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Psocodea ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Psocodea is a taxonomic group of insects comprising the bark lice, book lice and parasitic lice.[2] It was formerly considered a superorder, but is now generally considered by entomologists as an order.[1][3][4] Despite the greatly differing appearance of parasitic lice (Phthiraptera), they are believed to have evolved from within the former order Psocoptera, which contained the bark lice and book lice, now found to be paraphyletic.[5][6] They are often regarded as the most primitive of the hemipteroids.[7] Psocodea contains around 11,000 species, divided among four suborders and more than 70 families.[1][2][8] They range in size from 1–10 millimetres (0.04–0.4 in) in length.

The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books—they feed upon the paste used in binding. The barklice are found on trees, feeding on algae and lichen.

Anatomy and biology

Psocids are small, scavenging insects with a relatively generalized body plan. They feed primarily on fungi, algae, lichen, and organic detritus in nature but are also known to feed on starch-based household items like grains, wallpaper glue and book bindings.[9] They have chewing mandibles, and the central lobe of the maxilla is modified into a slender rod. This rod is used to brace the insect while it scrapes up detritus with its mandibles. They also have a swollen forehead, large compound eyes, and three ocelli. Their bodies are soft with a segmented abdomen.[10] Some species can spin silk from glands in their mouth.[11] They may festoon large sections of trunk and branches in dense swathes of silk.[12]

Some psocids have small ovipositors that are up to 1.5 times as long as the hindwings, and all four wings have a relatively simple venation pattern, with few cross-veins. The wings, if present, are held tent-like over the body.[10] The legs are slender and adapted for jumping, rather than gripping, as in the true lice. The abdomen has nine segments, and no cerci.[11]

There is often considerable variation in the appearance of individuals within the same species. Many have no wings or ovipositors, and may have a different shape to the thorax. Other, more subtle, variations are also known, such as changes to the development of the setae. The significance of such changes is uncertain, but their function appears to be different from similar variations in, for example, aphids. Like aphids, however, many psocids are parthenogenic, and the presence of males may even vary between different races of the same species.[11]

Psocids lay their eggs in minute crevices or on foliage, although a few species are known to be viviparous. The young are born as miniature, wingless versions of the adult. These nymphs typically molt six times before reaching full adulthood. The total lifespan of a psocid is rarely more than a few months.[11]

Booklice range from approximately 1 mm to 2 mm in length (1/25″ to 1/13″). Some species are wingless and they are easily mistaken for bedbug nymphs and vice versa. Booklouse eggs take two to four weeks to hatch and can reach adulthood approximately two months later. Adult booklice can live for six months. Besides damaging books, they also sometimes infest food storage areas, where they feed on dry, starchy materials. Although some psocids feed on starchy household products, the majority of psocids are woodland insects with little to no contact with humans, therefore they are of little economic importance. They are scavengers and do not bite humans.[13]

Psocids can affect the ecosystems in which they reside. Many psocids can affect decomposition by feeding on detritus, especially in environments with lower densities of predacious micro arthropods that may eat psocids.[14] The nymph of a psocid species, Psilopsocus mimulus, is the first known wood-boring psocopteran. These nymphs make their own burrows in woody material, rather than inhabiting vacated, existing burrows. This boring activity can create habitats that other organisms may use.[15]

Interaction with humans

Some species of psocids, such as Liposcelis bostrychophila, are common pests of stored products.[16] Psocids, among other arthropods, have been studied to develop new pest control techniques in food manufacturing. One study found that modified atmospheres during packing (MAP) helped to control the reoccurrence of pests during the manufacturing process and prevented further infestation in the final products that go to consumers.[17]

External phylogeny

Psocodea has been recovered as a monophyletic group in recent studies. Their next closest relatives are traditionally recognized as the monophyletic grouping Condylognatha that contains Hemiptera (true bugs) and Thysanoptera (thrips), which all combined form the group Paraneoptera. However, this is somewhat unclear, as analysis has shown that Psocodea could instead be the sister taxon to Holometabola, which would render Paraneoptera as paraphyletic.[6]

Here is a simple cladogram showing the traditional relationships with a monophyletic Paraneoptera:[6]

Neoptera

Polyneoptera

Eumetabola

Holometabola

Paraneoptera

Psocodea

Condylognatha

Thysanoptera (thrips)

Hemiptera (true bugs)

