 1927c PDF: 137; Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Kempf, 1972b PDF: 28; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta flavicornis: Forel, 1905e PDF: 161; Emery, 1924f PDF: 354; Borgmeier, 1927c PDF: 137; Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Kempf, 1972b PDF: 28; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta sexdens fuscata: Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Kempf, 1972b PDF: 28; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta vollenweideri lugens: Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Bolton, 1995b: 77.Senior synonym of Atta vollenweideri piriventris: Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.Senior synonym of Atta sexdens rubropilosa: Borgmeier, 1959b PDF: 359; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández et al., 2015 PDF: 160.
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California Academy of Sciences
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AntWeb. Version 8.45.1. California Academy of Science, online at https://www.antweb.org. Accessed 15 December 2022.
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Diagnostic Description ( Inglês )

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- Caracas.

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Forel, A., 1905, Miscellanea myrmicologiques, II (1905)., Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique, pp. 155-185, vol. 49
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Forel, A.
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Plazi (legacy text)

Diagnostic Description ( Inglês )

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Esta espécie foi descripta pelo seu autor juntamente com cephalotes , sobre material colleccionado por Rolander em Surinam. Como forma typica considero abundante material ( operários , fêmeas , machos) de Paramaribo, Lelydorp, Surinam(Stahel e Geijskes leg.). A mesma forma recebi do dr. N. A. Weber da Guyana Ingleza (Courantyne River, N.° 548, 556). Dou uma figura da cabeça de um operário maior de Paramaribo. Os ninhos desta espécie foram estudados ultimamente por Stahel e Geijskes (1939).

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Borgmeier, T., 1939, Nova contribuição para o conhecimento das formigas neotropicais (Hym. Formicidae)., Revista de Entomologia, São Paulo, pp. 403-428, vol. 10
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Borgmeier, T.
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Plazi (legacy text)

Diagnostic Description ( Inglês )

fornecido por Plazi (legacy text)

Sauf la Formica sexguttata , tous ces types du Musee de Copen- hague ont l'etiquette carree verte qui, selon le Dr Meinert, garantit leur authenticite. Ils sont fort bien conserves.

LaFormica rapax F. est un beau Camponotus a longue pubes- cence, long de Jl a 12 millimetres, avec l'abdomen ferrugineux et le reste noir mat. C'est une [[ worker ]] minor-media.

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citação bibliográfica
Forel, A., 1905, Miscellanea myrmicologiques, II (1905)., Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique, pp. 155-185, vol. 49
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Forel, A.
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Plazi (legacy text)

Diagnostic Description ( Inglês )

fornecido por Plazi (legacy text)

Caaguazú , Canindeyú , Central, Cordillera, Misiones, Paraguarí , San Pedro, “ Guañayos ” (Dept. unknown) “Paraguay” (s. loc.) (ALWC, IFML, INBP, LACM, MCSN, MHNG, MZSP, NHMB, NHMW, USNM). Literature records: Alto Paraná , Caaguazú , Caazapá , Canindeyú , Central, Concepción , Cordillera, Guairá , Itapúa , Misiones, Ñeembucú , Paraguarí , San Pedro, “Pto. Itacurí ” (Dept. unknown), “Paraguay” (s. loc.) (Borgmeier 1959b, Emery 1896b, Emery 1906, Fowler 1985, Santschi 1922a).

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citação bibliográfica
Wild, A. L., 2007, A catalogue of the ants of Paraguay (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)., Zootaxa, pp. 1-55, vol. 1622
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Wild, A. L.
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Atta sexdens ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Atta sexdens is a species of leafcutter ant belonging to the tribe Attini, native to America, from the southern United States (Texas) to northern Argentina.[2] They are absent from Chile. They cut leaves to provide a substrate for the fungus farms which are their principal source of food. Their societies are among the most complex found in social insects. A. sexdens is an ecologically important species, but also an agricultural pest. Other Atta species, such as Atta texana, Atta cephalotes and others, have similar behavior and ecology.

Description

Colony architecture

A. sexdens colonies are primarily subterranean with a mound of excavated material on the surface. The diameter of the colony may reach 10 m with a depth of 6 m. The colonies contain up to 2000 chambers with a combined volume of more than 20 m3. The two basic types of chambers are fungus farms and waste chambers. The farms contain the fungal culture which sustains the colony and hosts larvae and pupae. The waste chambers are located at the rim of the colony and are significantly larger. They are used to dispose used fungal culture and dead ants. A mature colony contains 5–8 million workers.[3] The colony often forms the centerpiece of a large jungle clearing. At the top of the mound are structures resembling sand castles surrounding hundreds of openings to the colony. Positioning the openings on top of these structures minimises the amount of rainwater flowing into the colony. The openings also have an important role in air conditioning. As the ant activity and fungal metabolism heat up the colony, hot air rises through the central passageways. Simultaneously, fresh air is drawn in from the openings at the rim of the colony.

Anatomy

A. sexdens follows the basic body plan of ants fairly closely. They have sharp spikes or hooks rising from their heads and midsections to deter predators. Another distinguishing feature is a relatively large, two-lobed head. Its purpose is to accommodate the large muscles moving the well-developed mandibles.

