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Papilio dardanus Brown 1776

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Papilio dardanus ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Papilio dardanus, the African swallowtail, mocker swallowtail or flying handkerchief, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae (the swallowtails). The species is broadly distributed throughout Sub-Saharan Africa.[2] The British entomologist E. B. Poulton described it as "the most interesting butterfly in the world".[3]

Classification

Molecular studies have provided evidence that this species' closest relative is Papilio phorcas, with Papilio constantinus being the next closest (see images below).[4] It is a member of the Papilio genus of which Papilio appalachiensis and Papilio xuthus are also members.

Papilio dardanus is the nominal member of the dardanus species group. The members of the clade are:

Subspecies

Listed alphabetically:[5]

  • P. d. antinorii Oberthür, 1883 [6] (highlands of Ethiopia)
  • P. d. byatti Poulton, 1926 [7] (northern highlands of Somalia)
  • P. d. cenea Stoll, [1790] [8] (southern Mozambique, eastern Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Eswatini)
  • P. d. dardanus Brown, 1776 (Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, western Kenya, northern Zambia)
  • P. d. figinii Storace, 1962[9] (highlands of Eritrea)
  • P. d. flavicornis Carpenter, 1947[10] (Mt Kulal, north-western Kenya)
  • P. d. humbloti Oberthür, 1888[11] (Comoro Islands)
  • P. d. meriones C. & R. Felder, 1865[12] (Madagascar)
  • P. d. meseres Carpenter, 1948 [13] (Uganda, south-western Kenya, Tanzania: the western, southern and south-eastern shores of Lake Victoria)
  • P. d. ochraceana Vane-Wright 1995 [14] (Mt. Marsabit, northern Kenya)
  • P. d. polytrophus Rothschild & Jordan, 1903[15] (Kenya: highlands east of the Rift Valley)
  • P. d. sulfurea Palisot de Beauvois, 1806 [16] (São Tomé and Príncipe, Bioko)
  • P. d. tibullus Kirby, 1880 [17] (eastern Kenya, eastern Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia)

Biogeographic realm

Afrotropical realm

Mimicry

Mating

The species shows polymorphism in wing appearance, though this is limited to females, which are often given as an example of Batesian mimicry in insects. This female-limited mimicry was first described in 1869 by Roland Trimen.[18] Males have a more or less uniform appearance throughout the species' range, but females come in at least 14 varieties or morphs.[2]

Some female morphs share a very similar pattern of colouration with various species of distasteful butterfly (e.g. from the Danainae, a subfamily of nymphalids),[19] while others have been found that mimic male appearance (andromorphs). The persistence of these various morphs or different types of females may be explained by frequency dependent selection. Cook et al. suggest that Batesian mimics gain a fitness advantage by avoiding predators, but suffer harassment from males (see sexual conflict), whereas andromorphs (male mimics) are vulnerable to predation but are not harassed by male mating attempts.[20]

Morphs are divided into three general groups based on patterning: the hippocoon group, the cenea group, and the planemoides group. The hippocoon group holds the largest amount of morphs; phenotypes within this group are characterized by four bands of alternating black and color patterns. Within the cenea group patterns are greatly dominated by black coloration and contain small splotches of color. The planemoides group has black bands surrounding the outside of the wing with a large splotch of color through the middle of the wing. This group also contains the female forms that are male-like mimics. Diversity in the wing patterns of each group is seen mostly in the coloration of each organism, while black patterns are generally consistent in each morph.[2]

Phenotypic variation within the female morphs of Papilio dardanus has been found to be controlled at one locus named H that contains at least 11 different alleles.[2] Recent studies have narrowed down the region of H to approximately 24 genes that is centered around the engrailed (en) gene which codes for specific transcription factors.[21] The engrailed site has been found to have non-synonymous mutations throughout individuals in the species which would allow the divergence of each morph.[21] Studies support that the engrailed gene in Papilio dardanus is monophyletic and has only evolved once within the species.[22] Findings also suggest that the many different mimetic alleles in the Papilio dardanus genome are solely from mutations in the species. In other words, alleles did not enter into the genome from genetic transfer from other species.[22]

Different combinations of the alleles at H lead to the variety of forms seen within the species. Genetic crosses of individuals found a general dominance hierarchy within the alleles.[2] Allele combinations also determine not only which morph will be expressed but the actual size of the patterns shown. Each allele is able to either influence a larger or smaller mimetic pattern in an organism.[2]

Such female-limited Batesian mimicry is not unique to this species, even in the genus Papilio. For instance Papilio memnon shows a similar case of polymorphism in females.[23] Similarly, male mimicry has been observed in another insect, a damselfly Ischnura ramburii which also appears to have evolved camouflage to avoid sexual coercion by males.[24]

See also

Gallery

  • Emerging from chrysalis

    Emerging from chrysalis

  • Adult

    Adult

  • In the wild, South Africa

    In the wild, South Africa

  • P. d. antinorii female

    P. d. antinorii female

  • P. d. ochracea female

    P. d. ochracea female

  • P. d. ochracea male

    P. d. ochracea male

  • Ventral view of same male

    Ventral view of same male

  • Eclosion video

  • Illustrations of new species of exotic butterflies Papilio XII.jpg
  • Papilo dardanus museum specimen