Here is an alternative cladogram showing Paraneoptera as paraphyletic, with Psocodea as sister taxon to Holometabola:[6]

Neoptera

Polyneoptera

Eumetabola

Holometabola

Psocodea

Condylognatha

Thysanoptera (thrips)

Hemiptera (true bugs)

Paraneoptera

Internal phylogeny

Here is a cladogram showing the relationships within Psocodea:[3]

Psocodea Troctomorpha Phthiraptera

Philopteridae

Anoplura

Rhynchophthirina

Trichodectidae

Amblycera

Liposcelididae

Pachytroctidae

Sphaeropsocidae

Amphientometae

Psocomorpha

Homilopsocidea

Caeciliusetae

Psocetae

Epipsocetae

Philotarsetae

Archipsocetae

Trogiomorpha

Atropetae

Psyllipsocetae

Prionoglaridetae (paraphyletic)

Classification

The order Psocodea (formerly 'Psocoptera') is divided into three extant suborders.

Suborder Trogiomorpha

Trogiomorpha have antennae with many segments (22–50 antennomeres) and always three-segmented tarsi.[18]

Trogiomorpha is the smallest suborder of the Psocoptera sensu stricto (i.e., excluding Phthiraptera), with about 340 species in 7 families, ranging from the fossil family Archaeatropidae with only a handful of species to the speciose Lepidopsocidae (over 200 species). Trogiomorpha comprises infraorder Atropetae (extant families Lepidopsocidae, Psoquillidae and Trogiidae, and fossil families Archaeatropidae and Empheriidae) and infraorder Psocathropetae (families Psyllipsocidae and Prionoglarididae).

Suborder Troctomorpha

Troctomorpha have antennae with 15–17 segments and two-segmented tarsi.

Troctomorpha comprises the Infraorder Amphientometae (families Amphientomidae, Compsocidae, Electrentomidae, Musapsocidae, Protroctopsocidae and Troctopsocidae) and Infraorder Nanopsocetae (families Liposcelididae, Pachytroctidae and Sphaeropsocidae). Troctomorpha are now known to also contain the order Phthiraptera (lice), and are therefore paraphyletic, as are Psocoptera as a whole.

Some Troctomorpha, such as Liposcelis (which are similar to lice in morphology), are often found in birds' nests, and it is possible that a similar behavior in the ancestors of lice is at the origin of the parasitism seen today.[18]

Suborder Psocomorpha

Psocomorpha are notable for having antennae with 13 segments. They have two- or three-segmented tarsi, this condition being constant (e.g., Psocidae) or variable (e.g., Pseudocaeciliidae) within families. Their wing venation is variable, the most common type being that found in the genus Caecilius (rounded, free areola postica, thickened, free pterostigma, r+s two-branched, m three-branched). Additional veins are found in some families and genera (Dicropsocus and Goja in Epipsocidae, many Calopsocidae, etc.)

Psocomorpha is the largest suborder of the Psocoptera sensu stricto (i.e., excluding Phthiraptera), with about 3,600 species in 24 families, ranging from the species-poor Bryopsocidae (2 spp.) to the speciose Psocidae (about 900 spp).[18] Psocomorpha comprises Infraorder Epipsocetae (families Cladiopsocidae, Dolabellopsocidae, Epipsocidae, Neurostigmatidae and Ptiloneuridae), Infraorder Caeciliusetae (families Amphipsocidae, Asiopsocidae, Caeciliusidae, Dasydemellidae and Stenopsocidae), Infraorder Homilopsocidea (families Archipsocidae, Bryopsocidae, Calopsocidae, Ectopsocidae, Elipsocidae, Lachesillidae, Mesopsocidae, Peripsocidae, Philotarsidae, Pseudocaeciliidae and Trichopsocidae) and Infraorder Psocetae (families Hemipsocidae, Myopsocidae, Psilopsocidae and Psocidae).

