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Imagem de Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799)
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799)

Description ( Inglês )

fornecido por AmphibiaWeb articles
Head with distinct rostral, preorbital, supraorbital, postorbital and a short orbito-tympanic, cranial crests; no temporal ridge; interorbital space much broader than upper eyelid; tympanum very distinct, at least two third the diameter of the eye; first finger generally but not always extends beyond second; double subarticular tubercles only under third finger. Toes with single subarticular tubercle; parotid elliptical, with dark brown scattered branching concretions; skin heavily tuberculated on flanks, tubercles usually tipped with dark brown spines; a lateral dorsal staggered row of 8-9 enlarged tubercles; cranial crests, lips, digit tips, metacarpal and metatarsal tubercles are cornified with dark brown, which tend to peal off in preserved specimens; head is almost smooth. Recently Khan (2001) has distinguished Pakistani population of this toad as a new subspecies Bufo melanostictus hazarensis, on the basis of kidney shaped parotid glands; double subarticular tubercles under penultimate phalanx of all fingers; rostral ridge absent from head; temporal ridge present; light brown dorsum. It is the largest toad in Pakistan, female exceeds 150 mm in snout-vent length. Color: Dorsum uniform gray of various shades, brown or reddish with dark spots, ventrum uniform dirty white, speckled with light brown on chin and throat. The throat of breeding male is light orange or yellow. It develops cornified pads on inner side of first and second fingers.In Pakistan, this toad is a highland species and does not extend in the Indus Valley. Recent geographic, genetic and ecological analysis show that Duttaphrynus melanostictus is comprised of three distinct lineages: Asian mainland, coastal Myanmar, and Sundaic islands. Likely these lineages represent at least three and possibly multiple species, which have higher conservation value than currently recognized. The species complex has been introduced to such distant places as Borneo, Sulawesi and Seram, and even Madagascar (Wogan et al 2015). However, more work is required to determine species delineations and even which species have been introduced.

Referências

  • Khan, M.S. (1982). ''Collection, preservation and identification of amphibian eggs from the plains of Pakistan.'' Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 14, 241-243.
  • Khan, M.S. (1991). Morphoanatomical specialization of the buccopharyngeal region of the anuran larvae and its bearing on the mode of larval feeding. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
  • Mertens, R. (1969). ''Die Amphibien und Reptilien West-Pakistans.'' Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, 197, 1-96.
  • Natarajan, R. (1953). ''A note on the chromosomes of Cacopus systoma.'' Proceedings of the 40th Indian Science Congress, Part 3, 180-181.
  • Wogan, Guinevere O. U., Stuart, Bryan L., Iskandar, Djoko T., and McGuire, Jimmy A. (2015). ''Deep genetic structure and ecological divergence in a widespread human commensal toad.'' Biology Letters, 12(1).

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Distribution and Habitat ( Inglês )

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The Asian Common Toad is a widespread species occurring throughout South-East Asia and southern China, south to East Java and Bali and as far west as India and Pakistan.Until recently this species was reported as the common toad of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent (Günther, 1864; Murray, 1884; Boulenger, 1890; Annandale and Rao, 1918). However, in Pakistan, this toad is confined to the rugged mountains of District Hazara, Northwestern Frontier Province, Alpine Punjab and Azad Kashmir (Mertens, 1969a; Khan, 1972a).It is a human commensal species often occurring in disturbed habitat or man-made habitat.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors ( Inglês )

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Breeds in paddy fields, where pollution by chemicals affect its eggs and larvae.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors ( Inglês )

fornecido por AmphibiaWeb articles
Life history: A rare toad in Pakistan mostly confined to the low northern hilly ranges and Azad Kashmir. Nocturnal, appears soon after sunset; during day hides under stones, logs, piles of vegetation, holes and crevices among stones and in ground. Once a suitable place is selected, it is permanently shared with several toads. The toad is lethargic timid animal. It moves about with deliberate hops from place to place in search of insects on which it feeds. In tropical southeast Asia it is most common amphibian, coming out after sunset in large numbers and frequents mostly the human habitations, where it congregate under street lamps to feed on photophilic insects (Church, 1960). In temperate environs of western Himalayas, the breeding is initiated by the monsoon rains, from July to August. Males, gather in shallow side-pools along torrents and ponds. The call in low melodious "curr, curr, curr" repeated several times ending in a whistling note. The calling males become quite aggressive, tugging and jumping over each other, males for exceed female in numbers. It breeds in every available space containing some water from first showers of monsoon rains in the southern India (McCann, 1938). Males are much smaller than females. However, in tropical southeast Asia, the toad is known to breed throughout the year (Church, 1960). Calling males occasionally jump over each other and try to secure a nuptial hold on each other, however, kicks and zestful wriggling dislodge them from each other and soon they resume calling. The females lurch round, as soon one comes close, a male jumps over it and quickly tightens it nuptial clasp, the other suitors are shaken off as the nuptial pair moves to a quitter place away from the site. The eggs are laid in a double jelly string, generally in deep quieter water, where the egg-string is entangled in the vegetation or female moves round the submerged vegetation to wound the egg string round it. An egg is enclosed in a double gelatinous capsule (Khan, 1982b). Tadpole: The tadpoles are uniform dark, inhabits side pools along hilly torrents, schools of them swarm along the marginal waters of ponds and puddles feeding on any type of algal material. The body is typically bufonid, globular with weak tail, dorsal fin is broad while ventral is narrow. The oral disc is typically bufonid, with 2(2)/3 labial tooth row formula, the oral papillae are lateral. The beak is finely serrated and sharp (Khan, 1991a). Total length of tadpole 26-27 mm, tail 19-20 mm.The swarms of recently metamorphosed toadlets from synchronized pairings leave water, many fall pray to several kind of predators, while several are crushed under feet and passing traffic. Karyotype number recorded for this species is 22 (Nataranjan, 1953).
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Relation to Humans ( Inglês )

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Exterminates crop pests and other insects.
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Behavior ( Inglês )

fornecido por Animal Diversity Web

Male Asian common toads will call during the breeding season to attract females; the call that is used is can be described as melodic “creo-o,o; cro-ro-ro-ro-ro-ro-ro” or “curr, curr, curr”. Beyond calling during mating Asian common toads are not known to make any other vocalizations (Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010).

Communication Channels: acoustic

Other Communication Modes: vibrations

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations

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citação bibliográfica
Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
autor
Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
editor
Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
editor
Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Life Cycle ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads have typical anuran development which is indirect with an aquatic tadpole stage. Eggs become larva within 24 and 28 hours. Saidapur and Girish (2001) showed that Asian common toad tadpoles reared with sibling groups grow at a higher rate and develop faster compared to larvae reared in mixed groups. Because females produce so many eggs, intraspecific competition among tadpoles is likely intense in the ephemeral pools in which this species breeds. Therefore, Saidapur and Girish (2001) suggested that the rapid growth and development of tadpoles in the presence of siblings helps increase reproductive success. A study done by Mogali et al (2011) illustrates that tadpoles of Asian common toads will emerge at different times and sizes with the presents of predators. When predators are present tadpoles will decrease in body mass up to 46% and metamorphosis will also occur earlier (Mogali et al 2011,The State of Queensland 2010, Saidapur and Girish 2001).

Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis ; indeterminate growth

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citação bibliográfica
Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
autor
Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
editor
Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
editor
Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads are listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red list as “Least Concern”. In the regions of the world that these toads have become naturalized, populations are on the rise. These toads are becoming increasingly common, although pesticide run off can become a detriment to them if it is not monitored. Sumanadasa et al’s (2007) study showed that exposure to small levels of an insecticide called diaznon resulted in almost 100% death of Asian common toads. This chemical is highly regulated by the United States and European Union, yet it is still used widely throughout the developing counties of Asia (Church 1960, Harper et al 2009, Lever 2003, Mercy 1999, Sumanadasa et al 2007, The State of Queensland 2010).

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citação bibliográfica
Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
autor
Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
editor
Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
editor
Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Benefits ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads have been introduced to the islands of Bali, Papua New Guinea, Sulawesi, Andaman and Nicobar. The ways in which these toads have been introduced is not fully known in most areas, although in some areas it is assumed that Asian common toads first occurred on these islands when they were fist settled. In other cases, such as in Papua New Guinea, it is rumored that the Department of Health released these toads as means to control mosquito populations These toads are understood to be reproducing rapidly in these areas; there is a possibility that Asian common toads are displacing a smaller species of toads such as crested toads. Asian common toads are suspected to cause intense ecological damage. On the islands where Asian common toads have become naturalized it is competing heavily for similar resources of native anurans. These toads are also known to feed on the eggs, larva and juveniles of other native amphibians, which further exasperates the added competition. This competition may in the future resemble the ecological crisis of cane toads in Australia (Church 1960, Lever 2003, The State of Queensland 2010).

Negative Impacts: injures humans (poisonous )

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Benefits ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads have a wide diet throughout their range. In Mercy (1999) found evidence that these toads eat insects that are known to be a problem to farmers in India.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Associations ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads are an important insectivore, because they feeds on many insect pests known to humans. These toads have few natural predators; although they have been known to be preyed upon by snakes and birds. The possible introduction of these toads could be detrimental to a new ecosystem. Consuming anurans as a food source in Southeast and Southern Asia is a common practice; Asian common toads are fairly toxic and they have caused many deaths and illnesses in Lao and Taiwan (Keomany 2007, Khan 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010, van Dijk et al 2011).

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads are insectivorous although these toads are also know to be an opportunist and will feed on a variety of arthropods and even mollusks. An analysis of the stomach contents of multiple specimens of Asian common toads yielded arthropod orders such as earwigs, grasshoppers, crickets, weta, and locusts, true bugs, moths and butterflies, beetles, typical bugs, sawflies, wasps, bees and ants, termites, cockroaches, and mantids, true flies, centipedes, and millipedes. Though these toads are opportunistic feeders the insects that showed the greatest abundance in the stomach were sawflies, wasps, bees and ants, beetles and termites. This toad is feeds on insects that are known pests to human such mosquitoes and various crop pests (Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010).

Animal Foods: amphibians; eggs; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; mollusks; terrestrial worms

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Vermivore)

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Distribution ( Inglês )

fornecido por Animal Diversity Web

Asian common toads (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) have a wide distribution across Asia. The native distribution extends north from Pakistan through Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Southern China, Myanmar, Lao, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Natuna Islands).

Asian common toads have been naturalized in Indonesia (Bali, Sulawi, Ambon, Manokwari and Maluku), New Guinea (West Papua and New Guinea), and the Andaman Nicobar Islands. B. melanostictus has also been recently found in East Timor.

Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native ); australian (Introduced , Native ); oceanic islands (Introduced , Native )

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Habitat ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads are nocturnal terrestrial toads that are found throughout, subtropical, and tropical habitats up to 2000 meters above sea level. Asian common toads are generalists when it comes to choosing a habitat, but they prefer lowland areas such as lowland disturbed forests, forest margins, riparian areas, dense evergreen forests, gardens, and human dominated agricultural and urban areas. (Khan 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010)

Range elevation: 0 to 2000 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; freshwater

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams; temporary pools

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural ; riparian

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Life Expectancy ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads live an average of 4 years in the wild and up to 10 years in captivity.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
4 years.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity:
10 (high) years.

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Morphology ( Inglês )

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Asian common toads are stout, mid to large sized toads with a modestly sized head and short limbs. They have thick dry skin with prominent cranial ridges and protruding parotid gland. The tympana are oval or circular in shape, stand out well and are about 2/3rds the size of the eyes (Mercy 1999). Snout-vent length of males ranges from 57 to 83 mm and females range between 65 and 85 mm. Elevated ridges appear on head, and eyelids have a long dark crest around the boarder. Colors are extremely variable throughout this species and can range from plain brick red to almost fully black. The most common color pattern is pale yellow-brown marked boldly with dark or reddish brown streaks and spots. Their backs are covered with a series of warts varying in sizes; warts are encircled with black or dark pigments and have spines protruding. Males have a subgular vocal sac; breeding males have a throat region that is bright yellow orange and the inner side of the first and second fingers have nuptial pads. Juveniles possess a black band around the throat that runs between the chin and the breast. Juveniles do not have warts and have a very small Tympanum. Tadpoles are back, small around 15 mm in size and are found in groups (Khan 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010, van Dijk et al 2011).