    Papilo dardanus museum specimen

References

  1. ^ Peter Brown, 1776 . Nouvelles illustrations de zoologie, contenant cinquante planches enluminées d'oiseaux curieux, et qui non etés jamais descrits, et quelques de quadrupedes, de reptiles et d'insectes, avec de courtes descriptions systematiques. - New illustrations of zoology, containing fifty coloured plates of new, curious, and non-descript birds, with a few quadrupeds, reptiles and insects. Together with a short and scientific description of the same London. (White).
  2. ^ a b c d e f Nijhout, H. F. (2003). "Polymorphic mimicry in Papilio dardanus: mosaic dominance, big effects, and origins" (PDF). Evolution and Development. 5 (6): 579–592. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2003.03063.x. PMID 14984040. S2CID 25478508. Retrieved 2009-08-22.
  3. ^ Poulton, E. B. (1924). "Papilio dardanus. The most interesting butterfly in the world". Journal of the East African and Ugandan Natural History Society. 20: 4–22.
  4. ^ Vane-Wright, R. I.; Raheem, D. C.; Cieslak, A.; Vogler, A. P. (1999). "Evolution of the mimetic African swallowtail butterfly Papilio dardanus: molecular data confirm relationships with P. phorcas and P. constantinus". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 99 (2): 215–229. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01885.x.
  5. ^ Papilio dardanus, funet.fi
  6. ^ Oberthür, C., 1883 Spedezione Italiana nell Africa Equatoriale risulati zoologicae Lepidotteri:Rhopalocera Parte Seconda Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova 18: 711 Full text
  7. ^ Poulton, E.B. 1926 Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. 1: xlv
  8. ^ Stoll, C [1790] Die Uitlandsche Kapellen voorkomende in de drie waerrelddeelen Asia, Africa en America Amsterdam (2-5): 134 Full text
  9. ^ Storace,L., 1962; Doriana 3 (129): 2
  10. ^ Carpenter, G.D.H. 1947 Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London (B) 16: 55 (55-56)
  11. ^ Oberthür, C. 1888 Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France (6) 8: XL (40-42)Full text
  12. ^ C. & R. Felder, 1865 . Reise der Österreichischen Fregatte Novara Wien, Bd 2 (Abth. 2) (1): 95 Full text
  13. ^ Carpenter,G. D. H., 1948 Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. (B) 17 (1-2): 14
  14. ^ Vane-Wright, R. I., 1995 Carcasson's African Butterflies 144
  15. ^ Rothschild, W. & Jordan, K., 1903 Novitates Zoologicae 10 (3): 488 Full text
  16. ^ Palisot de Beauvois, 1806 Insectes receueillis en Afrique et en Amérique 40 (276 pp.) Paris 46, pl.
  17. ^ Kirby, W.F., 1880 Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society 2: 339 (292-340).
  18. ^ Trimen, R. (1869). "On some remarkable mimetic analogies among African butterflies". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 26 (3): 497–522. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1869.tb00538.x.
  19. ^ Mallet, J. (2001). "Batesian mimicry in Papilio dardanus". Retrieved 2009-08-23.
  20. ^ Cook, S. E.; Vernon, J. G.; Bateson, M.; Guilford, T. (1994). "Mate choice in the polymorphic African swallowtail butterfly, Papilio dardanus: Male-like females may avoid sexual harassment". Animal Behaviour. 47 (2): 389–397. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1053. S2CID 53186308.
  21. ^ a b Timmermans, M. J. T. M.; Baxter, S. W.; Clark, R.; Heckel, D. G.; Vogel, H.; Collins, S.; Papanicolaou, A.; Fukova, I.; Joron, M.; Thompson, M. J.; Jiggins, C. D.; ffrench-Constant, R. H.; Vogler, A. P. (2014). "Comparative genomics of the mimicry switch in Papilio dardanus". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1787): 20140465. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.0465. PMC 4071540. PMID 24920480.
  22. ^ a b Thompson, M. J.; Timmermans, M. J. T. N.; Jiggins, C. D.; Vogler, A. P. (2014). "The evolutionary genetics of highly divergent alleles of the mimicry locus in Papilio dardanus". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14: 140. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-140. PMC 4262259. PMID 25081189.
  23. ^ Mallet, James (2001). "Batesian mimicry in Papilio memnon". Retrieved 2009-09-09.
  24. ^ Lessells, K. (2005). "Sexual Conflict". In Encyclopedia of Life Sciences.
  • Carcasson, R.H. (1960). "The Swallowtail Butterflies of East Africa (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae)". Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society pdf Key to East Africa members of the species group, diagnostic and other notes and figures. (Permission to host granted by The East Africa Natural History Society)
  • Collins, N. Mark; Morris, Michael G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book. Gland & Cambridge: IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-603-6 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.

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Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

Papilio dardanus, the African swallowtail, mocker swallowtail or flying handkerchief, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae (the swallowtails). The species is broadly distributed throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The British entomologist E. B. Poulton described it as "the most interesting butterfly in the world".

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Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia EN

Papilio dardanus ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Papilio dardanus, la cola de golondrina africana, es una especie de mariposa en la familia Papilionidae. La especie está ampliamente distribuida en todo el África subsahariana.[2]​ El entomólogo británico EB Poulton la describió como "la mariposa más interesante del mundo".[3]​

Clasificación

Los estudios moleculares han proporcionado evidencia de que el pariente más cercano de esta especie es Papilio phorcas, siendo Papilio constantinus el siguiente más cercano (ver imágenes a continuación).[4]​ Es un miembro del género Papilio del cual Papilio appalachiensis y Papilio xuthus también son miembros.

Papilio dardanus es un miembro del grupo de especies. Los miembros del clado son:

Subespecies

Listado alfabéticamente: [5]​

  • P. d. antinorii Oberthür, 1883 (tierras altas de Etiopía)
  • P. d. Byatti Poulton, 1926 (tierras altas del norte de Somalia)
  • P. d. cenea Stoll, 1790 (sur de Mozambique, este de Zimbabue, Botsuana, Sudáfrica, Suazilandia)
  • P. d. Dardanus Brown, 1776 (Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leona, Liberia, Costa de Marfil, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benín, Nigeria, Camerún, Guinea Ecuatorial, Gabón, Congo, República Centroafricana, Angola, República Democrática del Congo, Uganda, oeste de Kenia, norte de Zambia)
  • P. d. figinii Storace, 1962 (tierras altas de Eritrea)
  • P. d. flavicornis Carpenter, 1947 (Mt Kulal, noroeste de Kenia)
  • P. d. humbloti Oberthür, 1888 (Islas Comoro)
  • P. d. Meriones C. y R. Felder, 1865 (Madagascar)
  • P. d. meseres Carpenter, 1948 (Uganda, sudoeste de Kenia, Tanzania: las costas oeste, sur y sudeste del lago Victoria)
  • P. d. ochraceana Vane-Wright 1995 (Mt. Marsabit, norte de Kenia)
  • P. d. polytrophus Rothschild & Jordan, 1903 (Kenia: tierras altas al este del Valle del Rift)
  • P. d. sulfurea Palisot de Beauvois, 1806 (Santo Tomé y Príncipe, Bioko)
  • P. d. tibullus Kirby, 1880 (este de Kenia, este de Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia)

Reino biogeográfico

Ecozona afrotropical

Mimetismo

src=
Macho

La especie muestra polimorfismo en la apariencia del ala, aunque esto se limita a las hembras, que a menudo se dan como un ejemplo de mimetismo batesiano en los insectos. Este mimetismo limitado a las hembras fue descrito por primera vez en 1869 por Roland Trimen.[6]​ Los machos tienen una apariencia más o menos uniforme en todo el rango de la especie, pero las hembras pueden tener al menos 14 variedades o morfos. [2]​

Algunas morfos femeninas comparten un patrón de coloración muy similar con varias especies de mariposas desagradables (por ejemplo, de Danainae, una subfamilia de ninfálidas),[7]​ mientras que se han encontrado otras que imitan la apariencia masculina (y los cromorfos). La persistencia de estos diversos morfos o diferentes tipos de hembras puede explicarse por la selección dependiente de la frecuencia. Algunos biólogos sugieren que los individuos con mimetismo batesiano obtienen una ventaja de aptitud al evitar a los depredadores, pero sufren el acoso de los machos (ver conflicto sexual), mientras que los andromorfos (imitadores masculinos) son vulnerables a la depredación, pero no son hostigados por los intentos de apareamiento. [8]​