References

  1. ^ a b c Johnson, Kevin P.; Smith, Vincent S. (2021). "Psocodea species file online, Version 5.0". Retrieved 2021-11-01.
  2. ^ a b P. J. Gullan & P. S. Cranston (2010). "Taxobox 17 – Psocodea: "Psocoptera" (bark lice and book lice)". The Insects: an Outline of Entomology (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 479. ISBN 9781444317671.
  3. ^ a b De Moya, Robert S.; Yoshizawa, Kazunori; Walden, Kimberly K. O.; Sweet, Andrew D.; et al. (2021). "Phylogenomics of Parasitic and Nonparasitic Lice (Insecta: Psocodea): Combining Sequence Data and Exploring Compositional Bias Solutions in Next Generation Data Sets". Systematic Biology. 70 (4): 719–738. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syaa075. PMID 32979270.
  4. ^ "Psocodea". GBIF. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
  5. ^ C. H. C. Lyal (1985). "Phylogeny and classification of the Psocodea, with particular reference to the lice (Psocodea: Phthiraptera)". Systematic Entomology. 10 (2): 145–165. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1985.tb00525.x. S2CID 86331606.
  6. ^ a b c d Kevin P. Johnson; Christopher H. Dietrich; Frank Friedrich; Rolf G. Beutel; Benjamin Wipfler; Ralph S. Peters; Julie M. Allen; Malte Petersen; Alexander Donath; Kimberly K. O. Walden; Alexey M. Kozlov; Lars Podsiadlowski; Christoph Mayer; Karen Meusemann; Alexandros Vasilikopoulos; Robert M. Waterhouse; Stephen L. Cameron; Christiane Weirauch; Daniel R. Swanson; Diana M. Percy; Nate B. Hardy; Irene Terry; Shanlin Liu; Xin Zhou; Bernhard Misof; Hugh M. Robertson; Kazunori Yoshizawa (Dec 2018). "Phylogenomics and the evolution of hemipteroid insects". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (50): 12775–12780. Bibcode:2018PNAS..11512775J. doi:10.1073/pnas.1815820115. PMC 6294958. PMID 30478043.
  7. ^ Christopher O'Toole (2002). Firefly Encyclopedia of Insects and Spiders. Toronto: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55297-612-8.
  8. ^ David Grimaldi & Michael S. Engel (2005). "The paraneopteran orders". Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge Evolution Series. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–330. ISBN 9780521821490.
  9. ^ Green, P.W.C.; Turner, B.D. (January 15, 2004). "Food-selection by the booklouse, Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae)". Journal of Stored Products Research. 41 (1): 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2004.01.002.
  10. ^ a b Gullan & Granston (2005). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 3rd Edition. pp. 499–505.
  11. ^ a b c d Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. & Purcell, A.H. (1998). Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. pp. 404–406. ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ "Psocoptera - Barklice, Booklice, Psocids -- Discover Life". www.discoverlife.org.
  13. ^ "Stored Product Pests: Booklice (Psocids) FAC". US Army Public Health Command fact sheet.
  14. ^ Whitford, W.G. (2000). Invertebrates as webmasters in ecosystems: Keystone arthropods as webmasters in desert ecosystems. UK: CAB International. pp. 25–43. ISBN 0-85199-394-X.
  15. ^ Smithers, C.N. (1995). "Psilopsocus mimulus Smithers (Psocoptera: Psilopsocidae), The first known wood boring psocopteran". Australian Journal of Entomology. 34 (2): 117–120. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1995.tb01299.x.
  16. ^ Stejskal, V.; Hubert, J.; Aulicky, R.; Kucerova, Z. (October 2015). "Overview of present and past and pest-associated risks in stored food and feed products: European perspective". Journal of Stored Products Research. 64: 122–132. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2014.12.006.
  17. ^ Riudavets, Jordi; Castañé, Cristina; Alomar, Oscar; Pons, María José; Gabarra, Rosa (April 2009). "Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) as an alternative measure for controlling ten pests that attack processed food products". Journal of Stored Products Research. 45 (2): 91–96. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2008.10.001.
  18. ^ a b c C. Lienhard & C. N. Smithers (2002). "Psocoptera (Insecta): World Catalogue and Bibliography". Instrumenta Biodiversitatis. 5.

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Psocodea: Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Psocodea is a taxonomic group of insects comprising the bark lice, book lice and parasitic lice. It was formerly considered a superorder, but is now generally considered by entomologists as an order. Despite the greatly differing appearance of parasitic lice (Phthiraptera), they are believed to have evolved from within the former order Psocoptera, which contained the bark lice and book lice, now found to be paraphyletic. They are often regarded as the most primitive of the hemipteroids. Psocodea contains around 11,000 species, divided among four suborders and more than 70 families. They range in size from 1–10 millimetres (0.04–0.4 in) in length.