In addition to the queen, the colony contains four castes of sterile female workers, and seasonally some winged virgin queens and males:[4]

  • Soldiers are the physically largest worker caste, with a head width of 3 mm and well-developed sharp mandibles. They are completely dedicated to defence, and do not participate in the running of the colony. In the event of attack by a predator, the soldiers storm out of the nest and attempt to overpower the aggressor. Their bite can easily penetrate human skin. The soldier caste is expensive to maintain, so they are absent from young colonies with less than 100,000 workers.
  • Forager-excavators are the second-largest caste, with an average head width of 2.2 mm. They are responsible for venturing out to cut pieces of leaves and carry them back to the colony to feed the fungus. They also excavate new chambers to the colony.
  • Within-nest specialists have an average head width of 1.4 mm. They usually remain inside the colony, where they process the leaf material brought in by the foragers to a smaller form. They also dispose of waste, help the gardener-nurse caste to take care of larger larvae, and attend to the queen.
  • Gardener-nurses have an average head width of 1 mm. They are the physically smallest caste, less massive than the larger, more robust soldiers by a factor of several hundred. Their tasks are to attend to the fungal culture and to the developing eggs, larvae, and pupae.
  • The queen is the largest ant in the colony, outweighing the smaller worker by a factor of 700. She is also the only member of the colony capable of reproducing. The queen resides in a special chamber, where she is continually fed, cleaned, and protected by workers. The queens have a lifespan of 10–20 years.

Considerable variation in size occurs within the castes, some of which may be related to the division of labour. Some researchers separate seven castes, while others dismiss the idea of caste altogether. The division of labour also depends on the age of the worker. Foraging expeditions are hazardous, so are handled by older, thus more expendable, members of the caste.

Development

A. sexdens, like all ants, has four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.[5] Their developmental larval stages are observed associated with fungal hyphae, and possess unique morphological features, compared to other ants.[5] They are, like all hymenopterans, haplodiploid, meaning males are haploid (one of each chromosome) and females, including workers, are diploid (a pair of each chromosome). Sex is determined by the type of egg laid. Unfertilized eggs will turn out to be males, which are strictly used for mating and are short-lived. Fertilized eggs produce females. The caste of the resulting adult depends on environmental cues.

Three to four weeks after being laid, the egg hatches and a larva emerges. In Atta ants, the larvae are fed by secretions from gardener-nurse ants and trophic eggs (unfertilized eggs used as food). The larvae, after an additional three to four weeks pupate. Their pupae are cocoonless, as are all of the subfamily Myrmicinae. After three to four more weeks, the pupae hatch into adult workers.

A. sexdens larvae grow embedded in the fungal garden. Despite being surrounded by food, they are incapable of feeding themselves. Their adult sisters constantly feed and clean them. This is not a primitive feature. On the contrary, only the most advanced ant societies can expend such lavish care to their offspring as required by Atta larvae.

All female eggs are identical when laid. The caste of the resulting worker is determined by the conditions, which are in turn regulated by adult workers. The most important factor is the quantity of food. The largest amount of food results in virgin queens, while slightly less food creates soldiers. A shortage of one caste causes the workers to produce more ants of that caste. A drastic reduction in the work force may cause the colony to revert to the caste structure of a young colony, which does not have soldiers.

Behavior

Foraging

A. sexdens workers forage leaves up to a range of 60 m from the colony. The scouting workers leave behind a trail of pheromones after they discover a source of suitable plant material. Other workers follow this trail to the leaves. They cut the plant material to pieces suitable for an individual ant to carry back to the colony.

Smaller workers sometimes ride on the leaf pieces while the foragers carry them. The purpose of this behavior is not known for certain, but may be to protect the exposed foragers from attacks by parasitic insects. These insects include flies of the family Phoridae which lay their eggs on foragers. The resulting larvae eat the ants alive.

Fungus cultivation

A. sexdens, like all leafcutter ants, is mycophagic. They live in a symbiotic relationship with a fungus belonging to the subphylum Basidiomycota. Leaves and other soft plant material brought into the nest by the foragers is chewed into a pulp and fertilized with faeces. A small piece of fungus is placed on this substrate. The gardener-nurse caste takes care of the cultivation, transplanting fungus onto fresh substrate and weeding out wrong species of fungus, such as a parasitic Escovopsis, which sometimes can contaminate nests. They also use secretions from their salivary glands and help form antibiotic-producing Streptomyces bacteria to keep their fungal gardens a strict monoculture.[6]

The gardener-nurses also cut pieces of mycelium for the other castes to eat. In addition to the fungus, the A. sexdens adults feed on plant sap. They are the only source of nutrition for the ants, apart from the trophic eggs laid by the queen when the colony is young.