Los morfos se dividen en tres grupos generales basados en patrones: el grupo hippocoon, el grupo cenea y el grupo planemoides. El grupo hippocoon tiene la mayor cantidad de morfos; Los fenotipos dentro de este grupo se caracterizan por cuatro bandas de patrones alternados de negro y color. Dentro del grupo cenea, los patrones están dominados en gran medida por la coloración negra y contienen pequeñas manchas de color. El grupo de planemoides tiene bandas negras que rodean el exterior del ala con una gran mancha de color a través del medio del ala. Este grupo también contiene las formas femeninas que son imitaciones masculinas. La diversidad en los patrones de las alas de cada grupo se ve principalmente en la coloración de cada organismo, mientras que los patrones negros son generalmente consistentes en cada forma.[2]​

Se ha encontrado que la variación fenotípica dentro de las formas femeninas de Papilio dardanus se controla en un locus llamado H que contiene al menos 11 alelos diferentes.[2]​ Se ha encontrado que el locus grabado tiene mutaciones no sinónimas en todos los individuos de la especie, lo que permitiría la divergencia de cada forma. Los estudios respaldan que el gen del Papilio dardanus es monofilético y solo ha evolucionado una vez dentro de la especie. [9]​ Los resultados también sugieren que los muchos alelos miméticos diferentes en el genoma de Papilio dardanus son únicamente de mutaciones en la especie. En otras palabras, los alelos no entraron en el genoma por transferencia genética de otras especies.

Las diferentes combinaciones de los alelos en H conducen a la variedad de formas vistas dentro de la especie. Los cruces genéticos de los individuos encontraron una jerarquía de dominación general dentro de los alelos.[2]​ Las combinaciones de alelos también determinan no solo qué morfo se expresará, sino también el tamaño real de los patrones mostrados. Cada alelo puede influir en un patrón mimético mayor o menor en un organismo.

Tal mimetismo batesiano limitado por la hembra no es exclusivo de esta especie, ni del género Papilio.[10]​ Del mismo modo, se ha observado mimetismo masculino en otro insecto, un caballito del diablo Ischnura ramburii que también parece haber desarrollado camuflaje para evitar la coerción sexual por parte de los machos.[11]​

Véase también

Galería

  • src=

    Mariposa salida de la crisálida

  • src=

    Adulto

  • src=

    En el medio, Sudáfrica

  • src=

    P. d. antinorii hembra

  • src=

    P. d. ochracea hembra

  • src=

    P. d. ochracea macho

  • src=

    Vista ventral del mismo macho

  • Video de la salida la crisálida

  • src=

    Ilustraciones

  • src=

    Especímenes del Museo de Historia Natural de Gotenburgo

Referencias

  1. ↑ Peter Brown, 1776 . Nouvelles illustrations de zoologie, contenant cinquante planches enluminées d'oiseaux curieux, et qui non etés jamais descrits, et quelques de quadrupedes, de reptiles et d'insectes, avec de courtes descriptions systematiques. - New illustrations of zoology, containing fifty coloured plates of new, curious, and non-descript birds, with a few quadrupeds, reptiles and insects. Together with a short and scientific description of the same London. (White).
  2. ↑ a b c d e Nijhout, H. F. (2003). «Polymorphic mimicry in Papilio dardanus: mosaic dominance, big effects, and origins». Evolution and Development 5 (6): 579-592. PMID 14984040. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2003.03063.x. Consultado el 22 de agosto de 2009.
  3. ↑ Poulton, E. B. (1924). «Papilio dardanus. The most interesting butterfly in the world». Journal of the East African and Ugandan Natural History Society 20: 4-22.
  4. ↑ Vane-Wright, R. I.; Raheem, D. C.; Cieslak, A.; Vogler, A. P. (1999). «Evolution of the mimetic African swallowtail butterfly Papilio dardanus: molecular data confirm relationships with P. phorcas and P. constantinus». Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 99 (2): 215-229. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01885.x.
  5. ↑ Papilio dardanus, funet.fi
  6. ↑ Trimen, R. (1869). «On some remarkable mimetic analogies among African butterflies». Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 26 (3): 497-522. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1869.tb00538.x.
  7. ↑ Mallet, J. (2001). «Batesian mimicry in Papilio dardanus». Consultado el 23 de agosto de 2009.
  8. ↑ Cook, S. E.; Vernon, J. G.; Bateson, M.; Guilford, T. (1994). «Mate choice in the polymorphic African swallowtail butterfly, Papilio dardanus: Male-like females may avoid sexual harassment». Animal Behaviour 47 (2): 389-397. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1053.
  9. ↑ Thompson, M. J.; Timmermans, M. J. T. N.; Jiggins, C. D.; Vogler, A. P. (2014). «The evolutionary genetics of highly divergent alleles of the mimicry locus in Papilio dardanus». BMC Evolutionary Biology 14: 140. PMC 4262259. PMID 25081189. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-140.
  10. ↑ Mallet, James (2001). «Batesian mimicry in Papilio memnon». Consultado el 9 de septiembre de 2009.
  11. ↑ Lessells, K. (2005). "Sexual Conflict". In Encyclopedia of Life Sciences.
title=
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Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Papilio dardanus, la cola de golondrina africana, es una especie de mariposa en la familia Papilionidae. La especie está ampliamente distribuida en todo el África subsahariana.​ El entomólogo británico EB Poulton la describió como "la mariposa más interesante del mundo".​

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Autores y editores de Wikipedia
original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia ES

Papilio dardanus ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

La Papilio dardanus est une espèce d'insectes lépidoptères qui appartient à la famille des Papilionidae, à la sous-famille des Papilioninae et au genre Papilio.

Répartition

  • Répartition : Afrique tropicale humide.

Philatélie

Ce papillon figure sur plusieurs émissions philatéliques :

Voir aussi

Référence

  • Pierre Brown, 1776 Nouvelles illustrations de zoologie : contenant cinquante planches enlumineés d'oiseaux curieux, et qui non etés jamais descrits, et quelques de quadrupedes, de reptiles et d'insectes, avec de courtes descriptions systematiques Livre complet.