Range length: 57 to 83 mm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; poisonous

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

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Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Associations ( Inglês )

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Predation on Asian common toads are variable because of their extremely large range; throughout their range snakes and birds are common predators. These toads are toxic and can cause illness and death in humans. This could be a possible reason why Asian common toads do not have many predators (Keomany 2007, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland, 2010).

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citação bibliográfica
Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction ( Inglês )

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Breeding is water dependent. In areas with a clear wet and dry season breeding will typically happen at the beginning of the wet season. In areas with no lack of moisture breeding will persist year round. The lunar cycle dictates ovulation, which occurs just before or after a full moon. The ovaries can make up 30% of the total body weight at this time. The female will lay a long string of black eggs, which are externally fertilized by the male. Eggs are enclosed in a thick mucus membrane and deposited on submerged vegetation. Eggs are usually laid in a temporary pond or vernal pool. Huang et al (1997) suggested male Asian common toads have a continuous spermatogenic cycle; in other words, sperm cells are produced year round. Thus, mating for males is not seasonally dependent in areas that are continuously moist. Although in more temperate regions with a clear wet and dry season, Asian common toads have been shown to favor specific seasons, a study done in Taiwan showed that there was a larger concentration of spermatophores in the male toad during a specific time of the year (Kahn 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010, Saidapur and Girish 2001).

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Asian common toads breed opportunistically in small lentic bodies of natural and man-made fresh water. Males congregate at breeding sites and call females. The call can be noted as sounding like “creo-o,o; cro-ro-ro-ro-ro-ro-ro”. There intense competition amongst males for females; many males are often found clinging to a single female (Kahn 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010, Saidapur and Girish 2001).

Breeding interval: Asian common toads breed twice per year.

Breeding season: Asian common toads breed during the wet season in seasonal areas.

Average number of offspring: 40,000 eggs per clutch .

Range time to hatching: 24 to 48 hours.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous

There is no parental care in Asian common toads (Kahn 2000, Mercy 1999, The State of Queensland 2010, Saidapur and Girish 2001)

Parental Investment: no parental involvement

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citação bibliográfica
Gelb, J. 2013. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Duttaphrynus_melanostictus.html
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Justin Gelb, Michigan Technological University
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Amy Schrank, Michigan Technological University
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Laura Podzikowski, Special Projects
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Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por EOL authors

Duttaphrynus melanostictus, known as the Asian common toad, is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia. It goes by a multitude of other common names including Asian toad, black-spectacled toad, black spined toad, common Sunda toad and Javanese toad.Ecological, geographical and genetic analyses have distinguished three distinct lineages (Asian mainland, coastal Myanmar, and Sundaic islands).It is probable that D. melanostictus is actually a complex of multiple species, but more research is needed to confirm species delineations (Wogan et al. 2016).

Asian common toads live in a wide variety of tropical Southeast Asian habitats, especially disturbed lowland areas.They are recorded from sea level up to 1,800 m (5,900ft) in altitude and are considered a “human commensal” as they thrive in human-dominated agricultural and urban areas. Scientists estimate the original range of this species around the Myanmar-China border.These toads easily disperse as a result of human activities, leading Wogan et al. (2016) to describe them as tropical Asia’s “weediest” amphibian. Common Asian toads have invaded Borneo, Sulawesi, Seram, Indonesian New Guinea and multiple other Indonesian islands.Most recently this species was brought to Madagascar where it has spread rapidly.Its presence poses dire threats to native amphibians and other fauna as a predator, competitor, toxic threat to potential mammalian, avian and reptilian predators, and disease bearer (Kolby 2014).Wogan et al. compare its potential impact in Asia (and beyond) to that of the Cane toad (Rhinella marina) across Australia and Oceania.

Asian toads are a large species; females can grow to 20cm (8in) snout-vent length. Males are considerably smaller in size. Their dorsum can be yellow, red, brown or grey and is covered with black spiny warts and ridges.These wart patterns are unique and used in studies to identify individuals. Their underside is off-white in color, unmarked or spotted. They have a distinct tympanum (ear drum). Males have a subgular vocal sac and black pads on the inner fingers that help in holding the female during copulation (Khan and Koo 2016; van Dijk et al. 2004)

Adult toads are terrestrial and nocturnal.During the day they return to a selected hiding place with several other individuals.These daytime hiding spots may be holes or crevices or cover of rocks, leaf-litter and logs. Adults are active at night and feed upon a wide variety of invertebrates. They are slow and shy. In urban areas they frequently hunt insects attracted to streetlights, especially in times when winged termites swarm (Khan and Koo 2016; van Dijk et al. 2004).

The monsoon season often triggers breeding, although in some areas these toads breed year round.Males congregate around slow moving rivers, ponds, and pools calling with a “curr, curr, curr” to attract females.(Call recordings are available at http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Duttaphrynus&where-species=melanostictus&account=amphibiaweb).Far outnumbered by males, females are quickly pounced upon by aggressive suitors and held in a nuptial clasp.Females lay a double jelly string containing the eggs, which gets entangled in vegetation in the waterbodies.The uniformly black tadpoles school in large groups, eating algae. Studies show that the tadpoles can recognize their kin.They grow to 26-27 mm in length before they metamorphose, then leave the water in swarms of froglets, many of which succumb to predators (Khan and Koo 2016; van Dijk et al. 2004).

Although the Asian toad is common, widespread and listed as “of least concern” by the IUCN, further research into the hidden diversity of D. melanostictus (in the form of distinct lineages and cryptic species included in this species name) may have some conservation implications as this becomes better understood (Wogan et al. 2016; Rowley et al. 2010).Asian toads are sometimes found in the pet trade, and eaten in northern Thailand (Khan and Koo 2016; van Dijk et al. 2004).

Kolby J.E. 2014 Ecology: stop Madagascar's toad invasion now. Nature 509, 563. (doi:10.1038/509563a)

Referências

  • Khan, M.S. and M. Koo, 28 February 2016. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Amphibia Web. The Regents of the University of California. Retrieved May 3 2016 from http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Duttaphrynus&where-species=melanostictus&account=amphibiaweb
  • Kolby J.E. 2014 Ecology: stop Madagascar's toad invasion now. Nature 509, 563. (doi:10.1038/509563a)
  • Rowley J et al. 2010. Impending conservation crisis for Southeast Asian amphibians. Biol. Lett. 6, 336–338. (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0793)
  • van Dijk, P.P., D. Iskandar, M.W. Neng Lau, G. Huiqing, G. Baorong, L. Kuangyang, C. Wenhao, Y. Zhigang, B. Chan, S. Dutta, R. Inger, K. Manamendra-Arachchi, M. Sharif Khan. 2004. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T54707A11188511. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54707A11188511.en. Downloaded on 04 May 2016.
  • Wogan, G.O.U., B.L. Stuart, D.T. Iskandar and J.A. McGuire, 2016. Deep genetic structure and ecological divergence in a widespread human commensal toad. Biology Letters 12 (Art. 20150807): 1–5.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Catalão; Valenciano )

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Merge-arrow.svg S'ha proposat fusionar aquest article a «Duttaphrynus». (Vegeu la discussió, pendent de concretar). Data: 2014

Duttaphrynus melanostictus és una espècie de gripau de la família Bufonidae comuna en el sud d'Àsia.

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Duttaphrynus melanostictus Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata
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Ropucha jihoasijská ( Checo )

fornecido por wikipedia CZ
 src=
Bradavičnaté tělo

Ropucha jihoasijská (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) je suchozemská, převážně noční žába, jeden z nejznámějších jihoasijských obojživelníků vyskytující se v subtropickém a tropickém prostředí od nulové nadmořské výšky do 2000 m n. m. Žije nejčastěji na zalesněném území a vždy v blízkosti vody, do které snáší vajíčka.[2][3]

Rozšíření

Vyskytuje se na velké části jižní a východní Asie. Původně pochází z oblasti rozkládající se z Pákistánu přes Nepál, Indii, Bangladéš, Srí Lanku, jižní Čínu, Myanmar, Thajsko, Kambodžu, Laos, Vietnam, Malajsko a Singapur až po většinu ostrovů Indonésie (Sumatra, Jáva a Borneo). Rozšířila se a v nedávné době zdomácněla na ostrovech Bali, Sulawesi, Ambonu a Molukách, Timoru, Nové Guineji a Andamanských a Nikobarských ostrovech.[2][4]

Ekologie

Vyskytuje se v širokém spektru stanovišť s vlhkou půdou, v hustém, stále zeleném, deštném lese, případně i polosuchém lese v poříční oblasti, na bažinatém území, v obhospodařované zemědělské oblasti i přímo v městských zahradách po obvodě nejhustějšího lidského osídlení. Upřednostňuje narušený nížinný biotop, uprostřed hustých lesů je její výskyt neobvyklý.

Je zvířetem lovícím v noci a které se v průběhu dne ukrývá mezi listy, v dírách pod kořeny stromů, pod kameny, v hromadách listí nebo spadaných větví, případně i pod nepřírodními předměty zhotovenými lidmi. V noci po silných deštích bývá k spatření v městech pod světly pouličního osvětlení, kde loví hmyz přivábený světlem. Hrubá kůže ji dobře chrání před vyschnutím a je proto schopná po delší dobu pobývat i v suchém městském mikrohabitatu.[2][3][5]

Popis

Ropucha jihoasijská je poměrně velká žába s malou hlavou s hřebenem a krátkými končetinami. Samci bývají průměrně velcí 7 cm a samice 7,5 cm. Kůži mají pevnou, suchou a velmi variabilně zbarvenou, její základní barva se pohybuje se od cihlově červené až po téměř zcela černou. Nejobvyklejší barvou je světle žlutohnědá se tmavými nebo červenohnědými skvrnami a pruhy. Záda má porostlá různě velkými bradavicemi s vyčnívajícími trny, která mají okolo tmavé skvrny. Nedospělci bradavice nemají, ale kolem krku mají patrný černý kroužek. Čenich je krátký a špičatý, vystupující tympána jsou oválná a každé má asi dvoutřetinovou velikost oka. Dospělí samci mají pod hrdlem vokální vak, jasně oranžové hrdlo a na vnitřní straně prvého a druhého prstu polštářky ulehčující přichycení při amplexu.

V době mimo páření žije osamoceně, nemá vyznačené teritorium a je velmi tichá. Má dobrý sluch i čich a na blížící se nebezpečí je upozorňována i vibracemi. Jen neochotně a krátce skáče, přes překážky špatně šplhá.[2][3][5][6][7]

Toxicita

Nad očima má koncentrované žlázy a po celém těle roztroušené žlázy vylučující toxické látky, bufotoxiny a bufogeniny. U lidí mohou při prostupu přes poškozenou kůži nebo sliznici vyvolat srdeční arytmií až zástavu srdce, způsobit zvýšení krevního tlaku, poruchu koordinace chůze, pohyb v kruhu a závratě. Na územích, kde se tyto žáby rozšířily v poslední době, bývají spatření mrtví hadi s ropuchou jihoasijskou v tlamě, patrně nebyli připraveni na jedovatého obojživelníka.[3][8]

Potrava

Ropucha jihoasijská je masožravec živící se hlavně všemožným hmyzem, červy, mravenci, šváby, členovci, měkkýši, hady, ještěrkami, mnohonožkami i drobnými obojživelníky a další dostupnou drobnou faunou. Polapá mnoho lidem škodícího hmyzu, jako much, komárů, ploštic, termitů a pod. Analýzou vzorků žaludků mnoha jedinců se zjistilo, že sežerou veškeré místně dostupné živočichy, které jsou schopné ulovit a spolknout. Mimo hlavní potravy, hmyzu, žere i vejce, larvy a mláďata ostatních obojživelníků.[2][3][5]

Rozmnožování

V oblastech s trvale vlhkým prostředím může k rozmnožování docházet průběžně po celý rok, na územích se střídajícími se suchými a mokrými periodami vždy počátkem období dešťů. Ovulace vajíček u samic je závislá na pozici měsíce, dochází k ní těsně před nebo krátce po úplňku, vajíček bývá velké množství a vaječníky tvoří až 30 % tělesné hmotnosti žáby. Tvorba spermatu u samců probíhá nepřetržitě, snižuje se jen v období sucha. Samice se při dostatečné vlhkosti může pářit dvakrát ročně.