The identity of the fungus remains a mystery. It is known that they are a species of the basidiomycete family Lepiotaceae. Some researchers believe all fungus-growing ants cultivate just one species, Leucocoprinus gongylophorus. The fungus produces special structures, called gongylidia, which have evolved to be eaten by ants.[7]

Cleaning

A. sexdens workers spend a considerable time cleaning each other and the queen. They also spread antibiotic secretions from their metapleural glands on their bodies. Dirt collected by licking is stored in the workers' infrabuccal cavities, which are special recesses in their mouths. The purpose of these activities is to avoid infections, especially by parasitic fungi. Several fungus species, such as Cordyceps, specially infect and kill ants.

All waste in the nest, including infrabuccal pellets, spent substrate from the gardens, and dead ants are carried in the waste chambers to avoid contamination. Feces, however, are not carried away, but used to fertilise the fungal gardens. The waste chambers are larger than the human head and located at the rim of the colony. There, the waste can decompose without endangering the ants. Due to the high concentration of various nutrients in the decomposing waste, a thick net of plant roots usually permeates the compost.

Reproduction

From late October to mid-December, the A. sexdens colonies produce winged virgin queens and males. Before the nuptial flight, young queens visit the colony's fungal gardens and place a small piece of fungal mycelium in their infrabuccal cavities. During their nuptial flights, the queens mate with several males, which die shortly after. The queen retains the sperm in a special organ for the rest of her life.[8]

It is estimated that each queen is inseminated by 3-8 males and that the number of fathers per colony is between 1 and 5.[9][10]

The mated queen lands on the ground and tears off her now-unnecessary wings. Then she digs a vertical tunnel to a depth of about 30 cm. At the end of the tunnel, she excavates a small chamber. The queen then starts a fungal garden using the piece brought from her birth colony. Usually, the garden is fertilized only with feces, but sometimes it is necessary for the queen to forage a small quantity of plant material. The queen also lays a few eggs.[8]

The queen then tends to the fungal garden and the developing larvae, feeding them fungus and trophic eggs. The queen herself eats nothing during this period, sustaining herself on fat deposits and her shrinking flight muscles. After the first brood of workers is ready, they take over the running of the fledgling colony and the queen becomes strictly an egg-laying machine. This process takes 40–60 days.[8]

At first, the colony grows slowly, but after two to three years, the growth becomes faster. One possible reason for this is, before the colony is established enough to sustain any large soldier-caste workers, it is useful to remain unnoticed. Soldiers usually appear when the colony has a population of about 100,000. After the number of workers reaches 5–8 million, the colony stops expanding and diverts resources into producing queens and males.[8]

The virgin queens are very rarely successful. Assuming the number of colonies in an area remains constant over time, on average only one queen among the many thousands sent out by a colony successfully founds a new one. However, a mature colony of several million workers faces very few dangers. No known predator, except the mostly subterranean army ant Nomamyrmex esenbeckii, actively attacks the nests, and even other highly aggressive army ants show a healthy respect for an A. sexdens colony. If spared from floods and human activity, the colony is usually destroyed only when the queen dies of old age, giving a successful colony a lifespan of 10–20 years. In that time, the colony will have sent out numerous males and virgin queens to found new colonies.

Significance

Ecological impact

At the end of its lifespan, an A. sexdens colony has moved up to 40,000 kg of soil. This has two important results: The soil becomes aerated with the excavation of tunnels and chambers, and enriched with nutrients as the ants bury their waste products. This represents a major way in which nutrients are recycled in their environment.

A. sexdens and other leafcutter ants are also important herbivores, consuming 12–17% of the leaf mass-produced in neotropical rainforests. One colony's consumption of plant material is comparable to that of a large mammalian herbivore, such as a cow. A. sexdens and the related species, A. cephalotes are the principal insect pests where they are found, destroying billions of dollars worth of crops with their ability to quickly defoliate and strip crops of anything useful to the ants. In fact, Atta ants are considered the primary herbivorous pest in many areas where they are found.[11]

If A. sexdens were to spread into tropical Africa, the results are speculated to be devastating. As the local plants have not developed defensive compounds against leafcutters and Africa does not have parasites evolved to infect them, the results for both the ecosystem and agriculture would be disastrous.