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Auteurs et éditeurs de Wikipedia
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia FR

Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

La Papilio dardanus est une espèce d'insectes lépidoptères qui appartient à la famille des Papilionidae, à la sous-famille des Papilioninae et au genre Papilio.

licença
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Auteurs et éditeurs de Wikipedia
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visite a fonte
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wikipedia FR

Papilio dardanus ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Papilio dardanus Brown, 1776, è un lepidottero appartenente alla famiglia Papilionidae, diffuso nell'Africa subsahariana.[1]

Descrizione

Adulto

Nella femmina si possono incontrare due forme distinte: una non mimetica, molto simile al maschio per livrea e dimensioni, ed una mimetica, marcatamente polimorfica (vedi più sotto).[2] Nell'ala anteriore, la zona apicale e la fascia marginale sono molto scure, quasi nere, tranne per due macchie puntiformi biancastre in posizione subapicale. La costa è bordata di nero nel maschio, mentre nella femmina non mimetica mostra una banda scura nella metà basale, che devia lievemente verso il centro dell'ala. L'ala posteriore rivela, nel maschio come nella femmina non mimetica, una colorazione di fondo biancastra con macchie nere irregolari sul termen e sul tornus, oltre a una propaggine a "coda di rondine" nella parte posteriore. La pagina inferiore delle ali è essa stessa piuttosto variabile, ma in generale tende a tonalità più sfumate e vicine all'ocra chiaro.[2] Capo, torace e addome appaiono molto scuri o neri, con l'addome molto assottigliato.[2] Le antenne sono lievemente clavate, ed hanno una lunghezza pari a circa la metà della costa.[2] L'apertura alare varia tra 90 e 108 mm.[2]

Uovo

Le uova sono sferoidali e prive di scanalature. Vengono solitamente deposte singolarmente in prossimità delle foglie della pianta ospite.[3]

src=
La pupa

Larva

Il bruco appare tozzo e di colorazione verde, con disegni bianchi ed un osmeterium rosso-aranciato, in grado di emettere una sostanza odorosa.[2][3]

Pupa

La crisalide è exarata e sorretta al substrato tramite un cremaster ed una cinta sericea che attraversa il torace.[3]

Mimetismo batesiano nelle femmine della specie

src=
Il Ninfalide Amauris niavius, che viene imitato dalla femmina di Papilio dardanus

Mentre il maschio mantiene forma e colorazioni pressoché costanti in tutto l'areale, la femmina di Papilio dardanus può avere sia una forma non mimetica simile al maschio (andromorfa), sia un'altra contraddistinta da uno spiccato polimorfismo mimetico, arrivando ad assumere fino a sedici fenotipi differenti.[4] Questa enorme variabilità, descritta per la prima volta da Roland Trimen nel 1869,[5] è dovuta ad un singolo locus genico, che può presentare almeno undici diversi alleli, dando vita ad un classico esempio di pleiotropia in cui gli effetti di dominanza incompleta tra alleli sono alquanto complessi e diversificati.[4] La femmina può imitare molto fedelmente sia la forma, sia la colorazione di varie specie di farfalle dal sapore repellente (per esempio alcune Nymphalidae Danainae come Amauris echeria, Amauris niavius e Danaus chrysippus, oppure Heliconiinae come Acraea poggei), traendo così un vantaggio evolutivo dal fatto che i possibili predatori tendono ad evitarla, considerandola non appetibile (mimetismo batesiano).[6] L'evoluzione di tutte queste forme è considerata un esempio di selezione diversificante, mentre la loro co-esistenza, in equilibrio dinamico con la forma non mimetica, viene spiegata col fatto che, sebbene quest'ultima non tragga vantaggi evolutivi nei confronti dei predatori, viene tuttavia favorita dai maschi all'atto dell'accoppiamento.[7] Un tale tipo di mimetismo batesiano, esclusivamente limitato alla femmina, non rappresenta un unicum neppure all'interno del genere Papilio, come dimostra il caso dell'asiatica Papilio memnon.[6]

Distribuzione e habitat

L'areale della specie si estende all'interno dell'Ecozona afrotropicale (locus typicus: Africa occidentale), comprendendo l'Angola, il Benin, il Burkina Faso, il Camerun, le Comore, il Congo, la Costa d'Avorio, l'Eritrea, l'Etiopia, il Gabon, il Ghana, la Guinea, la Guinea-Bissau, la Guinea Equatoriale (Isola di Bioko), il Kenya occidentale, la Liberia, il Madagascar, il Malawi, il Mozambico, la Nigeria, la Repubblica Centrafricana, la Repubblica Democratica del Congo, São Tomé e Príncipe, il Senegal, la Sierra Leone, la Somalia settentrionale, il Sudafrica, lo Swaziland, la Tanzania, il Togo, l'Uganda, lo Zambia settentrionale, lo Zimbabwe.[2][8]

L'habitat è rappresentato dalla foresta tropicale e subtropicale.[2]

Biologia

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Danaus chrysippus, altra specie imitata dalla femmina di Papilio dardanus
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Tavola raffigurante le parti anatomiche di Xymalos monospora

La specie ha abitudini prettamente diurne.[2]

Periodo di volo

Gli adulti sono rinvenibili tutto l'anno nella fascia tropicale.[2]

Alimentazione

I bruchi si accrescono sulle foglie di svariate specie di Rutaceae, tra cui:[8]

Tassonomia

Allo stato attuale vengono riconosciute tredici sottospecie; per ciascuna di queste vengono riportati di seguito i sinonimi (incluse forme e varietà):[8]

