dcsimg

Description ( anglais )

fourni par AmphibiaWeb articles
Diagnosis: Small to medium sized frog; very warty skin; no parotid glands; distinct lateral fold; inner metatarsal tubercle very large.Description: A small to medium-sized compact ranid frog with short legs and a feebly warty skin. SVL 38–51 mm. The tympanum reaches 2/3 of the eye diameter. It is round, but often indistinct. An infratympanic ridge, that might be broken up into separate glands, is present. Eye with oval, horizontal pupil. Marked lateral fold. Finger-tips and toe-tips not enlarged. There is no webbing on the fourth toe up to the second or third phalanx. Tarsal tubercles are usually present. The inner metatarsal tubercle is large and flanged. The outer metatarsal tubercle is either absent or rather small. The ventral skin is smooth. Stewart (1967) and Salvador (1996) give a SVL of up to 64mm.Coloration: The brownish to beige basic color is either dark mottled or reticulated. A pale vertebral stripe occurs rather often. Pale dorsolateral lines may be present, too. The infratympanic ridge is white. Numerous dark brown, greenish or reddish spots, rather often with black borders, are distributed over head, back and flanks. A light occipital patch occasionally appears on the head. Dark bar markings are found on the upper lip and on the extremities. The venter is light colored, i.e. cream to white. Both sexes have dark bars on the lower jaws. On males, the throat is black as well.Voice: A short advertisement call with a high frequency is uttered 10–12 times per second (Passmore & Carruthers 1995). Lambiris (1989) describes the advertisement call as a sequence of metallic "chirps" which are repeated very rapidly. Schiøtz (1964c) gives a rapid sequence of low calls lasting 0.3–0.4 sec. DuPreez (1996) describes the advertisement call as a high pitched "KiKiKi". The males call in a chorus and utter approximately 10 calls per second. According to Channing & Bogart (1996), the call characters of T. cryptotis from South Africa are: a call rate of 5–9 calls/sec, with a frequency of 3.1–3.8 kHz, and a note length of 23–48 ms. Passmore (1981a) measured a pressure of 103.5–108 dB at a distance of 50 cm from calling males.This account was taken from Rödel, M.-O. (2000), Herpetofauna of West Africa vol. I. Amphibians of the West African Savanna, with kind permission from Edition Chimaira (http://www.chimaira.de/) publishers, Frankfurt am Main.For references in the text, see here
licence
cc-by-3.0
auteur
M.O. Roedel
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
AmphibiaWeb articles

Distribution and Habitat ( anglais )

fourni par AmphibiaWeb articles
Habitats: Arid habitats such as savannas are preferred (Loveridge 1957, Poynton 1964c, Schiøtz 1963, 1964c, 1967, Lanza 1981, Passmore & Carruthers 1995). The Sahel savanna, habitat of T. cryptotis, receives just 311 mm of rainfall between June and October. In this area, the frogs obviously avoid the river valleys (Forge & Barbault 1978). According to Lambiris (1988), open arid landscapes with sandy soils form the habitat of this species. As far as Zimbabwe is concerned, he mentions not only very arid habitats, but wooded areas, too (Lambiris 1989).Range: This species has not yet been recorded at Comoé National Park. In particular, records are available for the following countries: Senegal, Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Angola (Boettger 1887, Nieden 1915, Loveridge 1925, 1930, 1933, 1957, Scortecci 1929, Parker 1932, 1936b, Angel 1936, Mertens 1955a, b, 1971, Schiøtz 1963, 1964c, 1967, Poynton 1964a, c, Laurent 1965, Perret 1966, Stewart 1967, Broadley 1971, Böhme 1978, Forge & Barbault 1978, Lanza 1978, 1981, Bowker & Bowker 1979, Poynton & Broadley 1985b, Wager 1986, Branch 1988, Lambiris 1988, 1989, Channing 1989, Rödel 1990, Channing & Griffin 1993, Poynton & Haake 1993, Simbotwe & Mubemba 1993, Bates 1995, Passmore & Carruthers 1995, DuPreez 1996, Salvador 1996, Kok et al. 1997, Largen 1997a, 1998). The extreme south-eastern and south-western parts of South Africa remain beyond the range of this species (Passmore & Carruthers 1995).
licence
cc-by-3.0
auteur
M.O. Roedel
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
AmphibiaWeb articles

Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors ( anglais )

fourni par AmphibiaWeb articles
Spawn: 2000–3000 pigmented eggs (egg diameter: 1.5 mm, with jelly 3 mm) are deposited individually in shallow, usually rather turbid water. The tadpoles hatch 2–3 days later (Wager 1986, Lambiris 1989, Passmore & Carruthers 1995). Smit (1992) got 966 eggs from a pair.Tadpoles: The plump, ovoid and somewhat flattened tadpole has a black surface with golden ventral spots. The tail fin is transparent. According to Lambiris (1989), it inserts dorsally at a more craniad position, compared to the animal shown in Wager (1986). The keratodont formula is 1 / 2–2 // 3 (Wager 1986, DuPreez 1996). The lateral papillae form one row up to the corner of the mouth, and two rows thereafter. The mediocaudal section, however, comprises a single row. The beaks are of enormous size and serrated (Wager 1986). The largest tadpole ever collected by Lambiris (1988, 1989) measured 37 mm (TL; BL: 15 mm), whereas Stewart (1967) gives a TL of 39 mm. Parker (1932) gives the keratodont formulae 1 / 2+2 // 1+1 / 2 and 1 / 3+3 // 1+1 / 2. The metamorphosis begins after five weeks (Parker 1932, DuPreez 1996). The young frogs measure about 12 mm (SVL; Stewart 1967, Wager 1986, Lambiris 1989). Burton (1972) gives a period of three weeks until metamorphosis. The tadpoles begin to feed one day after hatching, doubling their weight within two days.Biology: The frogs spend most of the year buried in the soil. According to Channing & Bogart (1996), Tomopterna species hibernate half a meter or more beneath the soil surface. When disturbed they inflate their body (Salvador 1996). Males call from exposed sites at the banks of streams, pools and puddles. Schiøtz (1964c) writes that they call at least partially from subterranean refuges, too. The frogs spawn in small temporary waters. They are usually nocturnal, but occasionally diurnal during periods of heavy rainfall (Lambiris 1988, 1989, Passmore & Carruthers 1995).In Transvaal, the breeding season lasts about 150 days. The frogs spawn at night, reacting spontaneously to favorable environmental conditions but stopping their activities with similar promptitude. Rainfall plays a significant role as a trigger of reproductive activity. Kept in captivity, the tadpoles will metamorphose within 29 days. The frogs obviously run considerable risks when they choose a breeding pool quite at random, as mummified tadpoles are found rather frequently (Smit 1992).According to Lambiris (1989), the diet comprises various arthropods. Loveridge (1933) underlines the importance of termites and beetles. During their fieldwork in Senegal, Forge & Barbault (1978) discovered that almost any potential prey is actually eaten. Lamellicorn beetles, beetle larvae, caterpillars and ants also account for an important part of their diet.The tadpoles are usually very indolent, lying motionless at the bottom. They form swarms when the waters are in danger of drying up so that more food is whirled up, and thus becomes available (Burton 1972, Lambiris 1989).
licence
cc-by-3.0
auteur
M.O. Roedel
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
AmphibiaWeb articles

Tomopterna cryptotis ( catalan ; valencien )

fourni par wikipedia CA

Tomopterna cryptotis és una espècie de granota que viu a Angola, Botswana, Camerun, Djibuti, Eritrea, Etiòpia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mauritània, Moçambic, Namíbia, Níger, Nigèria, Senegal, Somàlia, Sud-àfrica, Sudan, Swazilàndia, Tanzània, Uganda, Zàmbia, Zimbabwe i, possiblement també, a Benín, Burkina Faso, República Centreafricana, Txad i Guinea.