References

  1. ^ "Catalogue of Life :". www.catalogueoflife.org.
  2. ^ Discovery Communications Inc. 2002. "Leaf Cutter Ant" (On-line ). Animal Planet. Accessed 03/11/03 at http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/crawler/leafant.html.
  3. ^ Hölldobler, Bert; Wilson, Edward O. (2009). The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393067040.
  4. ^ EnchantedLearning.com. 2003. "Ant" (On-line ). Accessed 03/18/03 at http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/insects/ant/Antcoloringpage.shtml.
  5. ^ a b Solis, Daniel Russ; Fox, Eduardo Gonçalves Paterson; Ceccato, Marcela; Reiss, Itamar Cristina; Décio, Pâmela; Lorenzon, Natalia; Da Silva, Natiele Gonçalves; Bueno, Odair Correa (August 2012). "On the morphology of the worker immatures of the leafcutter ant Atta sexdens linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Microscopy Research and Technique. 75 (8): 1059–1065. doi:10.1002/jemt.22031. PMID 22419653.
  6. ^ Poulsen, M. 2002. "Leaf-cutting ants and their fungus" (On-line ). Accessed 03/19/2003 at http://www.webspawner.com/users/michaelpoulsen2003/index.html.
  7. ^ Wirth, R., H. Herz, R. Ryel, W. Beyschlag, B. Holldobler. 2003. Herbivory of Leaf-cutting Ants. New York: Springer.
  8. ^ a b c d Hölldobler, Bert; Holldobler, Foundation Professor of Biology Bert; Wilson, Honorary Curator in Entomology and University Research Professor Emeritus Edward O.; Wilson, Edward O. (2009). The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393067040.
  9. ^ Kerr, Warwick. "Tendências evolutivas na reprodução dos Himenópteros Sociais" (PDF). Sciences and Letters of Rio Claro.
  10. ^ Fjerdingstadt, E.J.; Boomsma, J.J. (2000-11-01). "Queen mating frequency and relatedness in young Atta sexdens colonies". Insectes Sociaux. 47 (4): 354–356. doi:10.1007/PL00001730. ISSN 1420-9098.
  11. ^ Wilson, E., B. Holldobler. 1994. Journey to the Ants. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Kelknap Press of Harvard University Press.

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Atta sexdens: Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Atta sexdens is a species of leafcutter ant belonging to the tribe Attini, native to America, from the southern United States (Texas) to northern Argentina. They are absent from Chile. They cut leaves to provide a substrate for the fungus farms which are their principal source of food. Their societies are among the most complex found in social insects. A. sexdens is an ecologically important species, but also an agricultural pest. Other Atta species, such as Atta texana, Atta cephalotes and others, have similar behavior and ecology.

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Atta sexdens ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Atta sexdens (curuhuinsi o siquisapa, nombres con los que se la conoce en la Amazonía peruana) es una especie de hormiga cortadora de hojas de la tribu Attini. Son nativas de Nuevo Mundo, desde Panamá hasta el norte de Argentina.[2]​ Cortan hojas para proveer un substrato para el cultivo de un hongo específico que es su principal alimento. Sus sociedades están entre las más complejas entre los insectos sociales. Atta sexdens es una especie ecológicamente importante, pero también es una plaga agrícola. Otras especies del género Atta, como A. texana, A. cephalotes, A. insularis, entre otros, tienen comportamientos y ecologías similares.

Arquitectura del nido

Los nidos u hormigueros de A. sexdens son primariamente subterráneos con un montículo de material excavado en la superficie. El diámetro del hormiguero puede alcanzar 10 metros con una profundidad de 6 metros. Este puede contener hasta 2000 cámaras con un volumen combinado de más de 20 metros cúbicos. Existen dos tipos básicos de cámaras: Las de jardines de hongos y las de desperdicios. Los jardines contienen el cultivo del hongo que sustenta la colonia y alberga a las larvas y pupas. Las cámaras de desperdicios se localizan a los bordes del nido y son significativamente grandes. Son usados para descartar los cultivos de hongos usados y las hormigas muertas. Una colonia madura contiene de 5 a 8 millones de obreras.

La colonia a menudo forma el centro de un gran claro de bosque. En la cima del montículo existen estructuras que asemejan castillos de arena rodeando cientos de aberturas del hormiguero. Ubicando las aberturas en el tope de estas estructuras minimiza la cantidad de agua de lluvia que penetra al nido. Las aberturas tienen también un importante rol en la ventilación de la colonia. Como la actividad de las hormigas y el metabolismo del hongo generan calientan el hormiguero, el aire caliente sube por los conductos centrales principales. Simultáneamente aire fresco es aspirado al interior por las aberturas o piteras en los bordes del hormiguero.

Anatomía

A. sexdens sigue bastante ajustadamente el plan corporal básico de las hormigas. Tienen espinas afiladas o garfios saliendo de sus cabezas y secciones medias para refrenar a los depredadores. Otra característica distintiva es una cabeza bilobulada relativamente grande. Su propósito es acomodar los músculos que mueven las bien desarrolladas mandíbulas.

Castas

Adicionalmente a la reina, la colonia contiene cuatro castas de hembras obreras que son estériles:

Los soldados son la casta de hormigas obreras típicamente más grandes, con cabezas de 3 mm de ancho y mandíbulas afiladas bien desarrolladas. Ellas se dedican completamente a la defensa, y no participan en los trajines del hormiguero. En el caso de un ataque por un depredador, los soldados salen en masa fuera del nido e intentan sobreponerse al agresor. Sus mordidas pueden fácilmente penetrar la piel humana. La casta de soldados es costosa de mantener, por lo que están ausentes en colonias de menos de 100 000 obreras.

Las forrajeras - excavadoras son la casta de hormigas segundas en tamaño, con un promedio de ancho de cabeza de 2,2 mm. Ellas son las responsabilizadas de aventurarse fuera para cortar pedazos de hojas y llevarlos a la colonia para la alimentación del hongo. También excavan nuevas cámaras para la colonia.