Samci se při námluvách shromažďují u malých nádrží a hlasitým kvákáním (popisovaným jako "curr, curr, curr") svolávají samice. V této době jsou samci, kterých je mnohem více než samic, mezi sebou agresivní a snaží se, jeden jak druhý, naskočit na samici a udržet se, úspěšný samec pak drží samici zezadu v amplexu. Následně samice přilepí řetězec černých vajíček, oplodněných vnějším oplodněním samce, obalených v tlusté hlenové kapsli na ponořenou vegetaci v klidné vodě. Jedná samice jich vyprodukuje až 40 000. Tím veškerá péče o potomstvo končí.

Za jeden až dva dny se z vajíček lihnou drobné larvy, ze kterých vyrůstají tmaví pulci krmící se převážně řasami. Dorůstají do velikosti asi 26 mm a ocas mají dlouhý 20 mm. Asi za měsíc projdou metamorfózou, ztratí ocas, přebudují se jim dýchací orgány a stanou se nezávislí na vodním prostředí. Ve volné přírodě se odhaduje délka života žáby na 4 roky, v zajetí to bývá až 10 let.[2][3][5]

Význam

Ropucha jihoasijská je místy, hlavně v Thajsku, Laosu a Číně, místními obyvateli konzumována, přičemž při špatném zpracování masa dochází k onemocnění až otravám. V přírodě má málo přirozených nepřátel, je pouze na jídelníčku větších hadů a ptáků, kteří jsou vůči jedu odolní. Pokud není přemnožená je pro místní farmáře přínosem, pomáhá snižovat stavy škodlivého hmyzu.

Tento adaptabilní druh šířící se postupně na nová a nová místa bývá také považován za škodlivého, invazního živočicha, který vytlačuje místní druhy žab a drobných živočichů. Například ve státě Viktoria v Austrálii je hodnocena jako škodlivý živočich a je likvidována. Podle IUCN není globálně ohrožena, naopak její početní stavy stále vzrůstají.[2][4][7]

Odkazy

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-10]
  2. a b c d e f g GELB, Justin. Animal Diversity Web: Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA, rev. 2013 [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  3. a b c d e f KOO, Michelle. Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. Amphibiaweb, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA, rev. 30.08.2000 [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  4. a b VAN DIJK, P. P.; ISKANDAR, D.; LAU, M.W.N. et al. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, rev. 2004 [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  5. a b c d HUSSIN, Siti Maimon. Species Pages on the Biodiversity of Singapore: Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, rev. 2015 [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  6. HAAS, Alexander; DAS, Indraneil; HERTWIG, Stefan. Frogs of Borneo, Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservationm, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, MY [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  7. a b Duttaphrynus melanostictus [online]. The Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport, and Resources, Melbourne, VIC, AU, rev. 08.05.2017 [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
  8. KRMENČÍK, Pavel. Jedy obojživelníků (amphibia) [online]. www.biotox.cz [cit. 2018-07-23]. Dostupné online. (česky)

Externí odkazy

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original
visite a fonte
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Ropucha jihoasijská: Brief Summary ( Checo )

fornecido por wikipedia CZ
 src= Bradavičnaté tělo

Ropucha jihoasijská (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) je suchozemská, převážně noční žába, jeden z nejznámějších jihoasijských obojživelníků vyskytující se v subtropickém a tropickém prostředí od nulové nadmořské výšky do 2000 m n. m. Žije nejčastěji na zalesněném území a vždy v blízkosti vody, do které snáší vajíčka.

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original
visite a fonte
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Schwarznarbenkröte ( Alemão )

fornecido por wikipedia DE

Die Schwarznarbenkröte (Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Syn.: Bufo melanostictus) ist eine Amphibienart aus der Gattung Duttaphrynus innerhalb der Familie der Kröten (Bufonidae). Sie ist die häufigste Krötenart im südostasiatischen Raum.

Merkmale

 src=
Gut zu erkennen: Die schwarzen Augenleisten und die Ohrdrüsen
 src=
Ein Weibchen
 src=
Porträt eines Exemplars aus Indien; auffällig sind die mit schwarzen Spitzen endenden Warzen

Schwarznarbenkröten haben einen plumpen, gedrungenen Körper und bewegen sich durch kurze Hopser fort. Die Grundfarbe ist oberseits variabel grau bis braun oder rötlich mit dunklen Flecken, unterseits schmutzig-weiß und dabei teilweise hellbraun gesprenkelt. Anhand ihrer individuellen Warzenmuster am Kopf, die in Reihen entlang der Konturen verlaufen, kann man einzelne Exemplare voneinander unterscheiden. Die schwarzen, zum Teil erhabenen Leisten um die Augen und an der Schnauze verleihen den Tieren ein etwas maskenhaftes und kantiges Aussehen. Die Hornhöcker der Warzen am Körper sind schwarz. Besonders zahlreich sind diese an den Flanken ausgeprägt. Dazu kommen acht bis neun auffallend große und hervorgehobene Warzen hinter der Kopfbasis. Die Trommelfelle sind deutlich sichtbar und weisen mindestens zwei Drittel des Augendurchmessers auf. Die Giftdrüsen (Parotiden) an beiden Seiten des Kopfes sind länglich, etwa so wie zwei bis drei Augen hintereinander; bei der Aga-Kröte sind sie eher dreieckig und etwa fünfmal so groß wie das Auge.[1][2]

Die Männchen sind wesentlich kleiner als die Weibchen, auch gibt es innerartlich regionale Unterschiede. Maß ein Weibchen in Thailand 115 Millimeter, brachte es ein Weibchen auf Borneo auf 78 Millimeter und ein Männchen von dort auf 68 Millimeter.[1] In Pakistan sind Weibchen mit 150 Millimetern Kopf-Rumpf-Länge beobachtet worden. Bei brünstigen Männchen färbt sich die Kehle hellorange oder gelb; außerdem entwickeln diese Brunstschwielen an den Innenseiten der ersten beiden Finger.

Verbreitung

Die Schwarznarbenkröte ist die häufigste Krötenart in Süd- und Südostasien. Sie lebt im größten Teil Indiens, auf Sri Lanka und ist nach Norden bis nah an den Jangtse in China verbreitet. Disjunkt leben sie auch in einem kleinen Gebiet an Chinas Gelbem Fluss. Im Himalaya findet man sie bis in Höhen von 3000 Metern. Im Süden zählen Hinterindien und die Großen Sundainseln bis Borneo und Java zu ihrem Verbreitungsgebiet. In den letzten Jahren breitete sie sich in der südostasiatischen Inselwelt weiter nach Osten aus, was auf Aussetzungen oder Verschleppungen durch den Menschen zurückzuführen ist. Beispiele sind die Inseln Bali, Sulawesi, Ambon (Molukken) und der Vogelkopf im Nordwesten Neuguineas.[3]

2008 und 2009 gab es in Osttimor Meldungen, dass die ausländischen Truppen im Land die Aga-Kröte (Bufo marinus) aus Australien eingeschleppt hätten, was sich wegen der Eigenschaft dieser Art als besonders invasiver Neozoon (vergleiche auch: Fauna Australiens) zu einem Politikum entwickelte. Die von der Bevölkerung daher als Interfet-Frosch („Manduku Interfet“) bezeichneten Froschlurche wurden aber bisher immer als Schwarznarbenkröten identifiziert, die erst wenige Jahre zuvor aus Indonesien nach Timor eingewandert waren.[4][5] Inzwischen ist sie dort jedoch relativ häufig.[2] Neuerdings breitet sich die Schwarznarbenkröte auch in Madagaskar aus und bedroht dort die heimische Tierwelt.[6][7]

Lebensweise

Die Schwarznarbenkröte ist eine Kulturfolgerin. Auf Borneo wurde sie nur in großen Siedlungen gefunden, auf Java auf Plätzen und Gärten in den Städten. Ihren Laich legt sie in Straßengräben und auf überschwemmten Feldern ab.[1] Auf Timor fand man sie in Städten, in Kaffeeplantagen und im Unterholz an der Küste.[2]

Die Tiere sind nachtaktiv. Tagsüber verstecken sie sich unter Gegenständen wie Wurzeln und Steinen, wobei sie mitunter gesellig sind und recht ortstreu sein können. Mit der Abenddämmerung kommen sie hervor und gehen auf die Jagd nach Wirbellosen. Oft sieht man sie unter Straßenlaternen, wo sie herunterfallende Insekten aufsammeln.

Fortpflanzung

Im beständig regenreichen Java wurden Schwarznarbenkröten das ganze Jahr über bei der Laichabgabe beobachtet. Möglicherweise orientierten sie sich dabei auch an den Mondphasen. Bei zunehmendem Mond und Vollmond wurde eine größere Zahl laichender Paare beobachtet als zu anderen Zeiten.[1] In gemäßigteren Zonen des westlichen Himalaya eröffnet der Monsun die Laichzeit im Juli und August.

Die an den Ufern von Gewässern sitzenden Männchen äußern wenig melodiöse Paarungsrufe wie „curr, curr, curr“, die mit einem Pfeifton enden. Sie sind den Weibchen zahlenmäßig weit überlegen und verhalten sich untereinander entsprechend aggressiv. Sobald ein Männchen ein Weibchen entdeckt hat, klettert es auf dessen Rücken und umklammert es in der Achselgegend (axillarer Amplexus). Dann versucht das Paar einen ruhigeren Platz innerhalb des Laichgewässers zu finden. Ähnlich wie bei der europäischen Erdkröte wird der Laich in langen, zweireihigen Gallertschnüren abgegeben. Diese werden zwischen Wasserpflanzen und untergetauchten Ästen verankert, indem das Paar während des Ablaichens herumschwimmt. Die später schlüpfenden Kaulquappen sind oberseits schwarz gefärbt.

Quellen

Einzelnachweise

  1. a b c d Günther E. Freytag, Bernhard Grzimek, Oskar Kuhn & Erich Thenius (Hrsg.): Lurche. In: Grzimeks Tierleben, Bd. 5: Fische 2, Lurche. Lizenzausgabe im dtv, München 1993, ISBN 3-423-05970-2
  2. a b c Hinrich Kaiser et al., PhD, Department of Biology, Victor Valley College: The Herpetofauna of Timor-Leste: a First Report, (Journal ZooKeys) doi:10.3897/zookeys.109.1439
  3. Verbreitungskarte zur Schwarznarbenkröte bei www.iucnredlist.org
  4. Wikinews, 12. September 2008, Krötenplage stammt nicht aus Australien?
  5. ABCnews, 17. Dezember 2009, Fears cane toads have hitched to E Timor
  6. Angelika Franz: Fremde Art bedroht Madagaskars Tierwelt: Die Kröten-Invasion, Spiegel Online, 29. Mai 2014
  7. Benjamin Michael Marshall, Nicholas R. Casewell, Miguel Vences, Frank Glaw, Franco Andreone, Andolalao Rakotoarison, Giulia Zancolli, Friederike Woog, Wolfgang Wüster. Widespread vulnerability of Malagasy predators to the toxins of an introduced toad. Current Biology, 2018; 28 (11): R654 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.024

Weblinks

 src=
– Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien
  • Nick Baker: Asian Toad. Ecology Asia, abgerufen am 8. Dezember 2013.
  • Duttaphrynus melanostictus in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2013.1. Eingestellt von: Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Gu Huiqing, Geng Baorong, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Yuan Zhigang, Bosco Chan, Sushil Dutta, Robert Inger, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Muhammad Sharif Khan, 2004. Abgerufen am 6. Oktober 2013.
 title=
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Schwarznarbenkröte: Brief Summary ( Alemão )

fornecido por wikipedia DE

Die Schwarznarbenkröte (Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Syn.: Bufo melanostictus) ist eine Amphibienart aus der Gattung Duttaphrynus innerhalb der Familie der Kröten (Bufonidae). Sie ist die häufigste Krötenart im südostasiatischen Raum.