The species known as booklice received their common name because they are commonly found amongst old books—they feed upon the paste used in binding. The barklice are found on trees, feeding on algae and lichen.

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Psocodea (classification phylogénétique) ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Cette page a pour objet de présenter un arbre phylogénétique des Psocodea (Psocoptères et Phthiraptères), c'est-à-dire un cladogramme mettant en lumière les relations de parenté existant entre leurs différents groupes (ou taxa), telles que les dernières analyses reconnues les proposent. Ce n'est qu'une possibilité, et les principaux débats qui subsistent au sein de la communauté scientifique sont brièvement présentés ci-dessous, avant la bibliographie.

Arbre phylogénétique

Le cladogramme présenté ici se veut cohérent avec les dernières analyses publiées et accessibles. Il n'est pas forcément consensuel, et on peut toujours se référer à la bibliographie indiquée au bas de l'article.

Le symbole renvoie à la partie immédiatement supérieure de l'arbre phylogénétique du vivant. Le signe renvoie à la classification phylogénétique du groupe considéré. Tout nœud de l'arbre portant plus de deux branches montre une indétermination de la phylogénie interne du groupe considéré.

Les habitudes typographiques des botanistes et des zoologistes sont différentes. Ici, par commodité de lecture, et certains groupes actuels relevant des deux domaines traditionnels, les noms de taxons supérieurs au genre sont tous écrits en caractères droits, les noms de genres ou d'espèces en italiques.

À la suite d'un taxon, sa période d'apparition, quand elle est connue, peut être indiquée suivant la légende suivante : (Plé) : Pléistocène ; (Pli) : Pliocène ; (Mio) : Miocène ; (Oli) : Oligocène ; (Éoc) : Éocène ; (Pal) : Paléocène ; (Cré) : Crétacé ; (Jur) : Jurassique ; (Tri) : Trias ; (Per) : Permien ; (Car) : Carbonifère ; (Dév) : Dévonien ; (Sil) : Silurien ; (Ord) : Ordovicien ; (Camb) : Cambrien ; (Edi) : Édiacarien. Pour plus de précision si possible, (-) : inférieur ; (~) : moyen ; (+) : supérieur.