Las especialistas internas del nido tienen un promedio de ancho de cabeza de 1,4 mm. Ellas suelen permanecer adentro del hormiguero donde procesan a una forma más reducida el material de hojas ingresado por las forrajeras. También descartan los desperdicios y ayudan a la casta de jardineras –nodrizas a cuidar a las larvas más grandes y a atender a la reina.

Las jardineras-nodrizas tienen un promedio de ancho de cabeza de 1 mm. Ellas son la casta de hormigas más pequeñas del nido. Son varios cientos de veces menos masivas que las robustas y grandes soldados. Su tarea es atender el cultivo de hongos y a los huevos, larvas y pupas en desarrollo. Las jardineras-nodrizas tienen un promedio de vida de 6 meses

La reina es la hormiga más grande de la colonia, pesando más que la más pequeña en un factor de 700 veces. Ella es también el único miembro de la colonia capaz de reproducirse. La reina reside en una cámara especial donde es continuamente alimentada, limpiada y protegida por las obreras. La reina puede vivir de 10 a 20 años. Hay variaciones considerables en el tamaño de las castas, algunas de los cuales podrían estar relacionadas con la división del trabajo. Algunos investigadores diferencian siete castas, mientras que otros desechan por completo la idea de la diferenciación en castas. La división de labores también depende de la edad de la obrera. Las expediciones forrajeras son peligrosas y son por lo tanto realizadas por las más viejas y más dispensables miembros de la casta.

Desarrollo

A. sexdens como todas las hormigas tienen cuatro etapas de desarrollo: huevo, larva, pupa y adulto. Como todos los himenópteros son haplodiploides, lo que significa que los machos son haploides (con un solo juego de cromosomas) y que las hembras (incluyendo reinas y obreras) son diploides (con dos juegos de cromosomas). El sexo es determinado por el tipo de huevo puesto. Los huevos no fertilizados se desarrollan en machos, los cuales sólo realizan la función reproductiva y tienen vida corta. Los huevos fertilizados producen hembras que en dependencia de señales ambientales resultan en una de las diversas castas.

De tres a cuatro semanas después de haber sido puestos, los huevos eclosionan y emergen las larvas. En las hormigas Atta las larvas son alimentadas con secreciones de las hormigas jardineras-nodrizas y con huevos tróficos (huevos no fertilizados para alimentación). Las larvas después de 3 a 4 semanas, desarrollan capullos que las envuelven y pupan. Después de otras 3 a 4 semanas, de las pupas emergen obreras adultas.

Las larvas de A. sexdens crecen inmersas en el jardín de hongos. A pesar de estar rodeadas de alimento, son incapaces de alimentarse por sí mismas. Sus hermanas jardineras-nodrizas adultas las alimentan y limpian continuamente. Ésta no es una característica primitiva. Por el contrario, sólo las sociedades de hormigas más avanzadas pueden dispensar cuidados tan profusos a sus crías como los que requieren las larvas de Atta.

Todos los huevos son iguales cuando son puestos. La casta resultante es el resultado de las condiciones en que las larvas se desarrollan, las cuales son controladas por las obreras adultas. El factor más importante es la cantidad de alimento. La cantidad mayor de alimento da por resultado a reinas vírgenes, mientras que con cantidades ligeramente menores de alimento se originan soldados. Una escasez en miembros de una casta causa que las obreras produzcan más hormigas de esa casta. Una reducción drástica en la fuerza de trabajo puede causar que la estructura de castas de la colonia sea revertida a la de una colonia joven, la que no tiene soldados.

Forrajeo

Las obreras de A. sexdens buscan hojas hasta un rango de 60 metros de la colonia. Las obreras exploradoras dejan atrás un rastro de feromonas después de que descubren una fuente de material vegetal adecuado. Otras obreras siguen este rastro hasta las hojas. Cortan los materiales vegetales en piezas adecuadas para que cada hormiga portadora pueda llevar una de vuelta al hormiguero.

A veces las obreras menores, las jardineras-nodrizas, cuando ya son más viejas, montan sobre los pedazos de hojas mientras son llevados por las forrajeras. La causa de este comportamiento no es conocido con certeza, pero el propósito puede ser proteger a las forrajeras expuestas a ataques por insectos parásitos. Estos insectos incluyen moscas de la familia Phoridae, las que dejan sus huevos sobre las forrajeras. Esos huevos generan larvas que se comen a la hormiga viva.

Cultivo de hongos

A. sexdens, como otras Atta, son micófagas (comedoras de hongos). Viven en relación simbiótica con un hongo perteneciente al subphylum Basidiomycota. Las hojas y otras partes vegetales blandas, traídas al hormiguero por las forrajeras, son masticadas hasta formar una pulpa que es fertilizada con heces. Una pequeña porción del hongo es ubicada sobre este substrato. La casta de las jardineras-nodrizas se ocupan del cultivo, trasplantando hongos sobre el substrato fresco y arrancando especies de hongos intrusas, como la parásita Escovopsis, la cual contamina a veces el nido. Ellas usan también secreciones de sus glándulas salivares y se ayudan de la bacteria productora de antibióticos Streptomyces para mantener sus jardines de hongos como un monocultivo estricto.[3]

Las jardineras-nodrizas también cortan pedazos de micelio para que otras castas coman. Además del hongo, las A. sexdens comen savia. Estas son las únicas fuentes de nutrición para las hormigas, además de los huevos tróficos puestos por la reina cuando la colonia es joven.