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Autoren und Herausgeber von Wikipedia
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia DE

O͘-kheng chiûⁿ-chî ( Nan )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

O͘-kheng chiûⁿ-chî (Hoâ-gí: 黑眶蟾蜍), ha̍k-miâ Duttaphrynus melanostictus, sī seng-oa̍h tī Lâm-a kap Tang-lâm-a ê chi̍t khoán chiûⁿ-chî.

Chham-khó

  1. van Dijk et al. (2004). Bufo melanostictus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Chham-khòaⁿ sî-kan sī 12 May 2006.
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Wikipedia authors and editors
original
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O͘-kheng chiûⁿ-chî: Brief Summary ( Nan )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

O͘-kheng chiûⁿ-chî (Hoâ-gí: 黑眶蟾蜍), ha̍k-miâ Duttaphrynus melanostictus, sī seng-oa̍h tī Lâm-a kap Tang-lâm-a ê chi̍t khoán chiûⁿ-chî.

licença
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Wikipedia authors and editors
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ஆசியத் தேரை ( Tâmil )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

ஆசியத் தேரை (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) அல்லது (Common Asian Toad) இது தென் மற்றும் தென்கிழக்காசியா போன்ற பகுதிகளில் காணப்படும் தேரை இனத்தில் ஒன்றாகும். இவற்றுள் உண்மை தேரையையும் (True toad) இதையும் பிரித்துப்பார்ப்பது கடினமாகும். இவ்வினங்கள் சுமார் 20 செ.மீ (8 அங்குலம்) வரை வளரும் உடலமைப்பைக் கொண்டுள்ளது. பொதுவாக மழைக்காலங்களில் இனப்பெருக்கம் செய்கின்றன. அவற்றின் தலைப்பிரட்டைகள் கருப்பு நிறத்தில் காணப்படுகின்றன. பருவமழைக் காலம் முடிந்தவுடன் இளம் தேரைகள் அதிகமாகக் காணப்படுகின்றன. [1][2]

மேற்கோள்கள்

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ஆசியத் தேரை: Brief Summary ( Tâmil )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

ஆசியத் தேரை (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) அல்லது (Common Asian Toad) இது தென் மற்றும் தென்கிழக்காசியா போன்ற பகுதிகளில் காணப்படும் தேரை இனத்தில் ஒன்றாகும். இவற்றுள் உண்மை தேரையையும் (True toad) இதையும் பிரித்துப்பார்ப்பது கடினமாகும். இவ்வினங்கள் சுமார் 20 செ.மீ (8 அங்குலம்) வரை வளரும் உடலமைப்பைக் கொண்டுள்ளது. பொதுவாக மழைக்காலங்களில் இனப்பெருக்கம் செய்கின்றன. அவற்றின் தலைப்பிரட்டைகள் கருப்பு நிறத்தில் காணப்படுகின்றன. பருவமழைக் காலம் முடிந்தவுடன் இளம் தேரைகள் அதிகமாகக் காணப்படுகின்றன.

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ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ( Canarês )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ (Asian Common Toad) ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಮತ್ತು ಆಗ್ನೇಯ ಏಷಿಯಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಕಂಡುಬರುವಂತಹ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆಯ ಒಂದು ಪ್ರಭೇದ. ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ನಾಮಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಇದನ್ನು ದತ್ತಾಫ್ರಿನಸ್ ಮೆಲನೊಸ್ಟಿಕ್ಟಸ್ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುತ್ತಾರೆ. ಇದಕ್ಕೆ ಏಷಿಯನ್ ಕಪ್ಪು ಮುಳ್ಳಿನ ಕಪ್ಪೆ, ಏಷಿಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ, ಕಪ್ಪು ಕನ್ನಡಕದ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ, ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಸುಂಡಾ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಮತ್ತು ಜಾವಾದ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಎಂಬ ವಿವಿಧ ಹೆಸರುಗಳಿವೆ. ಇದು ಒಂದಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ನೈಜ್ಯ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಪ್ರಭೇದಗಳ ಸಂಕೀರ್ಣವಾಗಿರಬಹುದೆಂದು ನಂಬಲಾಗಿದೆ[೨].

ಈ ಪ್ರಭೇದವು ೨೦ ಸೆ.ಮೀ. (೮ ಇಂಚು) ಉದ್ದದವರೆಗೆ ಬೆಳೆಯಬಲ್ಲುದು. ಇವು ಮಳೆಗಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ನಿಂತ ನೀರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ವಂಶಾಭಿವೃದ್ದಿ ಮಾಡುತ್ತವೆ, ಇವುಗಳ ಗೊದಮೊಟ್ಟೆಗಳು ಕಪ್ಪು ಬಣ್ಣದ್ದಾಗಿರುತ್ತವೆ, ಇವುಗಳ ಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಹಲವು ನೂರರಷ್ಟಿರುತ್ತವೆ[೩]

 src=
ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ (Duttaphrynus melanostictus)

ಆವಾಸಸ್ಥಾನ ಮತ್ತು ನಡವಳಿಕೆ

ಗುಣಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳು

ಕಪ್ಪೆಯ ಮೇಲ್ಭಾಗವು ಗುಳ್ಳೆಗಳಿಂದ ಕೂಡಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಮೂತಿಯ ತುದಿಗೆ, ಕಣ್ಣುಗಳ ಮುಂದೆ, ಕಣ್ಣುಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ, ಕಣ್ಣುಗಳ ಹಿಂದೆ, ಕಣ್ಣು-ಕಿವಿಗಳ ಮಧ್ಯೆ ಹಲವಾರು ಉಬ್ಬುಗಳಿವೆ. ಕರ್ಣಪಟಲಗಳು ಹಾಗು ವಿಷಗ್ರಂಥಿಗಳು ನಿಖರವಾಗಿ ಕಾಣುತ್ತವೆ, ಹಾಗು ಕಣ್ಣುಗಳ ಮೂರನೆ ಎರಡರಷ್ಟು ಆಕಾರ ಕರ್ಣಪಟಲ ಹೊಂದಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಇದರ ಬೆರಳುಗಳ ಮಧ್ಯೆ ಜಾಲ ಅರ್ಧ ಮಾತ್ರವಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಕೆಳಭಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಯಾವುದೇ ಕಲೆಗಳಿರುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಗಂಡುಗಳಿಗೆ ಧ್ವನಿ ಚೀಲಗಳಿರುತ್ತವೆ. ಗಂಡುಗಳು ಹೆಣ್ಣುಗಳಿಗಿಂತ ಸಣ್ಣದಾಗಿರುತ್ತವೆ. [೪].

ನಡವಳಿಕೆ

 src=
ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಸಂಭೋಗದಲ್ಲಿ

ವಯಸ್ಕ ಕಪ್ಪೆಗಳು ನೆಲವಾಸಿಯಾಗಿರುತ್ತವೆ. ಹೊಲಗದ್ದೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಮನುಷ್ಯರ ಆವಾಸಸ್ಥಾನಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಮಳೆಗಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ನೀರಿನ ದಂಡೆಯಲ್ಲಿ, ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ದೀಪದ ಕಂಬಗಳ ಕೆಳಗೆ, ಇನ್ನಿತರೆ ಸಮಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಬಂಡೆಗಳ ಕೆಳಗೆ ಕಾಣಬಹುದು. ಹುಳು-ಹುಪ್ಪಟೆಗಳು ಇದರ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಆಹಾರ. ಸಂಭೋಗ ಮಾಡುವಾಗ ಗಂಡು ಹೆಣ್ಣಿನ ಬೆನ್ನೇರಿ ಕೂರುತ್ತದೆ. ಇವು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ನಿಂತ ಮತ್ತು ನಿಧಾನವಾಗಿ ಹರಿಯುವ ಆಳದ ನೀರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊಟ್ಟೆಯಿಡುತ್ತವೆ. ಮೊಟ್ಟೆಗಳು ಪೋಣಿಸಿದ ಸಣ್ಣ ಮುತ್ತುಗಳ ಹಾರದಂತೆ ಹುಲ್ಲು ಜೊಂಡುಗಳಿಗೆ ಸಿಲುಕಿರುತ್ತವೆ. ಗೊದಮೊಟ್ಟೆಗಳು ನೀರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಕಂಡುಬರುತ್ತವೆ ಹಾಗು ಪಾಚಿಯನ್ನು ತಿನ್ನುತ್ತವೆ[೫].

ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಗಳು

  1. van Dijk; P. P.; et al. (2004). "Duttaphrynus melanostictus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2012.2. IUCN.
  2. ವಾನ್-ಡಿಯ್ಕ್, ಪಿ ಪಿ; ಇಸ್ಕಂದರ್, ಡಿ; ಲೌ, ಎಮ್ ಡಬ್ಲೂ ಎನ್. "Duttaphrynus melanostictus". IUCN Red List. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  3. "AmphibiaWeb 2016 Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Southeast Asian Toad". AmphibiaWeb. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  4. ಬೌಲೆಂಜರ್, ಜಿ. ಎ. (1890). Reptilia and Batrachia. Fauna of British India. ಲಂಡನ್: Taylor and Francis. pp. 505–507. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5490.
  5. "AmphibiaWeb 2016 Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Southeast Asian Toad". AmphibiaWeb. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
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ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ: Brief Summary ( Canarês )

fornecido por wikipedia emerging languages

ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ (Asian Common Toad) ದಕ್ಷಿಣ ಮತ್ತು ಆಗ್ನೇಯ ಏಷಿಯಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಕಂಡುಬರುವಂತಹ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆಯ ಒಂದು ಪ್ರಭೇದ. ವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ನಾಮಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಇದನ್ನು ದತ್ತಾಫ್ರಿನಸ್ ಮೆಲನೊಸ್ಟಿಕ್ಟಸ್ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯುತ್ತಾರೆ. ಇದಕ್ಕೆ ಏಷಿಯನ್ ಕಪ್ಪು ಮುಳ್ಳಿನ ಕಪ್ಪೆ, ಏಷಿಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ, ಕಪ್ಪು ಕನ್ನಡಕದ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ, ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಸುಂಡಾ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಮತ್ತು ಜಾವಾದ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಎಂಬ ವಿವಿಧ ಹೆಸರುಗಳಿವೆ. ಇದು ಒಂದಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ನೈಜ್ಯ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ ಪ್ರಭೇದಗಳ ಸಂಕೀರ್ಣವಾಗಿರಬಹುದೆಂದು ನಂಬಲಾಗಿದೆ.