  • Papilio brutus Fabricius, 1781 - Spec. Ins. 2 : 13 (preocc. Papilio brutus Cramer, 1779) - Locus typicus: "in Africa aequinoctiali" (Africa occidentale)
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. ceneispila Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3) : 374 - Locus typicus: Uganda
  • Papilio dardanus ab. crocotus Poulton, 1923 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1923: xlvii - Locus typicus: Forêt du Poste de Borabo, Regione dell'Alto Sassandra, Costa d'Avorio
  • Papilio dardanus f. fagerskioldi Bryk, 1928 - Soc. Ent. 43: 13 - Locus typicus: Uganda, Mpolegoma
  • Papilio dardanus ♂-f. latemarginatus Schultze, 1913 - Ent. Rundsch. 30 (9): 49 - Locus typicus: San Carlos Süd
  • Papilio dardanus f.ab. niobe Aurivillius, 1899 - K. svenska VetenskAkad. Handl. 31 (5) : 465
  • Papilio dardanus f.ab. nioboides Aurivillius, 1899 - K. svenska VetenskAkad. Handl. 31 (5) : 465
  • Papilio dardanus ab. obscura McLeod & McLeod, 2004 - Ent. Rec. J. var. 116 (2): 60
  • Papilio dardanus f. semimelas Basquin & Turlin, 1986 - Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. (49): 22 - Locus typicus: Repubblica Centrafricana, Bangui
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. sirius Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 23
  • Papilio dardanus f.ab. trophonissa Aurivillius, 1907 - Ark. Zool. 3 (23): 2 - Locus typicus: regione del fiume Ituri, Congo orientale
  • Papilio dardanus benio Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1): 91 - Locus typicus: Camerun, Barombi station; Angola (Kabinda), Chinchoxo
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ab. bipunctata Dufrane, 1933 - Lambillionea 33: 165 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. completa Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. dawanti Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga, Luébo, Kasai
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ab. divisa Dufrane, 1933 - Lambillionea 33: 165 - Locus typicus: Camerun, Édéa
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. extrema Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 103 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga, Luébo, Kasai
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. impunctata Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga, Luébo, Kasai
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. jottrandi Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga, Luébo, Kasai
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ab. paradoxa Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo, Luébo
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ab. punctata Dufrane, 1933 - Lambillionea 33: 165 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga
  • Papilio dardanus dardanus ♀-f. subpunctata Dufrane, 1946 - Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 82: 102 - Locus typicus: Congo Belga, Luébo, Kasai
  • Papilio dardanus heimsi Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1) : 90 - Locus typicus: Camerun, Victoria
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀ f. alluaudi Boullet & Le Cerf, 1912 - Bull. Soc. ent. Fr. 1912: 141 - Locus typicus: Uganda occidentale, Provincia di Toro
  • Papilio dionysos Doubleday, 1846 - in Doubleday & Westwood, Gen. diurn. Lep. (1): pl. 4, (1): 20 - Locus typicus: Africa occidentale
  • Papilio hippocoon Fabricius, 1793 - Ent. Syst. 3 (1): 38 - Locus typicus: Sierra Leone
  • Papilio merope Cramer, 1777 - Uitl. Kapellen 2 (9-16): 87 (preocc. Papilio merope Frabricius, 1775) - Locus typicus: Africa occidentale, "Java and Amboina" [errore]
  • Papilio trophonius Westwood, 1842 - Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 9 : 38 - Locus typicus: Africa occidentale tropicale
  • Papilio westermannii Boisduval, 1836 - Hist. nat. Ins., Spec. gén. Lépid. 1 : 372 - Locus typicus: Costa della Guinea
  • Papilio antinorii Oberthür, 1883 - Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova 18: 711 - Locus typicus: Abissinia, Feleklek and Sciotalit
  • Papilio antinorii f.ab. niavioides Kheil, 1890 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 3: 335 - Locus typicus: Abissinia, Korata sul Lago Tana
  • Papilio antinorii f.ab. ruspinae Kheil, 1890 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 3: 336 - Locus typicus: Abissinia, Korata sul Lago Tana
  • Papilio dardanus ♂-f. conjunctiflava Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 12 - Locus typicus: Abissinia sud-occidentale
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. zaoditou Ungemach, 1932 - Mém. Soc. Sci. nat. phys. Maroc 32: 18 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Oumbi
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii var. alticola Boullet & Le Cerf, 1912 - Bull. Soc. ent. Fr. 1912: 141 - Locus typicus: Abissinia, Yumbo, Provincia di Gaba, 145m
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii ♀-f. alameitu Gabriel, 1949 - Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 18: 212 - Locus typicus: Abissinia, Wallega Valley, Ghedo, 7.000 piedi
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. aperta Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Guebre Mengist
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. aurantiaca Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Metu
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. cenaeoides Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Bedele
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. depuncta Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Bedele
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. extensinigra Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Yabelo
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. immaculata Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Awasa
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. lambornieoides Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Hossana
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. niobeoides Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Hossana
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. obscura Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Arba Minch
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. obsoleta Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Bonga
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. ornata Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Arba Minch
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. parvicaudata Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Hossana
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. rufomaculata Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Arba Minch
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. salaamioides Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Bonga
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii ab. seriata Storace, 1963 - Boll. Soc. ent. ital. 93: 28 - Locus typicus: Etiopia centrale, Scioa (zona di Ancòber), Mantek
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii f.m. streckerioides Mollet, 1975 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 80: 38 - Locus typicus: Etiopia, Metu
  • Papilio dardanus hodsoni Poulton, 1926 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1: 6 - Locus typicus: Abissinia sud-occidentale, fiume Got, 1.700 piedi, fiume Apeny, 1.700 piedi
  • Papilio dardanus hodsoni ♀-f. weinholti Poulton, 1927 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 2: 10 - Locus typicus: Gore, 6.600 piedi, Abissinia occidentale
  • Papilio merope antinorii var. niavina Haase, 1891 - Bibl. zool. 4 (8): (2) - Locus typicus: Abissinia
  • Papilio dardanus byatti Poulton, 1926 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1925 xlv (presente negli altopiani della Somalia settentrionale)
  • Papilio dardanus cenea Stoll, 1790 - Aanhaangsel Werk, Uitl. Kapellen (2-5): 134 - Locus typicus: Päis des Caffres ( = Sudafrica) (presente anche nel Mozambico meridionale, nello Zimbabwe orientale ed in Swaziland)[10]
  • Danais rechila Godart, 1819 - Encyclopédie Méthodique. 9 (1): 183 - Locus typicus: "Cafrerie"
  • Papilio cenea Stoll, 1790 - Aanhaangsel Werk, Uitl. Kapellen (2-5): 134 - Locus typicus: "Päis des Caffres"
  • Papilio cenea acene Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1) : 92 - Locus typicus: Transvaal
  • Papilio cephonius Hopffer, 1865 - Stettin ent. Ztg 27 (1-3) : 132
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. leighi Poulton, 1911 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1911: xxxviii - Locus typicus: Natal; Kenya Unyori, Nord-Est di Kisumu
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. aikeni van Son, 1956 - Ann. Transv. Mus. 22: 503 - Locus typicus: Transvaal settentrionale, boscaglia, Distretto di Pietersburg
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♂-f.indiv. extensiflava Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3): 378 - Locus typicus: Natal
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. hypolimnides Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3): 377 - Locus typicus: Pondoland occidentale
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. infuscata van Son, 1956 - Ann. Transv. Mus. 22: 503 - Locus typicus: Durban
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. natalica Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3): 377 - Locus typicus: Mozambico, Delagoa Bay
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. neocenea Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 10 - Locus typicus: Sudafrica
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. nigricans Storace, 1955 - Mem. Soc. ent. ital. 33: 124 - Locus typicus: Africa australe