La identidad del hongo es aún desconocida. Se conoce que es una especie de basidiomicetos de la familia Lepiotaceae. Algunos investigadores creen que todas las hormigas jardineras cultivan sólo una especie, Leucocoprinus gongylophorus. El hongo produce una estructura especial, llamada gongylidium, la que ha evolucionado para ser comida por las hormigas.[4]

Limpieza

Las obreras de A. sexdens pasan mucho tiempo limpiándose unas a otras y a la reina. También dispersan secreciones antibióticas de sus glándulas metapleurales sobre sus cuerpos. La suciedad recogida por lameduras es acumulada en los sacos infrabucales, que son depresiones especiales en sus bocas. El propósito de tales actividades es evitar infecciones, especialmente por hongos parásitos. Varias especies de hongos, como los hongos Cordyceps, infectan y matan especialmente a hormigas.

Todos los desperdicios del nido, incluyendo los depósitos infrabucales, substratos gastados de los jardines y hormigas muertas son llevados a las cámaras de desperdicios para evitar la contaminación. Sin embargo, las heces no son desalojadas sino que son usadas para fertilizar los jardines de hongos. Las cámaras de desperdicios son más grandes que una cabeza humana y están localizadas en los bordes de la colonia. Allí los desperdicios se pueden descomponer sin amenazar a las hormigas. Debido a al alta concentración de varios nutrientes en el desperdicio en descomposición, una densa red de raíces de plantas suele penetrar en estas cámaras con compost.

Reproducción

Desde finales de octubre a mediados de diciembre, las colonias de A. sexdens producen machos y reinas vírgenes alados. Antes del vuelo nupcial las jóvenes reinas visitan los jardines de hongos y toman un pedazo de micelio para ponerlo en el saco infrabucal. Durante su vuelo nupcial la reina se aparea con varios machos, que mueren poco tiempo después. La reina retiene el esperma en un órgano especial por el resto de su vida.[5][6][7]​ La reina apareada llega a tierra, y se arranca las alas ahora innecesarias. Entonces cava un túnel vertical de una profundidad de 30 cm aproximadamente. Al final del túnel ella excava una cámara pequeña. La reina comienza entonces un jardín de hongos usando el pedazo traído de su colonia natal. Usualmente el jardín es fertilizado sólo con heces, pero a veces es necesario para la reina buscar alimento pequeñas cantidades de materias vegetales. La reina también agrega unos pocos huevos.

La reina entonces atiende el jardín de hongos y a las larvas y pupas en desarrollo, alimentándolas con el hongo y con huevos tróficos. La misma reina no come nada durante este período, sosteniéndose con la grasa acumulada en sus tejidos y con los músculos de vuelo que van reduciéndose. Después de que la primera camada de obreras está lista, ellas asumen el cuidado de la naciente colonia y la reina se vuelve una estricta máquina de poner huevos. Este periodo lleva unos 40 - 60 días.

Al principio la colonia crece lentamente, pero después de 2 a 3 años el crecimiento se hace más rápido. Una posible razón para esto es que antes que la colonia se haya establecido lo suficiente como para sostener una casta de obreras soldados, es útil permanecer inadvertida. Las soldados suelen aparecer cuando la colonia tiene una población de unas 100 000 obreras. Después de que su número llega a los 5-8 millones, la colonia cesa de crecer y desvía sus recursos a la producción de machos y reinas vírgenes alados.

Las reinas vírgenes muy raramente son exitosas. Asumiendo que el número de colonias en un área permanece constante en el tiempo, en promedio sólo una reina entre los muchos miles que salen de un nido, fundan exitosamente uno nuevo. Sin embargo, una colonia de varios millones de obreras se enfrenta a muy pocos peligros. Ningún depredador conocido ataca activamente los nidos, e incluso las especies altamente agresivas de hormigas guerreras muestran un saludable respeto por una colonia de A. sexdens. Si se libra de inundaciones y de la actividad humana, la colonia suele ser destruida sólo cuando la reina muere de vejez, lo que da a una colonia exitosa una duración de vida de 10-20 años. En ese tiempo la colonia habrá enviado numerosos machos y reinas vírgenes a fundar nuevas colonias.

Impacto ecológico

Una colonia de A. sexdens al final de su vida ha movido hasta 40 000 kg de suelo. Esto tiene dos resultados importantes: el suelo se vuelve aireado con la excavación de túneles y cámaras, y enriquecida con los nutrientes dado que las hormigas entierran sus productos de desecho. Esto representa una importante forma en la que los nutrientes son reciclados en su ambiente.[8]

A. sexdens y otras hormigas cortadoras de hojas son también importantes herbívoras, consumiendo 12-17 % de la masa de hojas producida por las selvas neotropicales. El consumo de materia vegetal de una colonia es comparable al de un gran mamífero herbívoro, como una vaca.