ಈ ಪ್ರಭೇದವು ೨೦ ಸೆ.ಮೀ. (೮ ಇಂಚು) ಉದ್ದದವರೆಗೆ ಬೆಳೆಯಬಲ್ಲುದು. ಇವು ಮಳೆಗಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ನಿಂತ ನೀರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ವಂಶಾಭಿವೃದ್ದಿ ಮಾಡುತ್ತವೆ, ಇವುಗಳ ಗೊದಮೊಟ್ಟೆಗಳು ಕಪ್ಪು ಬಣ್ಣದ್ದಾಗಿರುತ್ತವೆ, ಇವುಗಳ ಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಹಲವು ನೂರರಷ್ಟಿರುತ್ತವೆ

 src= ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಏಷ್ಯನ್ ನೆಲಗಪ್ಪೆ (Duttaphrynus melanostictus)
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN

From Matheran, India

Duttaphrynus melanostictus is commonly called Asian common toad, Asian black-spined toad, Asian toad, black-spectacled toad, common Sunda toad, and Javanese toad. It is probably a complex of more than one true toad species that is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia.[1]

The species grows to about 20 cm (8 in) long. Asian common toads breed during the monsoon, and their tadpoles are black. Young toads may be seen in large numbers after monsoon rains finish.

Characteristics

The wart patterns of the toads are unique and have been used for individual identification in studies.

The top of the head has several bony ridges, along the edge of the snout (canthal ridge), in front of the eye (preorbital), above the eye (supraorbital), behind the eye (postorbital), and a short one between the eye and ear (orbitotympanic). The snout is short and blunt, and the space between the eyes is broader than the upper eyelid width. The ear drum or tympanum is very distinct and is at least as wide as two-thirds the diameter of the eye. The first finger is often longer than the second and the toes are at least half webbed. A warty tubercle is found just before the junction of the thigh and shank (subarticular tubercle) and two moderate ones are on the shank (metatarsus). No skin fold occurs along the tarsus. The “knee” (tarsometatarsal articulation) reaches the tympanum or the eye when the hind leg is held parallel along the side of the body. The dorsal side is covered with spiny warts. The parotoids are prominent, kidney-shaped, or elliptical and elongated, and secrete milky white Bufotoxin. The dorsal side is yellowish or brownish and the spines and ridges are black. The underside is unmarked or spotted. Males have a subgular vocal sac and black pads on the inner fingers that help in holding the female during copulation.[2]

Ecology and behaviour

Breeding pairs of Duttaphrynus melanostictus.

Asian common toads breed in still and slow-flowing rivers and temporary and permanent ponds and pools. Adults are terrestrial and may be found under ground cover such as rocks, leaf litter, and logs, and are also associated with human habitations. The larvae are found in still and slow-moving waterbodies.[1] They are often seen at night under street lamps, especially when winged termites swarm. They have been noted to feed on a wide range of invertebrates, including scorpions.[3] Tadpoles grown in sibling groups metamorphosed faster than those that were kept in mixed groups.[4] Tadpoles have been shown to be able to recognize kin.[5] The 96h LC50 of commercial grade malathion for the tadpoles is 7.5 mg/L and sublethal levels of exposure can impair swimming.[6]

Duttaphrynus melanostictus.jpg

Distribution and habitat

Duttaphrynus Melanostictus 2.jpg

Asian common toads occur widely from northern Pakistan through Nepal, Bangladesh, India including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, southern China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau to Malaysia, Singapore, and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Anambas and Natuna Islands. They have been recorded from sea level up to 1,800 m (5,900 ft) altitude, and live mostly in disturbed lowland habitats, from upper beaches and riverbanks to human-dominated agricultural and urban areas. They are uncommon in closed forests.[1]

Introductions

Madagascar

D. melanostictus arrived in Madagascar in 2011 at the port of Toamasina, and by 2014, was found in a 100 km2 (39 sq mi) zone around that city.[7]

Since its discovery on the east coast, a grave fear has developed that if the Asian toad is not eradicated from Madagascar and stronger quarantines are not developed to prevent reinvasion, it could have comparable impacts to those of cane toads in Australia.[8] Because – like Australia's – Madagascar's native predators have been isolated from bufonids since the Jurassic, they are thought to lack resistance to toad toxins as found in natural varanid[9] and snake predators of D. melanostictus[10][11] in its native range.

One study analyzed the sequences of the Na+/K+-ATPase gene (sodium-potassium pump) in dozens of Malagasy species that may be feeding on D. melanostictus. It was found that all but one out of 77 species failed to show evidence of resistance to the toad toxin, which strongly suggests that these alien toads can significantly impact the native Malagasy animal life and contribute to the worsening biodiversity crisis in the region.[12][13]

Nevertheless, evidence from one Australian species, the bluetongue lizard, Tiliqua scincoides, produces the possibility that some Malagasy animals do possess resistance to bufotenin because almost identical cardiac glycosides are produced by native plants of the genus Bryophyllum.[14]

Wallacea and West Papua

D. melanostictus was introduced to the Indonesian island of Bali in 1958,[15] Sulawesi in 1974, then subsequently to Ambon, Lombok, Sumba, Sumbawa, Timor and Indonesian New Guinea at Manokwari on the Vogelkop Peninsula. The species is now common at Sentani in far eastern Papua Province.[16][17] The absence of resistance to toad toxins in native snake and varanid predators means that these species could suffer severe declines from the inadvertent spread of the Asian common toad via human traffic,[15] and the currently near threatened New Guinea quoll is also almost certain to be further affected in the lower-altitude portion of its range.[18]

An unwanted species in Australia

The Asian common toad has been detected in Australia at least four times since 2000.[19][20] The most recent incursion, in 2015, was in suburban Sydney.[20]

The Asian common toad has been described as one of Australia's “10 most unwanted” species, and “potentially more damaging than the cane toad”.[21] It may cause serious ecological problems due to “competition with native species, its potential to spread exotic parasites and pathogens and its toxicity”.[22] Like cane toads, the Asian common toad secretes toxins from glands in their backs to deter predators. These toxins would beyond reasonable doubt severely affect native predators, such as snakes, goannas[23] and quolls.[18]

The recent rate of incursions suggests a high likelihood of establishment in Australia. So, experts are calling for the Australian government to develop a “high-priority contingency plan” that includes stronger environmental quarantine and surveillance strategies.[24][22]

References

  1. ^ a b c d van Dijk, P. P.; et al. (2004). "Duttaphrynus melanostictus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004.
  2. ^ Boulenger, G. A. (1890). Reptilia and Batrachia. Fauna of British India. London: Taylor and Francis. pp. 505–507. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5490.
  3. ^ Berry, P. Y.; Bullock, J. A. (1962). "The Food of the Common Malayan Toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider". Copeia. 1962 (4): 736–741. doi:10.2307/1440674. JSTOR 1440674.
  4. ^ Saidapur, S. K.; Girish, S. (2001). "Growth and Metamorphosis of Bufo melanostictus Tadpoles: Effects of Kinship and Density". Journal of Herpetology. 35 (2): 249–254. doi:10.2307/1566115. JSTOR 1566115.
  5. ^ Saidapur, S. K.; Girish, S. (2000). "The Ontogeny of Kin Recognition in Tadpoles of the Toad Bufo melanostictus (Anura; Bufonidae)". Journal of Biosciences. 25 (3): 267–273. doi:10.1007/BF02703935. PMID 11022229. S2CID 4014610.
  6. ^ David, M.; Kartheek, R. M. (2015-10-01). "Malathion acute toxicity in tadpoles of Duttaphrynus melanostictus, morphological and behavioural study". The Journal of Basic & Applied Zoology. Physiology. 72: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jobaz.2015.01.004. ISSN 2090-9896.
  7. ^ R., Arnaud (2014-04-17). "Invasion de crapauds venimeux à Toamasina: une menace pour l'écosystème malgache". Midi Madagasikara.
  8. ^ Pearson, Richard G.; ‘Asian common toads in Madagascar: an urgent effort to inform surveys and eradication efforts’; Global Change Biology, 21 (2015), p. 9
  9. ^ Ujvaria, Beata; Mun, Hee-chang; Conigrave, Arthur D.; Bray, Alessandra; Osterkamp, Jens; Halling, Petter and Madsen, Thomas ‘Isolation breeds naïvety: island living robs Australian varanid lizards of toad-toxin immunity via four-base-pair mutations’; Evolution, vol. 67 (2013) pp. 289–294
  10. ^ Ujvaria, Beata; Casewell, Nicholas R.; Sunagar, Kartik; Arbuckle. Kevin; Wüster, Wolfgang; Log, Nathan; O’Meally, Denis; Beckmann, Christa; King, Glenn F.; Deplazes, Evelyne and Madsena, Thomas; ‘Widespread convergence in toxin resistance by predictable molecular evolution’; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, volume 112, pp. 11911-11916
  11. ^ Garcia de Jesus, Erin (October 2, 2020). "This snake rips a hole in living toads' stomachs to feast on their organs". Science News. Retrieved 2020-10-13.
  12. ^ Marshall, Benjamin Michael; Casewell, Nicholas R.; Vences, Miguel; Glaw, Frank; Andreone, Franco; Rakotoarison, Andolalao; Zancolli, Giulia; Woog, Friederike; Wüster, Wolfgang (June 2018). "Widespread vulnerability of Malagasy predators to the toxins of an introduced toad". Current Biology. 28 (11): R654–R655. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.024. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 29870701.
  13. ^ "Toxic toad invasion puts Madagascar's predators at risk, genetic evidence confirms". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2018-06-22.
  14. ^ See Price-Rees, Samantha J.; Brown, Gregory P. and Shine, Richard; ‘Interacting Impacts of Invasive Plants and Invasive Toads on Native Lizards’, in The American Naturalist vol. 179, No. 3 (March 2012), pp. 413-422
  15. ^ a b Reilly, Sean B.; Wogan, Guinevere O. U.; Stubbs, Alexander L.; Arida, Evy; Iskandar, Djoko T. and McGuire Jimmy A.; ‘ Toxic toad invasion of Wallacea: A biodiversity hotspot characterized by extraordinary endemism’; Global Change Biology; August 2017, pp. 1-3
  16. ^ Frazier, S. (Dec 15, 2011). "Asian Common Toad". Project Noah. 8077245.
  17. ^ Frazier, S. (Jun 13, 2011). "Southeast Asian Toad, Asian Common Toad, Spectacled Toad". Project Noah. 6894260.
  18. ^ a b Covacevich, Jeanette, and Archer, Mike; ‘The distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates’; Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, volume 17 (1975), pp. 305–310.
  19. ^ Henderson W, Bomford M. 2011. Detecting and preventing new incursions of exotic animals in Australia. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra.
  20. ^ a b Sydney Morning Herald, March 28, 2015, ‘Northern Sydney faces Asian black-spined toad plague’.
  21. ^ Page A, Kirkpatrick W, Massam M. 2008. Black–spined Toad (Bufo melanostictus) Risk Assessments for Australia; Department of Agriculture and Food: Western Australia. https://pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/06/Bufo_melanostictus_220410.pdf; retrieved 2022-06-03
  22. ^ a b Invasive Species Council, 2014, Biosecurity Failures in Australia, The Asian Black-Spined Toad, https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Biosecurity-failures-asian-black-spined-toads.pdf; retrieved 2017-05-28
  23. ^ Department of Environment and Primary Industries. 2014. Asian black-spined toad. Victorian Government. http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/pests-diseases-and-weeds/pest-animals/a-z-of-pest-animals/asian-black-spine-toad; retrieved 2017-05-28
  24. ^ Massam M, Kirkpatrick W and Page A (2010). Assessment and Prioritisation of Risk for Forty Introduced Animal Species. Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Inglês )

fornecido por wikipedia EN
From Matheran, India

Duttaphrynus melanostictus is commonly called Asian common toad, Asian black-spined toad, Asian toad, black-spectacled toad, common Sunda toad, and Javanese toad. It is probably a complex of more than one true toad species that is widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia.