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. radiata Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 23
  • Papilio dardanus cenea f. sylvicola van Son, 1949 - Transv. Mus. Mem. (3): 11 - Locus typicus: Foresta di Malta Forest, Distretto di Pietersburg, Transvaal; King William's Town; Mozambico, Delegoa Bay
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ♀-f. transiens Storace, 1955 - Mem. Soc. ent. ital. 33: 124 - Locus typicus: Natal
  • Papilio merope tibullus var. hippocoonides Haase, 1891 - Bibl. zool. 4 (8): 70 - Locus typicus: "Cap."
  • Papilio dardanus figinii Storace, 1962 - Doriana 3 (129): 2 - Locus typicus: Eritrea centrale, Dorfù, 1500 m. s.l.m. (Zona delle pendici orientali, presso Asmara) (presente negli altopiani dell'Eritrea)
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii ♀-f. protoniavioides Storace, 1962 - Boll. Soc. ent. ital. 92: 72 - Locus typicus: Dorfù in Eritrea (zona delle pendici orientali, presso Asmara, m. 1500 s.l.m.)
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii ♀-f. vaccaroi Storace, 1947 - Ann. Mus. civ. Nat. Giacomo Doria 63: 116 - Locus typicus: Eritrea, Dorfù, m. 1500 s.m. (presso Asmara)
  • Papilio dardanus figinii ♀-f. protomima Storace, 1962 - Doriana 3 (120): 3 - Locus typicus: Eritrea orientale presso Asmara (Dorfù) [Ethiopia]
  • Papilio dardanus flavicornis Carpenter, 1947 - Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 16: 55 - Locus typicus: Kenya settentrionale, Monte Kulal
  • Papilio dardanus humbloti Oberthür, 1888 - Bull. Soc. ent. Fr. (6) 8: 40 - Locus typicus: Grande Comore[11]
  • Papilio dardanus meriones C. & R. Felder, 1865 - Reise Fregatte Novara, Bd 2 (Abth. 2) (1): 95 - Locus typicus: Madagascar, Provincia di Toamasina[12]
  • Papilio dardanus meriones ♂-f.indiv. palaeotypus Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3): 379 - Locus typicus: Madagascar, Maroansetra
  • Papilio dardanus meseres Carpenter, 1948 - Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 17: 14 - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, South Kavirondo, Suna (presente in Uganda, Kenya nordoccidentale, e Tanzania)
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. acenides Le Cerf, 1924 - Bull. Hill. Mus. 1 (3) : 375 - Locus typicus: Tanzania, Foresta di Mabira; Uganda
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. carpenteri Poulton, 1929 - Trans. ent. Soc. Lond. 77: 500 - Locus typicus: Kakindu Hill, Tanganica, lat. 1° 10'S., long. 31° 30'E, circa 30 miglia a ovest del Lago Vittoria; Uganda
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. dionysoides Aurivillius, 1907 - Ark. Zool. 3 (23): 1 - Locus typicus: Kibara, presso l'isola Ukerewe nel Lago Vittoria
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. dominicanoides Stoneham, 1933 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (15): [2] - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, Soy
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. epiplanemoides Stoneham, 1934 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (19): [2] - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, foresta di Kakamega
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. hippocoonatus Stoneham, 1933 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (15): [2] - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, Kitale
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. mixtus Aurivillius, 1907 - Ark. Zool. 3 (23): 4 - Locus typicus: Africa orientale (a Nord-Est di Nyanza]
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. pemtolipus Aurivillius, 1907 - Ark. Zool. 3 (23): 2 - Locus typicus: Kibara
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. planematus Stoneham, 1934 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (19): [2] - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, foresta di Kakamega
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. swynnertoni Poulton, 1929 - Trans. ent. Soc. Lond. 77: 500 - Locus typicus: Unyori (Nyangori), a nord-est di Kisumu
  • Papilio dardanus ♂-f. xanthocaudatus Stoneham, 1932 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (13): 1 - Locus typicus: Kitale
  • Papilio dardanus xanthocaudatus ♀-f. briani Stoneham, 1944 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (48): [2] - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, Kitale
  • Papilio merope ♀-f. planemoides Trimen, 1904 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1903 : xli [41] - Locus typicus: Distretto di Kavirondo-Nandi nel Protettorato Britannico dell'Uganda; Angola
  • Papilio dardanus ochraceana Vane-Wright, 1995 - in Ackery, Smith & Vane-Wright, Carcasson's African Butterflies: 144 - Locus typicus: Kenya, Monte Marsabit (presente anche sul monte Nyiru)
  • Papilio dardanus cenea ochracea ♀-f. ochracea Poulton, 1924 - Proc. ent. Soc. Lond. 1924: xxvii [27], Locus typicus: Marsabit, sudest del Lago Rodolfo
  • Papilio dardanus ochracea Carpenter, 1948 - Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 17: 16 (preocc. Papilio woodfordi var. ochracea Ribbe, 1897) - Locus typicus: Marsabit
  • Papilio dardanus ochracea ♀-f. atavica Storace, 1955 - Mem. Soc. ent. ital. 33: 123 - Locus typicus: Marsabit, 4.500 piedi, Provincia Nordorientale (Kenya)
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. ariadne Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 11
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. babingtonia Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 9
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. harmonia Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 11
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. jeanneli Le Cerf, 1912 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1912: 290 - Locus typicus: Africa Orientale Britannica, Kijabé, 2.100 m, nella faglia di Kikuyu
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. millari Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 9
  • Papilio dardanus ♂-f. nairobianus Stoneham, 1932 - Bull. Stoneham Mus. (13): 2 - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, Nairobi
  • Papilio dardanus var. polytrophus f. astarte Bryk & Peebles, 1932 - Mitt. Dt. Ent. Ges. 3: 10 - Locus typicus: Elmenteita, Kenya Colony
  • Papilio dardanus var. polytrophus f. protocenea Bryk & Peebles, 1932 - Mitt. Dt. Ent. Ges. 3: 10 - Locus typicus: Elmenteita, Kenya Colony
  • Papilio dardanus var. polytrophus f. punctimargo Le Cerf, 1912 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1912: 336 - Locus typicus: Africa Orientale Britannica, Kijabé, 2.100 m, nella faglia di Kikuyu
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. poultoni Ford, 1936 - Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. 85: 465 - Locus typicus: Kenya Colony, Nairobi
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. speciosa Le Cerf, 1912 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1912: 290 - Locus typicus: Africa Orientale Britannica, Kijabé, 2.100 m, nella faglia di Kikuyu
  • Papilio dardanus nairobianus ♀-f. akechia Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 8 - Locus typicus: Nairobi
  • Papilio dardanus nairobianus ♀-f. akechiana Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 10
  • Papilio dardanus nairobianus ♀-f. neria Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 8
  • Papilio dardanus nairobianus ♀-f. neriana Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 11
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. acenoides Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 24
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. albescens Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 23
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. hippocooninus Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 23
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. mixtoides Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 24
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. nigrescens Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 23
  • Papilio dardanus polytrophus ♀-f. trophonoides Reuss, 1921 - Ent. Rundsch. 38: 24
  • Papilio dardanus tibullus ♀-f. dorippoides Trimen, 1909 - Trans. ent. Soc. Lond. 1908 (3): 554 - Locus typicus: Nairobi
  • Papilio dardanus storacei Gauthier, 1984 - Ent. Zs. 94: 314 - Locus typicus: Bioko centrale, 1.500 m
  • Papilio dardanus sulphureus Bernardi, Pierre & Nguyen, 1985 - Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr. 90: 1109
  • Papilio boosi Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1): 89 - Locus typicus: Dar-es-Salaam
  • Papilio cenea discopunctatus Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1): 92 - Locus typicus: Africa Orientale Tedesca
  • Papilio cenea maculatus Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1): 91 - Locus typicus: Africa Orientale Tedesca
  • Papilio cenea salaami Suffert, 1904 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 17 (1): 92 - Locus typicus: Dar-es-Salaam
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. melanoleuca Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 8 - Locus typicus: Bamburi, costa del Kenya
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. mombasicus Stoneham, 1951 - Butterflies of Western Kenya: 3 - Locus typicus: Protettorato del Kenya, Mombasa
  • Papilio dardanus var. tibullus ab. gomia Strand, 1911 - Dt. Ent. Z. Iris 25 (10/11): 121 - Locus typicus: Gomja
  • Papilio dardanus ♀-f. trimeni Poulton, 1906 - Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1906 (2): 283 - Locus typicus: Zanzibar; Faglia di Kikuyu, Africa Orientale Britannica
  • Papilio dardanus tibullus ♀-f. lamborni Poulton, 1918 - in Eltringham, Trans. ent. Soc. Lond. 1917 (2-4): 335 - Locus typicus: Ufiomi, 35° 50'E, 4° 16'S