A. sexdens junto con una especie relacionada, A. cephalotes son la principal plaga de insectos donde se encuentran, destruyendo valores miles de millones de dólares de cosechas con sus habilidad de defoliar rápidamente y destruir cosechas de cualquier cosa útil para las hormigas. De hecho, las hormigas Atta son consideradas la plaga número uno de herbívoros en muchas áreas donde ellas se encuentran.

Se especula que si A. sexdens se expandiera a África tropical, los resultados serían devastadores. Dado que las plantas locales no han desarrollado compuestos defensivos contra las hormigas cortadoras de hoja, y África no tiene parásitos evolucionados para infectarlas, los resultados para ecosistemas y agricultura serían devastadores.

Comparaciones de Atta con los humanos

Debido a vastas diferencias entre humanos y A. sexdens es imposible hacer comparaciones adecuadas entre ellos. Sin embargo, para dar una idea de la escala de los esfuerzos de A. sexdens, Las siguientes serían las proezas de estas hormigas si se las incrementara en talla hasta el tamaño humano:

  • La longitud de sus caravanas de forrajeras sería de 15 km.
  • Las hormigas forrajeras viajarían a 26 km por hora levando cargas de 300 kg.
  • La colonia sería de un km de profundidad.
  • Una colonia de A. sexdens madura tendría 3 billones (3.000.000.000.000) de neuronas, 30 veces las presentes en un cerebro humano.

Referencias

  1. «Catalogue of Life :». www.catalogueoflife.org.
  2. Discovery Communications Inc. 2002. "Leaf Cutter Ant" (On-line ). Animal Planet. Accessed 03/11/03 at http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/crawler/leafant.html.
  3. Poulsen, M. 2002. "Leaf-cutting ants and their fungus" (On-line ). Accessed 03/19/2003 at http://www.webspawner.com/users/michaelpoulsen2003/index.html.
  4. Wirth, R., H. Herz, R. Ryel, W. Beyschlag, B. Holldobler. 2003. Herbivory of Leaf-cutting Ants. New York: Springer.
  5. Hölldobler, Bert; Holldobler, Foundation Professor of Biology Bert; Wilson, Honorary Curator in Entomology and University Research Professor Emeritus Edward O.; Wilson, Edward O. (2009). The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393067040. (requiere registro).
  6. Kerr, Warwick. «Tendências evolutivas na reprodução dos Himenópteros Sociais». Sciences and Letters of Rio Claro.
  7. Fjerdingstadt, E.J.; Boomsma, J.J. (1 de noviembre de 2000). «Queen mating frequency and relatedness in young Atta sexdens colonies». Insectes Sociaux 47 (4): 354-356. ISSN 1420-9098. doi:10.1007/PL00001730.
  8. Wilson, E., B. Holldobler. 1994. Journey to the Ants. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Kelknap Press of Harvard University Press.
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Atta sexdens: Brief Summary ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Atta sexdens (curuhuinsi o siquisapa, nombres con los que se la conoce en la Amazonía peruana) es una especie de hormiga cortadora de hojas de la tribu Attini. Son nativas de Nuevo Mundo, desde Panamá hasta el norte de Argentina.​ Cortan hojas para proveer un substrato para el cultivo de un hongo específico que es su principal alimento. Sus sociedades están entre las más complejas entre los insectos sociales. Atta sexdens es una especie ecológicamente importante, pero también es una plaga agrícola. Otras especies del género Atta, como A. texana, A. cephalotes, A. insularis, entre otros, tienen comportamientos y ecologías similares.

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Atta sexdens ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Atta sexdens (Linnaeus, 1758) è una formica appartenente alla sottofamiglia Myrmicinae.[1]

Distribuzione e habitat

È una delle specie più diffuse del genere Atta, con un areale che si estende dal Messico, attraverso l'America centrale (Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Trinidad e Tobago), sino al Sud America (Ecuador, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Brasile, Suriname).[1]

Si adatta a molteplici habitat e può rappresentare un serio problema per le coltivazioni.

Note

  1. ^ a b Atta sexdens, in AntWeb. URL consultato il 1º gennaio 2013.

Bibliografia

  • H. G. Fowler, S. W. Robinson, Foraging by Atta sexdens (Formicidae: Attini): seasonal patterns caste and efficiency, Ecological Entomology 4, 1979, pagg.239-247.

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Atta sexdens: Brief Summary ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Atta sexdens (Linnaeus, 1758) è una formica appartenente alla sottofamiglia Myrmicinae.

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Atta sexdens ( Neerlandês; Flamengo )

fornecido por wikipedia NL

Insecten

Atta sexdens is een mierensoort uit de onderfamilie van de Myrmicinae.[1][2] De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1758 door Linnaeus.

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Atta sexdens ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Atta sexdens é uma espécie de formiga.[1]

Também é conhecida pelos nomes de formiga-mandioca[2] e saúva-limão.[3]

Referências

  1. Atta sexdens. AntWiki.
  2. Formiga-mandioca. Agrolink.
  3. Revoada de Içá. Unesp.
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Atta sexdens: Brief Summary ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Atta sexdens é uma espécie de formiga.