The species grows to about 20 cm (8 in) long. Asian common toads breed during the monsoon, and their tadpoles are black. Young toads may be seen in large numbers after monsoon rains finish.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Duttaphrynus melanostictus es una especie de anfibios de la familia Bufonidae común en el sur de Asia, desde el subcontinente indio hasta el sur de China, incluyendo el Sudeste Asiático.[2][3]

Carácter invasor en España

Debido a su potencial colonizador y constituir una amenaza grave para las especies autóctonas, los hábitats o los ecosistemas, esta especie ha sido catalogada en el Catálogo Español de Especies Exóticas Invasoras, aprobado por Real Decreto 630/2013,[4]​ de 2 de agosto, estando prohibida en España su introducción en el medio natural, posesión, transporte, tráfico y comercio.

Referencias

  1. van Dijk et al (2004). «Bufo melanostictus». Lista Roja de especies amenazadas de la UICN 2006 (en inglés). ISSN 2307-8235. Consultado el 12 de mayo de 2006.
  2. Boulenger, G. A. 1890. Fauna of British India. Reptilia y Batrachia.
  3. Frost, Darrel R. 2013. Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.6 (9 January 2013). Electronic Database accessible at http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/?action=references&id=3256. American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA.
  4. Real Decreto 630/2013 Catálogo Especies Invasoras pg.56785
  • Berry, P. Y. & J. A. Bullock (1962) The food of the common Malayan Toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider. Copeia, 4:736-741.
  • Saidapur, S. K. & S. Girish (2001) Growth y metamorphosis of Bufo melanostictus tadpoles; Effects of Kinship y Density. J. Herpetology 5(2):249-254
  • Saidapur, S. K. & Girish (2000) The ontogeny of kin recognition in tadpoles of the toad Bufo melanostictus (Anura; Bufonidae) J. Biosci. 25:267-273

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Espanhol; Castelhano )

fornecido por wikipedia ES

Duttaphrynus melanostictus es una especie de anfibios de la familia Bufonidae común en el sur de Asia, desde el subcontinente indio hasta el sur de China, incluyendo el Sudeste Asiático.​​

Bufo melanostictus above.jpg Bufo melanostictus front.jpg Bufo melanostictus.jpg
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Basco )

fornecido por wikipedia EU

Duttaphrynus melanostictus Duttaphrynus generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Bufonidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

Erreferentziak

Ikus, gainera

Kanpo estekak

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Basco )

fornecido por wikipedia EU

Duttaphrynus melanostictus Duttaphrynus generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Bufonidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Duttaphrynus melanostictus, le Crapaud masqué, est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Bufonidae[1].

Description

Le sommet de la tête a plusieurs crêtes osseuses, le long du bord du museau (crête rostrale), en face de l'œil (pré-orbitales), au-dessus de l'œil (supra-orbitaire), derrière l'œil (post-orbitaire), et une courte entre l'œil et l'oreille (orbito-tympanique); Le museau est court et émoussé et l'espace entre les yeux est plus large que la largeur de la paupière supérieure. Le tambour de l'oreille ou tympan est très distinct et est au moins aussi large que le diamètre des deux tiers de l'œil. Le premier doigt est souvent plus long que le second et les orteils au moins à moitié palmés. Un tubercule verruqueux se trouve juste avant la jonction de la cuisse et le métatarse. Il n'y a pas pli de la peau le long du tarse. Le "genou" (articulation tibio-métatarsienne) atteint le tympan ou l'œil lorsque la patte arrière est maintenu parallèle le long du côté du corps. La face dorsale est recouverte de verrues épineuses. La glande parotoïde est au premier plan, en forme de rein ou elliptique et allongée. La face dorsale est jaunâtre ou brunâtre et les épines et les crêtes sont noires. Le ventre est de couleur unie. Les mâles ont un sac vocal et des plaquettes noires sur la face interne des doigts qui aident à maintenir la femelle pendant l'accouplement.

Répartition

Cette espèce se rencontre jusqu'à 2 000 m d'altitude[1] :

Sa présence est incertaine au Bhoutan.

Elle a été introduite en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, au Timor oriental et en Indonésie à Bali, à Sulawesi, aux Moluques, en Nouvelle-Guinée occidentale, ainsi qu’en Australie où un risque d’infestation est envisagé en mars 2015[2].

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus
 src=
Duttaphrynus melanostictus
 src=
Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Kuala Tahan, Malaisie)

Liste des synonymes

Cette espèce connait de nombreux synonymes :

  • Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799 (protonyme)
  • Bufo chlorogaster Daudin, 1802
  • Rana dubia Shaw, 1802
  • Bufo scaber Daudin, 1802
  • Bufo bengalensis Daudin, 1802
  • Bufo flaviventris Daudin, 1802
  • Bufo carinatus Gray, 1830
  • Bufo isos Lesson, 1834
  • Bufo gymnauchen Bleeker, 1858
  • Docidophryne spinipes Fitzinger, 1861 "1860"
  • Bufo longecristatus Werner, 1903
  • Bufo tienhoensis Bourret, 1937
  • Bufo camortensis Mansukhani & Sarkar, 1980
  • Ansonia kamblei Ravichandran & Pillai, 1990
  • Bufo melanostictus hazarensis Khan, 2001

Étymologie

Son nom d'espèce dérive du grec ancien μέλας, mélas, « noir », et στικτός, stiktos, « couvert de petites creux ».

Publication originale

  • Schneider, 1799 : Historiae amphibiorum naturalis et literariae fasciculus primus, vol. 1 (texte intégral).

Notes et références

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Francês )

fornecido por wikipedia FR

Duttaphrynus melanostictus, le Crapaud masqué, est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Bufonidae.

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Bangkong kolong ( Indonésio )

fornecido por wikipedia ID

Bangkong kolong atau kodok rumah memiliki nama ilmiah Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799. Kodok ini juga dikenal dengan beberapa nama lain seperti kodok buduk (Jkt.), kodok berut/kerok (Jw.), kodok brama (Jw., yang berwarna kemerahan), dan Asian black-spined toad (Ingg.).

Kodok ini menyebar luas mulai dari India, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok selatan, Indochina sampai ke Indonesia bagian barat. Di Indonesia, dengan menumpang pergerakan manusia, hewan amfibi ini dengan cepat menyebar (menginvasi) dari pulau ke pulau. Kini bangkong kolong juga telah ditemui di Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi dan Papua barat.

Bentuk tubuh

Kodok berukuran sedang, yang dewasa berperut gendut, berbintil-bintil kasar. Bangkong jantan panjangnya (dari moncong ke anus) 55-80 mm, betina 65-85 mm. Di atas kepala terdapat gigir keras menonjol yang bersambungan, mulai dari atas moncong; melewati atas, depan dan belakang mata; hingga di atas timpanum (gendang telinga). Gigir ini biasanya berwarna kehitaman. Sepasang kelenjar parotoid (kelenjar racun) yang besar panjang terdapat di atas tengkuk.

Bagian punggung bervariasi warnanya antara coklat abu-abu gelap, kekuningan, kemerahan, sampai kehitaman. Ada pula yang dengan warna dasar kuning kecoklatan atau hitam keabu-abuan. Terdapat bintil-bintil kasar di punggung dengan ujung kehitaman.

Sisi bawah tubuh putih keabu-abuan, berbintil-bintil agak kasar. Telapak tangan dan kaki dengan warna hitam atau kehitaman; tanpa selaput renang, atau kaki dengan selaput renang yang sangat pendek. Hewan jantan umumnya dengan dagu kusam kemerahan.

Kebiasaan

Bangkong kolong paling sering ditemukan di sekitar rumah. Melompat pendek-pendek, kodok ini keluar dari persembunyiannya di bawah tumpukan batu, kayu, atau di sudut-sudut dapur pada waktu magrib; dan kembali ke tempat semula di waktu subuh. Terkadang, tempat persembunyiannya itu dihuni bersama oleh sekelompok kodok besar dan kecil; sampai 6-7 ekor.

 src=
Bangkong kolong kawin di kolam, Sampora, Palabuan Ratu

Bangkong ini kawin di kolam-kolam, selokan berair menggenang, atau belumbang, sering pada malam bulan purnama. Kodok jantan mengeluarkan suara yang ramai sebelum dan sehabis hujan untuk memanggil betinanya, kerapkali sampai pagi. Bunyinya: rrrk, ..rrrk, atau ...oorek-orek-orek-orekk ! riuh rendah.

Pada saat-saat seperti itu, dapat ditemukan beberapa pasang sampai puluhan pasang bangkong yang kawin bersamaan di satu kolam. Sering pula terjadi persaingan fisik yang berat di antara bangkong jantan untuk memperebutkan betina, terutama jika betinanya jauh lebih sedikit. Oleh sebab itu, si jantan akan memeluk erat-erat punggung betinanya selama prosesi perkawinannya. Kadang-kadang dijumpai pula beberapa bangkong yang mati karena luka-luka akibat kompetisi itu; luka di moncong hewan jantan, atau luka di ketiak hewan betina.

Tampaknya kodok ini memiliki asosiasi yang erat dengan lingkungan hidup manusia. Dari waktu ke waktu, bangkong kolong terus memperluas daerah sebarannya mengikuti aktivitas manusia. Iskandar (1998) mencatat bahwa kodok ini tak pernah terdapat di dalam hutan hujan tropis.

Rujukan

Djoko T. Iskandar, 1998, Amfibi Jawa dan Bali

Pranala luar

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Bangkong kolong: Brief Summary ( Indonésio )

fornecido por wikipedia ID

Bangkong kolong atau kodok rumah memiliki nama ilmiah Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799. Kodok ini juga dikenal dengan beberapa nama lain seperti kodok buduk (Jkt.), kodok berut/kerok (Jw.), kodok brama (Jw., yang berwarna kemerahan), dan Asian black-spined toad (Ingg.).

Kodok ini menyebar luas mulai dari India, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok selatan, Indochina sampai ke Indonesia bagian barat. Di Indonesia, dengan menumpang pergerakan manusia, hewan amfibi ini dengan cepat menyebar (menginvasi) dari pulau ke pulau. Kini bangkong kolong juga telah ditemui di Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi dan Papua barat.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) è un anfibio anuro della famiglia Bufonidae.[2]

Distribuzione e habitat

L'areale della specie si estende attraverso l'Asia meridionale, dal Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim e Bangladesh, attraverso India, Sri Lanka, isole Andamane, Maldive, sino alla Cina meridionale (compresa Taiwan) e a sud in Malaysia, Sumatra, Giava, Borneo e Bali; è stata inoltre introdotta in Sulawesi, Timor Est, Madagascar e Papua Nuova Guinea.[2]

La si trova dal livello del mare sino a 1.800 m di altitudine.[1]

Note

  1. ^ a b (EN) van Dijk, P.P. et al. 2004, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020. URL consultato il 29 agosto 2017.
  2. ^ a b (EN) Frost D.R. et al., Duttaphrynus melanostictus, in Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0, New York, American Museum of Natural History, 2014. URL consultato il 29 agosto 2017.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Italiano )

fornecido por wikipedia IT

Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) è un anfibio anuro della famiglia Bufonidae.