 └─o Psocodea ├─o Trogiomorpha └─o ├─o Psocomorpha └─o Troctomorpha ├─o Amphientometae └─o Nanopsocetae └─o ├─o │ └─o Amblycera └─o ├─o Ischnocera └─o ├─o Rhyncophthirina └─o Anoplura 
Arbre développé
 └─o Psocodea ├─o Trogiomorpha │ ├─o Prionoglaridetae ou Prionoglarididae │ │ ├─o Prionoglaridinae │ │ └─o Speleketorinae │ │ ├─o Sensitibillini │ │ └─o Speleketorini │ └─o │ ├─o Psyllipsocetae ou Psyllipsocidae │ └─o Atropetae │ ├─o │ │ ├─o Trogiidae │ │ ├─o Empheriidae │ │ └─o Psoquillidae │ └─o Lepidopsocidae │ ├─o Parasoinae │ ├─o Thylacellinae │ ├─o Perientominae │ ├─o Lepidopsocinae │ ├─o Echinopsocinae │ └─o Lepolepidinae └─o ├─o Psocomorpha │ ├─o Archipsocetae ou Archipsocidae │ │ ├─o Archipsocinae │ │ └─o Pararchipsocinae │ └─o │ ├─o Psocetae │ │ ├─o │ │ │ ├─o Hemipsocidae │ │ │ └─o Psilopsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Myopsocidae │ │ └─o Psocidae │ │ ├─o Amphigerontiinae │ │ └─o Psocinae │ │ ├─o Psocini │ │ ├─o Cycetini │ │ ├─o Metylophorini │ │ ├─o Cerastopsocini │ │ ├─o Sigmatoneurini │ │ └─o Ptyctini │ └─o │ ├─o Homilopsocidea │ │ ├─o Elipsocoidea ou Elipsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Lachesilloidea │ │ │ ├─o Eolachesilla │ │ │ ├─o Lachesillidae │ │ │ └─o Ectopsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Pseudocaecilioidea │ │ │ ├─o Trichopsocidae │ │ │ └─o │ │ │ ├─o Calopsocidae │ │ │ └─o Pseudocaeciliidae │ │ └─o Peripsocoidea │ │ ├─o Bryopsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Peripsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Philotarsidae │ │ └─o Mesopsocidae │ └─o │ ├─o Epipsocetae │ │ ├─o Spurostigmatidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Ptiloneuridae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Cladiopsocidae │ │ └─o │ │ ├─o Epipsocidae │ │ └─o Dolabellapsocidae │ └─o Caeciliusetae │ ├─o Asiopsocoidea ou Asiopsocidae │ └─o Caeciliusoidea │ ├─o Stenopsocidae │ └─o │ ├─o Amphipsocidae │ │ ├─o Kodamaiinae │ │ ├─o Dasydemellinae │ │ └─o Amphipsocinae │ └─o Caeciliusidae │ ├─o Amphicaeciliinae │ ├─o Aphyopsocinae │ ├─o Fuelleborniellinae │ ├─o Paracaeciliinae │ └─o Caeciliusinae │ ├─o Epicaeciliini │ ├─o Coryphacini │ └─o Caeciliusini └─o Troctomorpha ├─o Amphientometae │ ├─o Protroctopsocidae │ ├─o Electrentomidae │ ├─o Manicapsocidae │ ├─o Compsocidae │ └─o │ ├─o Musapsocidae │ ├─o Troctopsocidae │ └─o Amphientomidae │ ├─o Tineomorphinae │ ├─o Antivulgarinae │ ├─o Compressioninae │ └─o Amphientominae └─o Nanopsocetae ├─o Sphaeropsocidae └─o ├─o │ ├─o Pachytroctidae │ │ ├─o Tapinellinae │ │ ├─o Thoracotroctinae │ │ └─o Pachytroctinae │ └─o │ ├─o Liposcelidae │ │ ├─o Embidopsocinae │ │ └─o Liposcelidinae │ └─o Amblycera │ ├─o │ │ ├─o Laemobothriidae │ │ └─o Ricinidae │ └─o │ ├─o Menoponidae │ ├─o Boopidae │ ├─o Trimenoponidae │ ├─o Abrocomophagidae │ └─o Gyropidae │ ├─o Protogyropinae │ ├─o Gyropidinae │ └─o Gliricolinae └─o ├─o Ischnocera │ ├─o Trichodectidae │ └─o Philopteridae └─o ├─o Rhyncophthirina ou Haematomyzidae └─o Anoplura ├─o │ ├─o Hamophthiriidae │ └─o │ ├─o Neolinognathidae │ └─o │ ├─o Hoplopleuridae │ │ ├─o Hoplopleurinae │ │ └─o Haematopinoidinae │ └─o │ ├─o Enderleinellidae │ └─o │ ├─o Linognathidae │ └─o Polyplacidae └─o ├─o │ ├─o Ratemiidae │ └─o │ ├─o Microthoraciidae │ └─o Echinophthiriidae └─o ├─? Saurodectidae (éteint) ├─o Pediculidae └─o ├─o │ ├─o Hybothiridae │ └─o Haematopinidae └─o ├─o Pecaroecidae └─o ├─o Pedicinidae └─o Pthiridae 

Débat scientifique relatif à la phylogénie des Psocodea

Les Psocodea regroupent les anciens Psocoptera et Phthiraptera, les seconds, parasites, semblant être apparus à deux reprises (groupement polyphylétique ?) au sein des premiers (qui forment donc un groupe paraphylétique), parmi les Troctomorpha.

La phylogénie des Ischnocera n'est pas élucidée, l'analyse des données morphologiques et moléculaires produisant des résultats incompatibles entre eux. La classification d'Eichler (1963) semble en tout cas être obsolète, nombre de ses familles et sous-familles étant paraphylétiques.

En savoir plus

Sources bibliographiques de référence

Sources internet

Liens internes

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Psocodea (classification phylogénétique): Brief Summary ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Cette page a pour objet de présenter un arbre phylogénétique des Psocodea (Psocoptères et Phthiraptères), c'est-à-dire un cladogramme mettant en lumière les relations de parenté existant entre leurs différents groupes (ou taxa), telles que les dernières analyses reconnues les proposent. Ce n'est qu'une possibilité, et les principaux débats qui subsistent au sein de la communauté scientifique sont brièvement présentés ci-dessous, avant la bibliographie.