Também é conhecida pelos nomes de formiga-mandioca e saúva-limão.

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Atta sexdens ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию
 src=
Голова рабочей особи

Atta sexdens (лат.) — вид муравьёв-листорезов из трибы грибководов Attini подсемейства Myrmicinae (Formicidae), строящие одни из самых крупных муравейников в мире (более 20 кубометров).

Распространение

Америка: от США (Техас) и Мексики на севере ареала через центральную и Южную Америку (включая Бразилию), до южной Аргентины.

Описание

Муравейники имеют глубину до 6 м и содержат до 8 млн. муравьёв и более 2000 камер с объёмом более 20 кубометров. Длина муравьёв от 3 до 24 мм. Брачные полёты и спаривание молодых самок и самцов происходит в октябре-декабре[2]. Каста рабочих представлена 4 подгруппами. Самые мелкие рабочие — это грибководы-садоводы (ширина головы 1,0 мм; от 0,6 мм до 1,2 мм). Внутригнездовые рабочие (1,4 мм; 1,2—1,6). Фуражиры и строители (2,2 мм; 1,6—2,4). Солдаты (ширина головы более 3 мм; отсутствуют в мелких семьях, где менее 100 000 особей).[3][4] Паразитические мухи-фориды Neodohrniphora (Diptera: Phoridae) снижают фуражировочную активность рабочих муравьёв[5].

Значение

Срезают листья многих видов растений и рассматриваются как важнейшие насекомые-вредители сельского хозяйства и декоративных растений. Общий вес земли, выкопанной одной 6-летней семьёй муравьёв Atta sexdens, равен примерно 40 000 кг, а сами муравьи из такого молодого муравейника потребляют для создания своих подземных грибных садов 5892 кг зелёной листвы (Wilson, 1971: 47)[6].

Генетика

Диплоидный набор хромосом 2n = 22[7].

Систематика

Первоначально этот вид был описан Карлом Линнеем в 1758 году под названием Formica sexdens[8].

Синонимы

  • Formica sexdens Linnaeus
  • Formica flavicornis Fabricius
  • Formica sexdentata Latreille
  • Oecodoma abdominalis Smith
  • Oecodoma coptophylla (Guirin-Mineville)
  • Oecodoma sexdens (Linnaeus)
  • Oecodoma sexdentata (Latreille)
  • Pachycondyla flavicornis (Fabricius)
  • Ponera flavicornis (Fabricius)
  • Atta sexdentata (Latreille)
  • Atta abdominalis (Smith)
  • Atta coptophylla Guirin-Mineville
  • Atta flavicornis (Fabricius)
  • Atta fuscata Santschi
  • Atta lugens Borgmeier
  • Atta piriventris Santschi
  • Atta rubripilosa Forel
  • Atta rubropilosa Forel

В культуре

Существует французская рок-группа со сходным названием: «Atta Sexden» (осн. 1989)[9].

Литература

  • B. Bolton, A new general catalogue of the ants of the world, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995.
  • Carreiro, S.C., Pagnocca, F.C., Bacci, M., Lachance, M.A., Bueno, O.C., Hebling, M.J.A., Ruivo, C.C.C., Rosa, C.A., 2004. Sympodiomyces attinorum sp nov., a yeast species associated with nests of the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 54, 1891—1894.

См. также

Примечания

  1. Linnaeus, C. 1758: Systema naturae. Regnum Animale. 10th ed.
  2. Atta sexdens на сайте animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
  3. Fowler, H., S. Robinson. 1979. Foraging by Atta sexdens (Formicidae: Attini): seasonal pattern, caste, and efficiency. Ecological Entomology, Vol 4, Issue 3: 239—247.
  4. Wilson, E. 1979. Caste and Division of Labor in Leaf Cutter Ants — I. The Overall Pattern in A. Sexdens. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, Vol 7, Issue 2: 143—156.
  5. 17.M. A. L. Bragança, A. Tonhasca Jr., and T. M. C. Delia Lucia, “Reduction in the foraging activity of the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens caused by the phorid Neodohrniphora sp.,” Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, vol. 89, no. 3, pp. 305–311, 1998.
  6. The Importance of Social Insects (англ.). antbase.org. Проверено 24 мая 2015.
  7. Lorite P.& Palomeque T. Karyotype evolution in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with a review of the known ant chromosome numbers. — Myrmecologische Nachrichten (Wien). — 2010. Volume 13, Pages 89-102. (Проверено 12 декабря 2010)
  8. Таксономия на сайте www.antweb.org
  9. Сайт рок-группы www.attasexden.com Архивировано 24 сентября 2009 года.
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Atta sexdens: Brief Summary ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию
 src= Голова рабочей особи

Atta sexdens (лат.) — вид муравьёв-листорезов из трибы грибководов Attini подсемейства Myrmicinae (Formicidae), строящие одни из самых крупных муравейников в мире (более 20 кубометров).

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Авторы и редакторы Википедии