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Duttaphrynus melanostictus ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Duttaphrynus melanostictus é uma espécie de sapo da família Bufonidae e que possui uma ampla dispersão pelo sul e sudeste asiático e noroeste da Oceania.[2] Ele pode ser encontrado desde o norte do Paquistão, passando pelo Nepal, Bangladesh, India (incluindo as Ilhas Andamão e Nicobar), Sri Lanka, sul da China (incluindo Taiwan, Hong Kong e Macau), Myanmar, Laos, Vietnã, Tailândia, Camboja, Malásia, Singapura, Indonésia (Sumatra, Java, Bornéu, Ilhas Anambas, Ilhas Natuna) e introduzidas em Bali, Sulawesi, Amboina, Nova Guiné. Foi registrada desde o nível do mar até a 1,800m de altitude, tanto em florestas e pantanos como em áreas urbanizadas[3]

Referências

  1. van Dijk, P. P.; et al. (2004). «Duttaphrynus melanostictus». Lista Vermelha de Espécies Ameaçadas. 2004
  2. Mapa com a área de dispersão do Duttaphrynus melanostictus.
  3. Peter Paul van Dijk, Djoko Iskandar, Michael Wai Neng Lau, Gu Huiqing, Geng Baorong, Lue Kuangyang, Chou Wenhao, Yuan Zhigang, Bosco Chan, Sushil Dutta, Robert Inger, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Muhammad Sharif Khan 2004. Duttaphrynus melanostictus. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. Downloaded on 08 September 2012.
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Duttaphrynus melanostictus: Brief Summary ( Português )

fornecido por wikipedia PT

Duttaphrynus melanostictus é uma espécie de sapo da família Bufonidae e que possui uma ampla dispersão pelo sul e sudeste asiático e noroeste da Oceania. Ele pode ser encontrado desde o norte do Paquistão, passando pelo Nepal, Bangladesh, India (incluindo as Ilhas Andamão e Nicobar), Sri Lanka, sul da China (incluindo Taiwan, Hong Kong e Macau), Myanmar, Laos, Vietnã, Tailândia, Camboja, Malásia, Singapura, Indonésia (Sumatra, Java, Bornéu, Ilhas Anambas, Ilhas Natuna) e introduzidas em Bali, Sulawesi, Amboina, Nova Guiné. Foi registrada desde o nível do mar até a 1,800m de altitude, tanto em florestas e pantanos como em áreas urbanizadas

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Svartvårtepadda ( Sueco )

fornecido por wikipedia SV

Svartvårtepadda, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, är en padda från Indiska halvön och Sydöstasien som tillhör släktet Duttaphrynus och familjen äkta paddor.

Utseende

Ovansidan är grå, brunaktig eller rödaktig med mörka fläckar, medan undersidan är smutsvit med ljusbruna prickar på kinder och strupe. På sidorna har den flera vårtor med mörkbruna spetsar. Huvudet är däremot nästan helt slätt, med stora, tydliga trumhinnor. Parotidkörtlarna är mycket stora med svarta stänk. Tårna och fingrarna är tjocka och korta. Paddan är mycket stor, honorna kan bli upp till 15 cm långa. Hanen är normalt mellan 5,7 och 8,3 cm lång, honan mellan 6,5 och 8,5 cm, även om honan kan bli upp till 15 cm.[3] [4]

Utbredning

Svartvårtepaddan finns i Indien, norra Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, södra Kina, Taiwan, Burma, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Kambodja, Malaysia, Singapore, Östtimor och Indonesien, Den har införts till Papua Nya Guinea.[2]

Taxonomi

Svartvårtepaddans taxonomi är inte helt utredd. Vissa forskare betraktar formen som lever i Pakistan som en egen underart, D. melanostictus hazarensis[3], medan andra ser hela arten som ett troligt komplex av flera arter[2].

Vanor

Paddan är tydligt bunden till människan[5], och håller sig främst till det mer låglänta kulturlandskapet som jordbruksbygder och städer, men undviker rena skogsområden.[2] Den pakistanska populationen är dock en höglandsform.[3] Det är inte ovanligt att paddorna samlas kring gatlyktor och illuminerade reklamskyltar på kvällen, för att fånga de insekter som lockas av ljuset.[4] Arten är en slö, kvälls- och nattaktiv padda som dagtid håller sig dold under stenar och trädgrenar, i tät växtlighet eller i olika håligheter. Det är vanligt att flera paddor delar på samma dagviste.[3] Även om det främst är en marklevande padda kan den också påträffas i betongdiken, och arten tål brackvatten.[6]

Fortplantning

I norra delen av indiska halvön parar de sig i regel i samband med monsunregnen i juli till augusti, medan de i Sydostasien kan leka året runt. Leken sker i stillastående eller trögflytande vatten[2], dit hanarna lockar honorna med ett lågt, melodiskt kväkande. De annars så timida hanarna slåss mot varandra för möjligheten att omfamna en hona (amplexus). Äggen läggs i form av ett dubbelt geléband på litet djupare vatten, där äggsnöret ringlas kring vattenväxter. De resulterande ynglen är små, drygt 2,5 cm som mest, mörka och livnär sig av diverse alger.[3]

Status

Svartvårtepaddan är klassificerad som livskraftig ("LC") av IUCN, och populationen ökar. Inga egentliga hot har konstaterats för arten.[2] Arten anses nyttig, eftersom den lever på olika skadeinsekter för jordbruket.[3]

Referenser

Bufo melanosticus 01.JPG
  1. ^ ”Statens jordbruksverks allmänna råd (1999:2)...” (PDF). Statens jordbruksverks författningssamling. 20 oktober 1999. http://www.jordbruksverket.se/download/18.26424bf71212ecc74b08000952/allmannarad_1999-002.PDF. Läst 11 december 2009.
  2. ^ [a b c d e f] Duttaphrynus melanostictus IUCN (2004). Auktorer: Peter Paul van Dijk et al. (engelska) Läst 2009-12-24
  3. ^ [a b c d e f] M.S.Khan (2000-08-30; uppdaterad 2008-11-26). Bufo melanostictus (på engelska). AmphibiaWeb, University of California. http://www.amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&table=amphib&special=one_record&where-genus=Bufo&where-species=melanostictus. Läst 24 december 2009.
  4. ^ [a b] Bufo melanostictus (på engelska). Amphibia.my. http://www.amphibia.my/page.php?pageid=s_foundk&s_id=10&search1=Duttaphrynus%20melanostictus&species=Duttaphrynus%20melanostictus&submit=Search!#. Läst 24 december 2009.
  5. ^ Mattison, Chris (1992) (på engelska). Frogs and toads of the world. Blandford. sid. 136. ISBN 0-7137-2355-6
  6. ^ Nick Baker (2009). ”Asiatic toad” (på engelska). EcologyAsia. Arkiverad från originalet den 7 maj 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060507200833/http://www.ecologyasia.com/verts/amphibians/asiatic_toad.htm. Läst 24 december 2009.
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Svartvårtepadda: Brief Summary ( Sueco )

fornecido por wikipedia SV

Svartvårtepadda, Duttaphrynus melanostictus, är en padda från Indiska halvön och Sydöstasien som tillhör släktet Duttaphrynus och familjen äkta paddor.

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Ропуха малайська ( Ucraniano )

fornecido por wikipedia UK

Опис

Загальна довжина досягає 20 см. У верхній частині голови є кілька кісткових гребенів — по краю морди (кантальний хребет), у передній частині ока, над оком, позаду очей й короткий між оком і вухом. Морда коротка, простір між очима ширше за ширину верхньої повіки. Шкіра вкрита суцільним шаром рівномірних чорних пухирчиків, які більші на спині, ніж з боків. Це надає їй плямисте забарвлення. Уздовж лап відсутні шкіряні складки. Пальці на кінцівки мають різну довжину, особливо відрізняється перший, що довший за інші. Самці мають горловий резонатор та шлюбні мозолі на передніх лапах.

Ділянки голови і спини можуть бути червонувато-коричневими. Забарвлення спини коливається від світлого жовтувато-бурого до буро-чорного.

Спосіб життя

Дотримується оброблених ділянок, таких як узбіччя доріг, галявини, полюбляє річки з повільною течією та тимчасові водойми. Зустрічається на висоті до 1800—3000 м над рівнем моря. Вдень малорухома, ховається в різноманітних сховищах, під корчами, каменями. Активна вночі. Живиться різними комахами, але не гребує й молюсками.

Розмноження починається з настанням сезону дощів. Парування відбувається засобом амплексус (самець охоплює самиці ззаду, у пахвовій частині). Метаморфоз триває 2—4 місяці.

Розповсюдження

Мешкає уздовж Гімалаїв — від Пакистану та Непалу через Бангладеш, Нікобарські та Андаманські острови (Індія) до В'єтнаму й південного Китаю — на сході, до Яви та Молуккських островів (Індонезія) на півдні. Зустрічається також на Тайвані та у Шрі-Ланці.

Джерела

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Cóc nhà ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Cóc Ấn Độ thông thường[cần dẫn nguồn] (danh pháp khoa học: Duttaphrynus melanostictus) là một loài cóc phổ biến ở Nam Á. Con trưởng thành loài này dài 20 cm. Chúng sinh sản vào mùa gió mùa và nòng nọc có màu đen. Loài này thường được thấy ban đêm dưới cột đèn đường phố trong thời kỳ mối có cánh bay từng đàn. Chúng ăn nhiều loài động vật không xương sống khác nhau, bao gồm bọ cạp.[2] Nòng nọc lớn trong các nhóm đàn chung tổ biến hóa nhanh hơn những con được giữ trong các nhóm hỗn hợp.[3] Nòng nọc chứng tỏ có thể nhận ra những con có quan hệ bà con.[4]

Hình ảnh

Tham khảo

  1. ^ van Dijk, P. P. và đồng nghiệp (2004). Duttaphrynus melanostictus. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2012.2. IUCN. Bảo trì CS1: Định rõ "và đồng nghiệp" (link)
  2. ^ Berry, P. Y. & J. A. Bullock (1962). “The food of the common Malayan Toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider”. Copeia 4: 736–741.
  3. ^ Saidapur, S. K. & S. Girish (2001). “Growth and metamorphosis of Bufo melanostictus tadpoles; Effects of Kinship and Density”. J. Herpetology 5 (2): 249–254.
  4. ^ Saidapur, S. K. & Girish (2000). “The ontogeny of kin recognition in tadpoles of the toad Bufo melanostictus (Anura; Bufonidae)”. J. Biosci. 25: 267–273.

Đọc thêm

Lu, W., QingN. (2010). Bufo melanostictus (Asian Common Toad). Record size. Herpetological Review 41(1): 61.

Liên kết ngoài

 src= Wikispecies có thông tin sinh học về Cóc nhà  src= Wikimedia Commons có thư viện hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Cóc nhà


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết họ Cóc này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Cóc nhà: Brief Summary ( Vietnamita )

fornecido por wikipedia VI

Cóc Ấn Độ thông thường[cần dẫn nguồn] (danh pháp khoa học: Duttaphrynus melanostictus) là một loài cóc phổ biến ở Nam Á. Con trưởng thành loài này dài 20 cm. Chúng sinh sản vào mùa gió mùa và nòng nọc có màu đen. Loài này thường được thấy ban đêm dưới cột đèn đường phố trong thời kỳ mối có cánh bay từng đàn. Chúng ăn nhiều loài động vật không xương sống khác nhau, bao gồm bọ cạp. Nòng nọc lớn trong các nhóm đàn chung tổ biến hóa nhanh hơn những con được giữ trong các nhóm hỗn hợp. Nòng nọc chứng tỏ có thể nhận ra những con có quan hệ bà con.

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wikipedia VI

Чернорубцовая жаба ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию
Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Вторичноротые
Подтип: Позвоночные
Инфратип: Челюстноротые
Надкласс: Четвероногие
Подкласс: Беспанцирные
Инфракласс: Batrachia
Надотряд: Прыгающие
Отряд: Бесхвостые
Подотряд: Neobatrachia
Надсемейство: Hyloidea
Семейство: Жабы
Род: Duttaphrynus
Вид: Чернорубцовая жаба
Международное научное название

Duttaphrynus melanostictus Schneider, 1799

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Систематика
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на Викискладе
ITIS 773557NCBI 30335

Чернорубцовая жаба[1], или малайская жаба[1] (лат. Duttaphrynus melanostictus) — вид жаб из рода Duttaphrynus.

Общая длина достигает 20 см. В верхней части головы имеется несколько костных гребней — по краю морды (кантальный позвоночник), в передней части глаза, над глазом, позади глаз и короткий между глазом и ухом. Морда короткая, пространство между глазами шире ширины верхнего века. Кожа покрыта сплошным слоем равномерных чёрных пузырьков, которых больше на спине, чем по бокам. Это придает жабе пятнистую окраску. Вдоль лап отсутствуют кожные складки. Пальцы на конечностях имеют разную длину, особенно отличается первый палец, который длиннее других. Самцы имеют горловой резонатор и брачные мозоли на передних лапах.