Referències

 src= A Wikimedia Commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: Tomopterna cryptotis Modifica l'enllaç a Wikidata
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autors i editors de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia CA

Tomopterna cryptotis: Brief Summary ( catalan ; valencien )

fourni par wikipedia CA
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autors i editors de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia CA

Common sand frog ( anglais )

fourni par wikipedia EN

The common sand frog (Tomopterna cryptotis) is a species of frog in the family Pyxicephalidae It is found in dryer (xeric) regions in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is likely a cryptic species complex, and the distribution of the nominal Tomopterna cryptotis is poorly known.[2] IUCN list the following countries: Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Djibouti, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and possibly Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, and Guinea.[1]

Common sand frogs, as their name suggests, are common in suitable habitats. They inhabit areas with sandy soils along drainage lines in dry savanna, grassland and in semi-desert conditions. At higher altitudes they also inhabit montane grasslands. They breed in temporary pools, roadside puddles and oases.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2016). "Tomopterna cryptotis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T21136111A3073604. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T21136111A3073604.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Tomopterna cryptotis (Boulenger, 1907)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia EN

Common sand frog: Brief Summary ( anglais )

fourni par wikipedia EN

The common sand frog (Tomopterna cryptotis) is a species of frog in the family Pyxicephalidae It is found in dryer (xeric) regions in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is likely a cryptic species complex, and the distribution of the nominal Tomopterna cryptotis is poorly known. IUCN list the following countries: Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Djibouti, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and possibly Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, and Guinea.

Common sand frogs, as their name suggests, are common in suitable habitats. They inhabit areas with sandy soils along drainage lines in dry savanna, grassland and in semi-desert conditions. At higher altitudes they also inhabit montane grasslands. They breed in temporary pools, roadside puddles and oases.

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia EN

Tomopterna cryptotis ( espagnol ; castillan )

fourni par wikipedia ES

Tomopterna cryptotis es una especie de anfibios de la familia Pyxicephalidae.[1]

Distribución geográfica

Se encuentra en Angola, Botsuana, Camerún, Djibuti, Eritrea, Etiopía, Kenia, Lesoto, Malawi, Malí, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Níger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Sudáfrica, Sudán, Sudán del Sur, Suazilandia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabue y, posiblemente también, en Benín, Burkina Faso, República Centroafricana, Chad y Guinea.

Es una especie de sabana.

Referencias

  1. Frost, D.R. « Tomopterna cryptotis». Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.1. (en inglés). Nueva York, EEUU: Museo Americano de Historia Natural.

 title=
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autores y editores de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia ES

Tomopterna cryptotis: Brief Summary ( espagnol ; castillan )

fourni par wikipedia ES

Tomopterna cryptotis es una especie de anfibios de la familia Pyxicephalidae.​

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autores y editores de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia ES

Tomopterna cryptotis ( basque )

fourni par wikipedia EU

Tomopterna cryptotis Tomopterna generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Pyxicephalidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

Erreferentziak

Ikus, gainera

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipediako egileak eta editoreak
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia EU

Tomopterna cryptotis: Brief Summary ( basque )

fourni par wikipedia EU

Tomopterna cryptotis Tomopterna generoko animalia da. Anfibioen barruko Pyxicephalidae familian sailkatuta dago, Anura ordenan.

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipediako egileak eta editoreak
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia EU

Tomopterna cryptotis

fourni par wikipedia FR

Tomopterna cryptotis est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Pyxicephalidae[1].

Répartition

Cette espèce est endémique de l'Afrique. Elle se rencontre en Afrique du Sud, en Angola, au Botswana, au Cameroun, à Djibouti, en Érythrée, en Éthiopie, au Kenya, au Lesotho, au Malawi, au Mali, en Mauritanie, au Mozambique, en Namibie, au Niger, au Nigeria, en Ouganda, au Sénégal, en Somalie, au Soudan, au Soudan du Sud, au Swaziland, en Tanzanie, en Zambie et au Zimbabwe[1],[2].

Description

 src=
Tomopterna cryptotis (Parc national Kruger, Afrique du Sud)

Tomopterna cryptotis mesure en moyenne de 38 à 51 mm[3].

La peau est lisse et très épaisse, beige[3] ou grisâtres à brunâtre sur le dessus avec des tâches grises ou marron bordées de noir ou des réticulations[3] disposées avec plus ou moins de symétrie[4]. L'arrière comporte parfois des points blancs ou roses. La tête présente une barre noire interrompue entre les yeux[4]. Une ligne vertébrale plus claire est souvent présente sur le dos[3],[4]. Les cuisses présentent des marques sombres transverses qui ne forment pas de barres complètes[4]. Son ventre est crème[3] ou blanc[4]. Les mâles ont une gorge noire[3].