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original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia FR

Psocodeos ( Galego )

fornecido por wikipedia gl Galician

Os psocodeos (Psocodea) son un grupo taxonómico de insectos que comprende os psocópteros (chamados en varios idiomas piollos dos libros e piollos das codias) e os verdadeiros piollos (Phthiraptera) .[1] Anteriormente era considerado unha superorde, pero agora é xeralmente considerado polos entomólogos como orde. Malia a gran diferenza en aspecto entre psocópteros e piollos, crese que estes últimos evolucionaron a partir da antiga orde dos "Psocoptera".[2] Psocodea contén unhas 11.000 especies, divididas en sete subordes.[1][3]

Notas

  1. 1,0 1,1 P. J. Gullan & P. S. Cranston (2010). "Taxobox 17 – Psocodea: "Psocoptera" (bark lice and book lice)". The Insects: an Outline of Entomology (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 479. ISBN 9781444317671.
  2. C. H. C. Lyal (1985). "Phylogeny and classification of the Psocodea, with particular reference to the lice (Psocodea: Phthiraptera)". Systematic Entomology 10 (2): 145–165. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1985.tb00525.x.
  3. David Grimaldi & Michael S. Engel (2005). "The paraneopteran orders". Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge Evolution Series. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–330. ISBN 9780521821490.

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Psocodeos: Brief Summary ( Galego )

fornecido por wikipedia gl Galician

Os psocodeos (Psocodea) son un grupo taxonómico de insectos que comprende os psocópteros (chamados en varios idiomas piollos dos libros e piollos das codias) e os verdadeiros piollos (Phthiraptera) . Anteriormente era considerado unha superorde, pero agora é xeralmente considerado polos entomólogos como orde. Malia a gran diferenza en aspecto entre psocópteros e piollos, crese que estes últimos evolucionaron a partir da antiga orde dos "Psocoptera". Psocodea contén unhas 11.000 especies, divididas en sete subordes.

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Psocoidea ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Psocopteroidea è un raggruppamento di insetti inquadrato al rango di sezione nel superordine dei Paraneoptera (Endopterygota Neoptera). Questo inquadramento sistematico non è universalmente condiviso dalla letteratura scientifica.

Comprende gli ordini Psocoptera, Mallophaga e Anoplura e più di undicimila specie divise in sette subordini principali. Diversi studi di biospeleologia hanno dimostrato il carattere primitivo del super-ordine. [1] [2]

Curiosità

Porta il nome di Psocoidea un'agenzia di editing di Roma, con riferimento agli psocotteri, insetti appartenenti alla famiglia Psocoidea, detti mangialibri, mordilibri o pidocchi dei libri per la documentata abitudine di alimentarsi di carta stampata e vecchi volumi. [3].

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Valdel, A., Biospeleology: The Biology of Cavernicolous Animals, Elsevier, 2013.
  2. ^ (EN) Smithers,Courtnay, The Classification and Phylogeny of the Psocoptera (PDF), Trustees of the Australian Museum, 1972.
  3. ^ Psocoidea - agenzia letteraria & editing, su psocoidea.com.

 title=
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Psocoidea: Brief Summary ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Psocopteroidea è un raggruppamento di insetti inquadrato al rango di sezione nel superordine dei Paraneoptera (Endopterygota Neoptera). Questo inquadramento sistematico non è universalmente condiviso dalla letteratura scientifica.

Comprende gli ordini Psocoptera, Mallophaga e Anoplura e più di undicimila specie divise in sette subordini principali. Diversi studi di biospeleologia hanno dimostrato il carattere primitivo del super-ordine.

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啮虫总目 ( Chinês )

fornecido por wikipedia 中文维基百科
注意:本页面含有Unihan新版用字:「𪘅」。有关字符可能會错误显示,詳见Unicode扩展汉字

啮虫目學名Psocodea)是由傳統分類的啮虫目(亦有簡化作𪘅目[2])、裸尾目食毛目三個目合併而成[3]。原是昆虫纲的一个总目,現時學界傾向把這個總目降格成為新翅下綱的一個目。儘管這個新分類的物種間形態分別很大,研究指出牠們其實都是從傳統分類的啮虫目演化而成[4]。這個合併後的新啮虫目合共有約1.1萬個物種,按各自原來所屬的亞目分類,合共7個亞目[3][5]