Iconografia

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    Accoppiamento

  • Emersione dell'adulto

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    Adulto appena emerso

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    Adulto

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    Il lepidottero su un fiore in Natal (Sudafrica)

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    Papilio dardanus antinorii ♂

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    Papilio dardanus ochracea ♂, recto

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    Papilio dardanus ochracea ♂, verso

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    Papilio dardanus ochracea ♀, recto, forma bianca

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    Papilio dardanus ochracea ♀, recto, forma arancione

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    Papilio dardanus ochracea ♀, verso, forma arancione

Note

  1. ^ a b (EN) Peter Brown, New Illustrations of Zoology containing fifty coloured plates of new curious, and Non-Descript Birds, with a few Quadrupeds, Reptiles and Insects. Together with a short scientific description of the same New Illust. Zool., Londra, B. White, maggio 1776, p. 136. URL consultato il 23 ottobre 2011.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j David Carter, Andrea Sabbadini, Farfalle e falene. Guida fotografica a oltre 500 specie di farfalle e falene di tutto il mondo, 1ª ed., Milano, Fabbri Editori, marzo 1993 [1992], p. 304, ISBN 88-450-4452-1.
  3. ^ a b c (EN) Scoble, M. J., Higher Ditrysia, in The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity, seconda edizione, London, Oxford University Press & Natural History Museum, 2011 [1992], pp. 306-313, ISBN 978-0-19-854952-9, LCCN 92004297, OCLC 25282932.
  4. ^ a b H. Frederik Nijhout, Polymorphic mimicry in Papilio dardanus: mosaic dominance, big effects, and origins (PDF), in Evolution and Development, vol. 5, n. 6, 2003, pp. 579–592, DOI:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2003.03063.x. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011.
  5. ^ Roland Trimen, On some remarkable mimetic analogies among African butterflies, in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, vol. 26, 1869, pp. 497–522, DOI:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1869.tb00538.x.
  6. ^ a b J. Mallet, Batesian mimicry in Papilio dardanus, su ucl.ac.uk, 2001. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011.
  7. ^ S. E. Cook, Vernon, J. G.; Bateson; M., Guilford, T., Mate choice in the polymorphic African swallowtail butterfly, Papilio dardanus: Male-like females may avoid sexual harassment., in Animal Behaviour, vol. 47, n. 2, 1994, pp. 389–397, DOI:10.1006/anbe.1994.1053. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011.
  8. ^ a b c Funet, su ftp.ipv6.funet.fi. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011 (archiviato dall'url originale il 20 dicembre 2016).
  9. ^ Charles Oberthür, Spedizione italiana nell'Africa Equatoriale. Risultati zoologici. Lepidotteri (parte II, tav. IX), in Annali del Museo civico di storia naturale di Genova, 1883, p. 711. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011.
  10. ^ Caspar Stoll, Aanhangsel van het Werk, de Uitlandsche Kapellen Aanhaangsel Werk, (2-5): 43-184, pl. 9-42, 1790.
  11. ^ (FR) Charles Oberthür, Lépidoptères de la Grande-Comore, in Bulletin de la Sociètè Entomologique de France, vol. 6, n. 8, 1888, pp. 40-42. URL consultato il 1º novembre 2011.
  12. ^ C. & R. Felder, Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859 unter den Behilfen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorf-Urbair. Zoologischer Theil. Band 2. Abtheilung 2. Lepidoptera. Rhopalocera Reise Fregatte Novara, Bd 2 (Abth. 2) (1): 1-136, pl. 1-21 (Rhop.), 1865.
  13. ^ Rothschild & Jordan, Some new African Papilios. Novit. Zool. 10 (3) : 488-490, 1903.
  14. ^ Ambroise Marie François Joseph Palisot de Beauvois, Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Amérique, 1806.
  15. ^ William Forsell Kirby, Catalogue of the Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera, Sphingidae, Castniidae and Uraniidae) in the Museum of the Science and Art, Dublin, with remarks of new or interesting species Proc. R. Dublin Soc. (2) 2: 292-340, 1880.