La tête est courte et le museau arrondi, l'espace interorbital est plus étroit que l'espace supérieur entre les paupières. Le tympan est entièrement caché sous la peau. Les doigts sont courts et pointus avec les premiers et seconds de même taille. Les orteils sont courts et palmés sur un tiers. Les tubercules sub-articulaires des orteils sont proéminents et coniques. Les tubercules métatarsiens intérieurs, en forme de pelle et aux bords marqués, sont très grands et au moins aussi longs que l'orteil intérieur. Le métatarse présente un petit tubercule rond sur son extérieur. Le tarse présente un tubercule rond juste en dessous de l'articulation tibio-tarsienne. L'articulation tarso-métatarsal atteint l'œil[4].

Le dessous de la langue est faiblement entaillé et les dents vomériennes sont disposées en deux groupes obliques entre les choanes[4].

Tomopterna cryptotis est proche de Tomopterna delalandii dont il se distingue par le tympan caché et le tubercule tarsal[4].

Publication originale

  • Boulenger, 1907 : Description of a new Frog discovered by Dr. W. J. Ansorge in Mossamedes, Angola. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, sér. 7, vol. 20, p. 109 (texte intégral).

Notes et références

  1. a et b Amphibian Species of the World, consulté lors d'une mise à jour du lien externe
  2. UICN, consulté lors d'une mise à jour du lien externe
  3. a b c d e et f AmphibiaWeb. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA, consulté lors d'une mise à jour du lien externe
  4. a b c d e f g et h Boulenger, G. A. 1907. Description of a new Frog discovered by Dr. W. J. Ansorge in Mossamedes, Angola. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, sér. 7, vol. 20, p. 109 (texte intégral).
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Auteurs et éditeurs de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia FR

Tomopterna cryptotis: Brief Summary

fourni par wikipedia FR

Tomopterna cryptotis est une espèce d'amphibiens de la famille des Pyxicephalidae.

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Auteurs et éditeurs de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia FR

Rã-da-areia-tremelo ( portugais )

fourni par wikipedia PT

A rã-da-areia-tremelo[1] (nome científico: Tomopterna cryptotis, antiga nomenclatura: Rana cryptotis) é uma espécie de anfíbio da família Pyxicephalidae, que pode ser encontrada em Angola, em Botsuana, nos Camarões, no Lesoto, no Malauí, no Mali, na Mauritânia, em Moçambique, na Namíbia, no Niger, na Nigéria, em Senegal, na África do Sul, no Sudão, no Sudão do Sul, em Essuatíni, na Tanzânia, na Zâmbia e em Zimbábue, habitando savanas secas, campos e áreas semi-desérticas.[2]

Descrição

É uma espécie de tamanho pequeno a médio, medindo geralmente entre 38 e 51 milímetros. A coloração de seu dorso pode ser mosqueada ou reticulada, apresentando como cor primária o marrom ou o bege, além de apresentar inúmeras manchas marrons, verdes ou vermelhas, que podem ter as bordas pretas. Seu lábio superior apresenta uma mancha escura, assim como em suas extremidades corporais. Os machos possuem a garganta totalmente escura. Sua pele é coberta por inúmeras verrugas e seu ventre é liso. Não possuem glândulas parotoides e seu tímpano é arredondado, apesar de não ser visível. Sua pupila é oval e horizontal.[3]

Comportamento

Devido a natureza dos locais que a espécie habita, com baixo nível de pluviosidade e altas temperaturas, a espécie passa a maior parte do tempo enterrada a uma profundidade maior que meio metro, só emergindo durante a noite ou fortes chuvas. Quando se sentem incomodados, eles tem o hábito de inflar o corpo. Seus principais predadores são o cabeça-de-martelo (Scopus umbretta) e a coruja-das-torres (Tyto alba). Se alimentam principalmente de artrópodes, como besouros, cupins, lagartas e formigas.[4]