概說

本目學名「Psocodea」一词来源于希腊语psokos(ψωκος),意为“啮,咬”[6],所以本目又稱為咀顎目

原啮虫目的动物,俗称书虱米虱,包含了室內的書蝨及野外的樹蝨[7]。体长在1毫米至1厘米之间。啮虫目出现于2.95亿年至2.48亿年前。蝨毛目原蝨目食毛目的合稱,通稱虱子全世界約有3,000種。到了2000年代後期,根據分子生物學形態學絲角亞目物種的研究,確認了蝨毛目與原啮虫目是近親,而蝨毛目其實是從粉啮虫亚目演變而成的[8][9],因此建議重組這兩個目[7][10]

分類演化圖

系統 傳統分類 最初分類 下目 亞目 目 小啮虫亚目 Trogiomorpha 啮虫目
Psocoptera 啮虫亚目 Psocomorpha 蛾嚙蟲下目 Amphientometae 粉啮虫亚目
Troctomorpha 球嚙蟲科 Sphaeropsocidae 小啮虫下目 Nanopsocetae 粗嚙蟲科 Pachytroctidae[11] 書蝨科 Liposcelididae 鈍角亞目 Amblycera 蝨毛目
Phthiraptera 食毛目
Mallophage 絲角亞目 Ischnocera 象蝨亞目 Rhyncophthirina 蝨亞目 Anoplura 裸尾目 Anoplura

参考文献

  1. ^ Psocodea. GBIF (英语).
  2. ^ 李法圣. 《中國𪘅目誌》. 中國科學出版社. 2002-01-01 [2015-01-28]. ISBN 9787030091734 (中文(简体)‎).
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 P. J. Gullan & P. S. Cranston. Taxobox 17 – Psocodea: "Psocoptera" (bark lice and book lice). The Insects: an Outline of Entomology 4th. John Wiley & Sons. 2010: 479. ISBN 9781444317671.
  4. ^ C. H. C. Lyal. Phylogeny and classification of the Psocodea, with particular reference to the lice (Psocodea: Phthiraptera). Systematic Entomology英语Systematic Entomology. 1985, 10 (2): 145–165. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1985.tb00525.x.
  5. ^ David Grimaldi英语David Grimaldi (entomologist) & Michael S. Engel英语Michael S. Engel. The paraneopteran orders. Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge Evolution Series. Cambridge University Press. 2005: 216–330. ISBN 9780521821490.
  6. ^ John R. Meyer. Psocoptera. North Carolina State University. 2005-03-05. (原始内容存档于2007-02-05).
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 梁維仁. 昆蟲分類學-科博館參訪心得 (PDF). 中興大學昆蟲學系. 2012-05-29 [2014-08-30] (中文(繁體)‎).
  8. ^ Yoshizawa, K.; Johnson, K. P. Morphology of male genitalia in lice and their relatives and phylogenetic implications. Systematic Entomology. 2006, 31 (2): 350–361. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2005.00323.x.
  9. ^ Johnson, K. P.; Yoshizawa, K.; Smith, V. S. Multiple origins of parasitism in lice. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 2004, 271 (1550): 1771–1776. PMC 1691793. PMID 15315891. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2798.
  10. ^ Bess, Emilie, Vince Smith, Charles Lienhard, and Kevin P. Johnson (2006) Psocodea. Parasitic Lice (=Phthiraptera), Book Lice, and Bark Lice. Version 8 October 2006 (under construction). http://tolweb.org/Psocodea/8235/2006.10.08 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/
  11. ^ Pachytroctidae 粗嚙蟲科. TaiBIF. [2015-01-23] (中文(繁體)‎).
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维基百科作者和编辑
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啮虫总目: Brief Summary ( Chinês )

fornecido por wikipedia 中文维基百科
注意:本页面含有Unihan新版用字:「𪘅」。有关字符可能會错误显示,詳见Unicode扩展汉字

啮虫目(學名:Psocodea)是由傳統分類的啮虫目(亦有簡化作𪘅目)、裸尾目食毛目三個目合併而成。原是昆虫纲的一个总目,現時學界傾向把這個總目降格成為新翅下綱的一個目。儘管這個新分類的物種間形態分別很大,研究指出牠們其實都是從傳統分類的啮虫目演化而成。這個合併後的新啮虫目合共有約1.1萬個物種,按各自原來所屬的亞目分類,合共7個亞目。

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
维基百科作者和编辑
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia 中文维基百科