Bibliografia

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  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1959 - The genetics of some mimetic forms of Papilio dardanus Brown and P. glaucus Linn. Journal of genetics, LVI, pp. 236-260.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1959 - The genetics of Papilio dardanus Brown. I. Race cenea from S. Africa. Genetics XLIV, pp. 1347-1358.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1960 - The genetics of Papilio dardanus Brown. II. Race dardanus, polytrophus, meseres and Tibullus. Genetics XLV, pp. 439-457.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1960 - The genetics of Papilio dardanus Brown. III. Race antinorii from Abyssinia and race meriones from Madagascar. Genetics 45: 683–698.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1960 - The evolution of mimicry on the butterfly Papilio dardanus. Heredity, XIV, pp. 163-173.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1960 - Super-genes and mimicry. Heredity, XIV, pp. 175-185.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1960 - The evolution of dominance under disruptive selection. Heredity 14: 23–87.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1962 - The genetics of the mimetic butterfly Papilio glaucus. Ecology, XLIII, pp. 159-161.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1962 - The genetics of Papilio dardanus Brown. IV. Data on race ochracea, race flavicornis, and further information on races polytrophus and dardanus. Genetics 47: 909–920.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1963 - Interactions between major genes and polygenes in the determination of the mimetic patterns of Papilio dardanus. Evolution, XIV, pp. 404-413.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1971 - Further studies on the genetics of the mimetic butterfly Papilio memnon L. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, CCLXIII, pp. 35-70.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1972 - Genetics of the mimetic butterfly Papilio polytes. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, CCLXIII, pp. 431-458.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., 1975 - Hybrids of P. dardanus x P. phorcas, and others. Proc. R. ent Soc. Lond. (39): 37-40
  • Cott, H. B., 1940 - Adaptive colouration in animals, London.
  • Clarke, C. A., Sheppard, P. M., and Thornton, I. W. B., 1968 - The genetics of the mimetic butterfly Papilio memnon L. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 254: 37–89.
  • Fisher, R. A., 1930 - The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
  • Ford, E. B., 1936 - The genetics of Papilio dardanus Brown (Lep.). Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 85: 435–466.
  • Ford, E. B., 1953 - The genetics of polymorphism in the Lepidoptera. Adv. Genet. 5: 43–87.
  • Gilchrist, M. A., and Nijhout, H. F., 2001 - Nonlinear developmental processes as sources of dominance. Genetics 159: 423–432.
  • Koch, P. B., and Nijhout, H. F., 2002 - The role of wing veins in colour pattern development in the butterfly Papilio xuthus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Eur. J. Entomol. 99: 67–72.
  • (EN) Kükenthal, W. (Ed.), Handbuch der Zoologie / Handbook of Zoology, Band 4: Arthropoda - 2. Hälfte: Insecta - Lepidoptera, moths and butterflies, in Kristensen, N. P. (a cura di), Handbuch der Zoologie, Fischer, M. (Scientific Editor), Teilband/Part 35: Volume 1: Evolution, systematics, and biogeography, Berlino, New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1999 [1998], pp. x + 491, ISBN 978-3-11-015704-8, OCLC 174380917.
  • Nijhout, H. F., 1985 - Independent development of homologous pattern elements in the wing patterns of butterflies. Dev. Biol. 108: 146–151.
  • Nijhout, H. F., Wray, G. A., and Gilbert, L. E., 1990 - An analysis of the phenotypic effects of certain color pattern genes in Heliconius (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). J. Linn. Soc. 40: 357–372.
  • Nijhout, H. F., 1991 - The Development and Evolution of Butterfly Wing Patterns. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
  • Nijhout, H. F., 1994 - Developmental perspectives on the evolution of butterfly mimicry. BioScience 44: 148–157.
  • Paulsen, S. M., 1994 - Quantitative genetics of butterfly wing patterns. Dev. Genet. 15: 79–91.
  • Paulsen, S. M., 1996 - Quantitative genetics of the wing color pattern in the buckeye butterfly (Precis coenia and Precis evarete): evidence against the constancy of G. Evolution 50: 1585–1597.
  • Paulsen, S. M., and Nijhout, H. F., 1993 - Phenotypic correlation structure among elements of the color pattern in Precis coenia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Evolution 47: 593–618.
  • Poulton, E. B., 1906 - Mimetic Forms of Papilio dardanus (merope) and Acraea johnstoni. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1906 (2): 281-320, pl. 17-22
  • Poulton, E. B., 1924 - Papilio dardanus, the most wonderful butterfly in the world. J. East Afr. Uganda Nat. Hist. Soc. 209: 4–22.
  • (EN) Scoble, M. J., The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity, seconda edizione, London, Oxford University Press & Natural History Museum, 2011 [1992], pp. xi, 404, ISBN 978-0-19-854952-9, LCCN 92004297, OCLC 25282932.
  • Sheppard, P. M.. 1959 - The evolution of mimicry; a problem in ecology and genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 24: 131–140.
  • Sokal, R. R., and Rohlf, F. J., 1981 - Biometry. Freeman, SanFrancisco,CA.
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  • Turner, J. R. G., 1963 - Geographical variation and evolution in the males of the butterfly Papilio dardanus Brown (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 115: 239–259.
  • Turner, J. R. G., 1977 - Butterfly mimicry: the genetical evolution of an adaptation. Evol. Biol. 10: 163–206.
  • Vane-Wright, R. I., 1976 - An alternative hypothesis on the evolution of Papilio dardanus Brown. Proc. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 41: 1–7.
  • Vane-Wright, R. I., Raheem, D. C., Cieslak, A., and Vogler, A. P., 1999 - Evolution of the mimetic African swallowtail butterfly Papilio dardanus: molecular data confirm relationships with P. phorcas and P. constantinus. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 66: 215–229.
  • Vane-Wright, R. I., and Smith, C. R., 1991 - Phylogenetic relationships of three African swallowtail butterflies, Papilio dardanus, P. phorcas and P. constantinus: cladistic analysis (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Syst. Entomol. 16: 275–291.
  • Vane-Wright, R. I., and Smith, C. R., 1992 - Occurrence and significance of natural hybrids between Papilio dardanus and P. phorcas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Syst. Entomol. 17: 269–272.

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Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Papilio dardanus Brown, 1776, è un lepidottero appartenente alla famiglia Papilionidae, diffuso nell'Africa subsahariana.

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wikipedia IT

Papilio dardanus ( Neerlandês; Flamengo )

fornecido por wikipedia NL

Insecten

Papilio dardanus is een vlinder uit de familie van de pages (Papilionidae).[1] De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1776 door Brown.

Kenmerken

Het mannetje van deze vrij grote vlinder heeft geel-witte vleugels, met aan de achtervleugels 2 staarten. De vrouwtjes daarentegen hebben in het gehele verspreidingsgebied vele verschillende vormen, uitgezonderd in Ethiopië.

Verspreiding en leefgebied

Deze vlindersoort komt voor van Equatoriaal Afrika tot Zuid-Afrika.

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Wikipedia-auteurs en -editors
original
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wikipedia NL

Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Neerlandês; Flamengo )

fornecido por wikipedia NL

Papilio dardanus is een vlinder uit de familie van de pages (Papilionidae). De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort is voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1776 door Brown.

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
Wikipedia-auteurs en -editors
original
visite a fonte
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wikipedia NL

Papilio dardanus ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Papilio dardanus là một loài bướm thuộc họ Bướm phượng (Papilionidae). Loài Papilio dardanus được mô tả năm 1776 bởi Brown. Loài bướm Papilio dardanus sinh sống ở [2].

Hình ảnh

  • Papilio dardanus mating.jpg
  • Mocker Swallowtail, top side.jpg
  • Papilio dardanus antinorii female.jpg
  • Papilio dardanus chrysalis.JPG
  • Amauris niavius (dos).jpg
  • Ecozone Afrotropic.svg
  • Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 040.jpg

Chú thích

  1. ^ Peter Brown, 1776. Nouvelles illustrations de zoologie, contenant cinquante planches enluminées d'oiseaux curieux, et qui non etés jamais descrits, et quelques de quadrupedes, de reptiles et d'insectes, avec de courtes descriptions systematiques. - New illustrations of zoology, containing fifty coloured plates of new, curious, and non-descript birds, with a few quadrupeds, reptiles and insects. Together with a short and scientific description of the same London. (White).
  2. ^ Papilio at Funet

Tham khảo


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết liên quan đến Họ Bướm phượng này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
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Papilio dardanus: Brief Summary ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Papilio dardanus là một loài bướm thuộc họ Bướm phượng (Papilionidae). Loài Papilio dardanus được mô tả năm 1776 bởi Brown. Loài bướm Papilio dardanus sinh sống ở .

licença
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Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
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site do parceiro
wikipedia VI
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