Seu período reprodutivo coincide com o início das chuvas da primavera, com os machos se movendo para corpos d'água depois delas para vocalizar. Seu coaxar é composto por uma série de chamados de alta frequência, que pode ser representado de maneira onomatopeica "KiKiKi". Após a fêmea escolher o macho e realizar o amplexo, a mesma se encaminha para a parte mais rasa e deposita entre 2 a 3 mil ovos, que medem 1,5 milímetros e são pigmentados, eclodindo em 2 ou 3 dias. O girino mede no máximo 39 milímetros e é robusto, oval e parcialmente plano, tendo coloração preta com pequenas pintas douradas no ventre e com a cauda transparente. Nesta fase da vida, podem ser predados por aranhas-pescadoras ou terrapins. Sua metamorfose dura entre três e cinco semanas e termina em um imago de 12 milímetros.[3]

Referências

  1. Conradie, Werner (Abril de 2013). «Relatório sobre uma pesquisa rápida da biodiversidade realizada em April 2013» (PDF). OKACOM. Consultado em 16 de março de 2019
  2. «Catequero Bullfrog» (em inglês). IUCN Red List. Consultado em 16 de março de 2019
  3. a b «Tomopterna cryptotis» (em inglês). AmphibiaWeb. Consultado em 16 de março de 2019
  4. «Tomopterna cryptotis (Boulenger, 1907)» (em inglês). The Atlas of African Frogs. Consultado em 16 de março de 2019
 title=
licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autores e editores de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia PT

Rã-da-areia-tremelo: Brief Summary ( portugais )

fourni par wikipedia PT

A rã-da-areia-tremelo (nome científico: Tomopterna cryptotis, antiga nomenclatura: Rana cryptotis) é uma espécie de anfíbio da família Pyxicephalidae, que pode ser encontrada em Angola, em Botsuana, nos Camarões, no Lesoto, no Malauí, no Mali, na Mauritânia, em Moçambique, na Namíbia, no Niger, na Nigéria, em Senegal, na África do Sul, no Sudão, no Sudão do Sul, em Essuatíni, na Tanzânia, na Zâmbia e em Zimbábue, habitando savanas secas, campos e áreas semi-desérticas.

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Autores e editores de Wikipedia
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia PT

Tomopterna cryptotis ( vietnamien )

fourni par wikipedia VI

Tomopterna cryptotis (tên tiếng Anh: Common Sand Frog) là một loài ếch trong họ Ranidae. Nó được tìm thấy ở Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mauritanie, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Nam Phi, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, có thể cả Bénin, có thể cả Burkina Faso, có thể cả Cộng hòa Trung Phi, có thể cả Chad, và có thể cả Guinea. Các môi trường sống tự nhiên của chúng là xavan khô, vùng đất có cây bụi nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới, đồng cỏ khô nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới vùng đất thấp, đồng cỏ nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới vùng đất cao, đầm nước ngọt có nước theo mùa, và suối nước ngọt.

Tham khảo

  1. ^ Channing, A., Minter, L., Howell, K., Largen, M., Salvador, A., Howell, K. & Lötters, S. (2004). Tomopterna cryptotis. Sách Đỏ IUCN các loài bị đe dọa. Phiên bản 2013.2. Liên minh Bảo tồn Thiên nhiên Quốc tế. Truy cập ngày 4 tháng 3 năm 2014.

Liên kết ngoài

 src= Phương tiện liên quan tới Tomopterna cryptotis tại Wikimedia Commons


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết về ếch nhái thật sự này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.


licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia VI

Tomopterna cryptotis: Brief Summary ( vietnamien )

fourni par wikipedia VI

Tomopterna cryptotis (tên tiếng Anh: Common Sand Frog) là một loài ếch trong họ Ranidae. Nó được tìm thấy ở Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Mauritanie, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Nam Phi, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, có thể cả Bénin, có thể cả Burkina Faso, có thể cả Cộng hòa Trung Phi, có thể cả Chad, và có thể cả Guinea. Các môi trường sống tự nhiên của chúng là xavan khô, vùng đất có cây bụi nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới, đồng cỏ khô nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới vùng đất thấp, đồng cỏ nhiệt đới hoặc cận nhiệt đới vùng đất cao, đầm nước ngọt có nước theo mùa, và suối nước ngọt.

licence
cc-by-sa-3.0
droit d’auteur
Wikipedia tác giả và biên tập viên
original
visiter la source
site partenaire
wikipedia VI