Участки кожи на голове и спине могут быть красновато-коричневого цвета. Окраска спины варьирует от светлого желтовато-бурого до буро-черного цвета.

Держится вблизи изменённых участков земли, таких как обочины дорог, лужайки, любит реки с медленным течением и временные водоёмы. Встречается на высоте до 1800—3000 метров над уровнем моря. Днём малоподвижная, скрывается в различных убежищах, под корягами, камнями. Активна ночью. Питается различными насекомыми, реже моллюсками.

Размножение начинается с наступлением сезона дождей. Спаривание происходит посредством амплексуса (самец охватывает самку сзади, в подмышечной части). Метаморфоз длится 2—4 месяца.

Обитает вдоль Гималаев — от Пакистана и Непала через Бангладеш, Никобарские и Андаманские острова (Индия) до Вьетнама и южного Китая — на востоке, до Явы и Молуккских островов (Индонезия) на юге. Встречается также на Тайване и в Шри-Ланке.

Примечания

  1. 1 2 Ананьева Н. Б., Боркин Л. Я., Даревский И. С., Орлов Н. Л. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных. Амфибии и рептилии. Латинский, русский, английский, немецкий, французский. / под общей редакцией акад. В. Е. Соколова. — М.: Рус. яз., 1988. — С. 40. — 10 500 экз.ISBN 5-200-00232-X.
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Чернорубцовая жаба: Brief Summary ( Russo )

fornecido por wikipedia русскую Википедию

Чернорубцовая жаба, или малайская жаба (лат. Duttaphrynus melanostictus) — вид жаб из рода Duttaphrynus.

Общая длина достигает 20 см. В верхней части головы имеется несколько костных гребней — по краю морды (кантальный позвоночник), в передней части глаза, над глазом, позади глаз и короткий между глазом и ухом. Морда короткая, пространство между глазами шире ширины верхнего века. Кожа покрыта сплошным слоем равномерных чёрных пузырьков, которых больше на спине, чем по бокам. Это придает жабе пятнистую окраску. Вдоль лап отсутствуют кожные складки. Пальцы на конечностях имеют разную длину, особенно отличается первый палец, который длиннее других. Самцы имеют горловой резонатор и брачные мозоли на передних лапах.

Участки кожи на голове и спине могут быть красновато-коричневого цвета. Окраска спины варьирует от светлого желтовато-бурого до буро-черного цвета.

Держится вблизи изменённых участков земли, таких как обочины дорог, лужайки, любит реки с медленным течением и временные водоёмы. Встречается на высоте до 1800—3000 метров над уровнем моря. Днём малоподвижная, скрывается в различных убежищах, под корягами, камнями. Активна ночью. Питается различными насекомыми, реже моллюсками.

Размножение начинается с наступлением сезона дождей. Спаривание происходит посредством амплексуса (самец охватывает самку сзади, в подмышечной части). Метаморфоз длится 2—4 месяца.

Обитает вдоль Гималаев — от Пакистана и Непала через Бангладеш, Никобарские и Андаманские острова (Индия) до Вьетнама и южного Китая — на востоке, до Явы и Молуккских островов (Индонезия) на юге. Встречается также на Тайване и в Шри-Ланке.

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黑眶蟾蜍 ( Chinês )

fornecido por wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Duttaphrynus melanostictus
(Schneider, 1799)

黑眶蟾蜍學名Duttaphrynus melanostictus),是蟾蜍科下的一種,廣泛棲息於農林、低地,城鎮內的校園、溝渠等地方。每到繁殖季節就會成群出沒於溪澗或具水源的地方,雄性發出鳴亮的求偶叫聲,並互相擁抱,一時蔚為奇觀。由於牠較其他蟾蜍更接近人類居住地,而且數目相當多,因此俗語中的癩蛤蟆多指黑眶蟾蜍(在台灣也有指盤古蟾蜍)。

外觀描述

黑眶蟾蜍最大的外觀特徵就是自吻部開始有黑色骨質棱,一直沿眼鼻腺延伸至上眼瞼並直達鼓膜上方,形成一個黑色的眼眶,故命名。體型中等至大型,顯現明顯的兩性異形雄性平均體長50至60mm、雌性則可達90mm或以上。有多樣不同的體色,背部多為黃棕色或灰黑色等,上面佈滿黑褐色的雜色花斑,腹部則為乳黃色,皮膚粗糙。吻端鈍圓,頭略寬,上下頷附近均有黑色線,單咽下內藏聲囊。眼後有香腸狀的耳後腺,鼓膜顯著,除頭部外全身均佈滿大小不一的疣粒或小瘤,疣粒及小瘤均有黑色角質刺。在受驚嚇時除耳後腺會分泌出白色毒液外,全身疣粒亦會分泌出毒液以自衛。前肢較細長,後肢則較粗短,均呈圓形,無而僅有半蹼,指尖亦呈黑色。

棲地及生態習性

黑眶蟾蜍的適應性強,能在不同環境下生存。主要棲身於闊葉林、河邊草叢及農林等地,亦會出沒在人類活動的地區,如庭院及溝渠[2]

全球主要分佈在華東地區,此外在孟加拉台灣香港印度寮國澳門馬來西亞緬甸尼泊爾巴基斯坦新加坡斯里蘭卡泰國越南柬埔寨均有發現。亦被引入到印度尼西亞巴布亞紐幾內亞。在不丹有存疑的記錄。

夜行性,日間主要躲藏在土洞及墻縫中休息,至晚間才外出尋找昆蟲為食,偶而也吃蚯蚓等。少跳躍,多以爬行形式活動。在香港除了紅脖游蛇眼鏡蛇因不受其毒液影響外,其他類一般不選擇捕食黑眶蟾蜍。

繁殖季節相當長,但多是以春夏兩季為主(2-6月)。每到繁殖季節便成群聚集在較開闊的河邊交配,雄性發出高昂的一系列叫聲以吸引異性。常發生群交現象,一群雄性圍抱著少數雌性,並進行體外受精。 雌蟾多於流水或靜水中產,每次可達數千顆,成串念珠狀,黑色卵子則在透明膠質長串中,一般可達8以上。卵子在水中發育成黃棕色蝌蚪,蝌蚪亦有毒性,體色漸深並慢慢長出四肢及脊棱。

用途

 src=
黑眶蟾蜍的背部

蟾蜍的耳後腺及疣粒均藏毒液,把這些白色乳液加工可製成名貴中藥「蟾酥」,可用于解毒消腫等[3]。另外蟾蜍自然蛻下的角質衣膜製成的「蟾衣」亦有藥用效果。此外把黑眶蟾蜍除去內臟後加工製成的「乾蟾」亦是中藥材的一種[4]

分類學

2006年所發表的兩棲類系統發生學研究將原本的蟾蜍屬Bufo)重新調整,其中的黑框蟾蜍歸類於新設的一屬Duttaphrynus學名Duttaphrynus melanostictus[5]

參見

注释

  1. ^ Duttaphrynus melanostictus. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2004.
  2. ^ 黑眶蟾蜍 页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆,載台灣大學動物博物館
  3. ^ 蟾酥 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2008-11-21.,載中藥標本館
  4. ^ 黑眶蟾蜍 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2008-04-16.,載CCTV,2007年11月16日
  5. ^ Frost, Darrel et. al. The Amphibian Tree of Life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 2006, 297.

參考書目

  • 《香港的兩棲類和爬行類》;卡遜,劉惠寧、鮑嘉天合著;周家煒譯;市政局;1988

外部連結

 src= 维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源:黑眶蟾蜍
 title=
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wikipedia 中文维基百科

黑眶蟾蜍: Brief Summary ( Chinês )

fornecido por wikipedia 中文维基百科

黑眶蟾蜍(學名:Duttaphrynus melanostictus),是蟾蜍科下的一種,廣泛棲息於農林、低地,城鎮內的校園、溝渠等地方。每到繁殖季節就會成群出沒於溪澗或具水源的地方,雄性發出鳴亮的求偶叫聲,並互相擁抱,一時蔚為奇觀。由於牠較其他蟾蜍更接近人類居住地,而且數目相當多,因此俗語中的癩蛤蟆多指黑眶蟾蜍(在台灣也有指盤古蟾蜍)。

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
维基百科作者和编辑
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia 中文维基百科

ヘリグロヒキガエル ( Japonês )

fornecido por wikipedia 日本語
ヘリグロヒキガエル Bufo melanostictus front.jpg
ヘリグロヒキガエル Bufo melanostictus
分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata : 両生綱 Amphibia : 無尾目 Anura 亜目 : カエル亜目 Neobatrachia : ヒキガエル科 Bufonidae : ヒキガエル属 Bufo : ヘリグロヒキガエル B. melanostictus 学名 Bufo melanostictus
Schneider, 1799 和名 ヘリグロヒキガエル 英名 Asian toad
Asian common toad
Black spectacled toad
Common sunda toad
Javanese toad
Southeast Asian toad

ヘリグロヒキガエル(縁黒蟇蛙、Bufo melanostictus)は、両生綱無尾目ヒキガエル科ヒキガエル属に分類されるカエル。未判定外来生物

分布[編集]

インドインドネシアジャワ島スマトラ島バリ島ボルネオ島)、カンボジアスリランカタイ中国南部、台湾ネパールパキスタンマレーシアミャンマーラオス

形態[編集]

体長6-12cm。吻端から耳腺にかけて隆起があり、この隆起の縁が黒いことが和名の由来。皮膚には先端が黒いイボがあり、耳腺は大きい。外敵に掴まれる等の刺激を受けると、耳腺やイボから乳白色の毒物を分泌する。体色には変異があり赤、黄、黒等がある。

生態[編集]

草原森林、農耕地、民家近く、都市部等幅広い環境に生息する。陸棲で繁殖期以外に積極的に水場に近づくことはなく、比較的乾燥した環境を好む。夜行性で、昼間は石や倒木の下等で休む。

食性は肉食性で昆虫類節足動物甲殻類、陸棲の貝類ミミズ等を食べる。素早く舌をのばして獲物を捕らえ飲みこむ。

繁殖形態は卵生で、2-4月にの水草や石の下等に長いひも状の寒天質に包まれた卵を産む。

Status[編集]

LEAST CONCERN (IUCN Red List Ver. 3.1 (2001))

Status iucn3.1 LC.svg

人間との関係[編集]

民家近くや都市部で見かけることもあり、夜間になると大量に出没することもあるため生息地では人間に身近なカエルだと思われる。

本種の皮膚から分泌される毒物を乾燥させ、蟾酥という漢方薬として用いることもある。

ペットとして飼育されることもあり、日本にも輸入されていた。しかし2005年に外来生物法によりヒキガエル属が数種を除いて未判定外来生物に指定されたため、2007年現在本種を含むヒキガエル属の日本国内での流通はほぼない。

関連項目[編集]

 src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、ヘリグロヒキガエルに関連するメディアがあります。

外部リンク[編集]

  • van Dijk, P.P., Iskandar, D., Lau, M.W.N., Huiqing, G., Baorong, G., Kuangyang, L., Wenhao, C., Zhigang, Y., Chan, B., Dutta, S., Inger, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Khan, M.S. 2004. Bufo melanostictus. In: IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
執筆の途中です この項目は、動物に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めていますPortal:生き物と自然プロジェクト:生物)。
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ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
original
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wikipedia 日本語

ヘリグロヒキガエル: Brief Summary ( Japonês )

fornecido por wikipedia 日本語

ヘリグロヒキガエル(縁黒蟇蛙、Bufo melanostictus)は、両生綱無尾目ヒキガエル科ヒキガエル属に分類されるカエル。未判定外来生物

licença
cc-by-sa-3.0
direitos autorais
ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
original
visite a fonte
site do parceiro
wikipedia 日本語