咀顎目 ( Japonês )

fornecido por wikipedia 日本語
咀顎目 Psocodea Graphopsocus cruciatus 02.jpg
チャタテムシ Graphopsocus cruciatus
分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 節足動物門 Arthropoda : 昆虫綱 Insecta : 咀顎目 Psocodea 亜目
  • コチャタテ亜目 Trogiomorpha
  • チャタテ亜目 Psocomorpha
  • コナチャタテ亜目 Troctomorpha
  • マルツノハジラミ亜目 Amblycera
  • ホソツノハジラミ亜目 Ischnocera
  • ゾウハジラミ亜目 Rhynchophthirina
  • シラミ亜目 Anoplura

咀顎目(そがくもく、Psocodea)は、昆虫綱の1。伝統的にはチャタテムシ目(噛虫目、Psocoptera)とシラミ目(Phthiraptera)に二分されていた。これらは現在でも便宜的に使われるが、亜目などに格下げされたのではなく、正式な分類群としては認められていない。

なお、シラミ目と訳しうる分類群にPhthirapteraとAnopluraの2つがあるが、以下では単にシラミ目というとPhthirapteraのこととする。

系統と分類[編集]

系統 伝統的分類 古い分類 下目 亜目 目 コチャタテ亜目 Trogiomorpha チャタテムシ目
Psocoptera チャタテ亜目 Psocomorpha ウロコチャタテ下目 Amphientometae コナチャタテ亜目
Troctomorpha Sphaeropsocidae Nanopsocetae フトチャタテ科 Pachytroctidae コナチャタテ科 Liposcelididae マルツノハジラミ亜目 Amblycera シラミ目
Phthiraptera ハジラミ目
Mallophage ホソツノハジラミ亜目 Ischnocera ゾウハジラミ亜目 Rhynchophthirina シラミ亜目 Anoplura シラミ目 Anoplura

伝統的な2目のうち、チャタテムシ目は側系統である。シラミ目は、マルツノハジラミ亜目が別の系統に属するので、多系統である。

伝統的には7亜目に分かれる。このうちコナチャタテ亜目は側系統であり、分岐分類学的な立場からは認められない。そのため、シラミ目の4亜目をコナチャタテ亜目Nanopsocetae下目に含めるなどの分類が提案されているが、確立した系統分類はまだない。

古い分類での3目は、それぞれ生態に対応している。

歴史[編集]

かつては、チャタテムシ目(噛虫目、Psocoptera)、シラミ目(裸尾目、Anoplura)、ハジラミ目(食毛目、Mallophage)の3目が置かれていたが、その後、シラミ目 (Anoplura) とハジラミ目をシラミ目に統合し2目とすることが主流となった。

2目は近縁と思われており、1982年、2目の上位分類として咀顎類Psocodeaが提唱された。ただしこの時点では、2目は共に単系統だと思われていて、目としてあつかわれていた。とくにシラミ目はその生活環の全てを哺乳類または鳥類に寄生してすごすという稀な特徴があり、多くの共通派生形質を共有していたことから、単系統性が強く信じられていた。

その後、形態を使った系統学的解析により、シラミ目とコナチャタテ亜目が姉妹群をなし、チャタテムシ目は側系統だと考えられるようになった。しかしこの段階ではまだ、シラミ目は単系統だと思われていた。

しかし、18S rDNAを使った分子系統学的解析により、シラミ目とコナチャタテ亜目の系統は複雑に入り組んでいることがわかった。シラミ目マルツノハジラミ亜目が他の亜目と別系統であることが判明し、シラミ目は多系統であることがわかった。したがって、共通派生形質は、寄生にともなう収斂進化であったとみなされる。

 title=
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direitos autorais
ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
original
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site do parceiro
wikipedia 日本語

咀顎目: Brief Summary ( Japonês )

fornecido por wikipedia 日本語

咀顎目(そがくもく、Psocodea)は、昆虫綱の1。伝統的にはチャタテムシ目(噛虫目、Psocoptera)とシラミ目(Phthiraptera)に二分されていた。これらは現在でも便宜的に使われるが、亜目などに格下げされたのではなく、正式な分類群としては認められていない。

なお、シラミ目と訳しうる分類群にPhthirapteraとAnopluraの2つがあるが、以下では単にシラミ目というとPhthirapteraのこととする。

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia 日本語