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Creatures » » Animal » » Arthropods » Myriapods » Millipedes

Giant Pill Millipedes

Sphaerotheriida

Riesenkugler ( German )

provided by wikipedia DE
 src=
Verbreitungskarte der Riesenkugler
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Indischer Riesenkugler auf einer Hand als Größenvergleich
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Ein Vertreter der Gattung Zoospaherium aus der Familie Arthrosphaeridae aus Madagaskar
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Ein Vertreter der Ordnung Procyliosomatidae aus Australien
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Ventralansicht eines Exemplars der Familie Sphaerotheriidae aus Südafrika
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Ein Exemplar aus der Familie Zephroniidae aus Malaysia

Die Riesenkugler (Sphaerotheriida) bilden eine Ordnung innerhalb der zu den Tausendfüßern gehörenden Doppelfüßer. Ebenso wie die heimischen Saftkugler können sich die Riesenkugler bei Gefahr zu einer festen Kugel zusammenrollen. Die Riesenkugler können zusammengerollt eine Kugel von der Größe eines Golfballs bis zu der eines Tennisballs bilden. Diese Kugel kann durch Fressfeinde nicht geöffnet werden, da die Ränder der zweiten und der letzten Rückenplatte genau ineinander passen. Die erwachsenen Riesenkugler haben 13 Rumpfsegmente, die an den Rückenschilden äußerlich leicht zu erkennen sind. Der Halsschild ist wesentlich kleiner als der nachfolgende Brustschild. Die 13. Rückenplatte ist mit dem Analschild zu einer großen Schildplatte verwachsen. Mit über 330 Arten handelt es sich um eine der artenreicheren Ordnungen der Doppelfüßer.

Merkmale

Die Riesenkugler gehören zu den Doppelfüßern und haben ab dem fünften Rumpfsegment je zwei Beinpaare. Dazu kommen drei einzelne Beinpaare vom zweiten bis zum vierten Segment. Sie besitzen 21 Extremitätenpaare. Die beiden letzten Beinpaare der Männchen sind modifiziert. Im Gegensatz zu den Saftkuglern besitzen die Sphaerotheriida große, nierenförmige Komplexaugen mit zahlreichen Ocellen. Besonders Jungtiere können mit Rollasseln verwechselt werden, die aber zu den Krebstieren zählen und ihren Kopf nicht in die Kugel einziehen können. Auch Käferlarven, die Ähnlichkeiten mit jungen Riesenkuglern haben, können durch ihre drei Beinpaare meist von den Doppelfüßern unterschieden werden.

Verbreitung

Die Riesenkugler sind auf die Teile des ehemaligen Großkontinents Gondwana beschränkt, also vor allem in Indien, Sri Lanka, Südostasien, Australien, Neuseeland, Ost- und Südafrika, Madagaskar und den Seychellen verbreitet. Die großteils endemisch vorkommenden Arten sind durch die zunehmende Abholzung der Wälder in ihren Lebensräumen stark gefährdet.

Ernährung

Riesenkugler ernähren sich von verrottendem Holz und Pflanzenresten. Dabei spielen sie als Streuabbauer eine wichtige ökologische Rolle bei der Zerkleinerung von Laub und Holz[1] und bei der Auflockerung des Bodens, ähnlich der Rolle der Regenwürmer. Für die Aufschließung des Holzes bei der Verdauung durch die Riesenkugler wird angenommen, dass ähnlich wie bei den Termiten symbiontische Bakterien nötig sind. Da aber über den Stoffwechsel der Riesenkugler wenig bekannt ist, sind Zucht und Haltung der Tiere bisher meist gescheitert.

Entwicklung

Über Paarung und Eiablage der Riesenkugler ist nur wenig bekannt, ebenso über das Ausschlüpfen und das erste Larvalstadium. Es wurden bisher nur Larven gefunden, die bereits sechs Beinpaare besaßen. Nach vielen Häutungen, bei denen bei jeder oder jeder zweiten ein neues Segment angelegt wird, entwickeln sie sich zu adulten Tieren. Auch nach Erreichen der vollständigen Segmentanzahl kommt es zu weiteren Häutungen, die mit einer Größenzunahme verbunden sind. Die Begattungsbeine (Gonopoden) der Männchen und die Geschlechtsöffnungen der Weibchen entwickeln sich bis zum geschlechtsreifen Zustand weiter.

Äußere Systematik

Die Ordnung der Riesenkugler ist das Schwestertaxon der Saftkugler (Glomerida). Das folgende Kladogramm gibt eine Übersicht über die äußere Systematik innerhalb der Doppelfüßer:[2]


Penicillata

Polyxenida (Pinselfüßer)


Chilognatha Helminthomorpha

Siphoniulida


Colobognatha

Platydesmida


Polyzoniida (Saugfüßer oder Bohrfüßer)


Siphonocryptida


Siphonophorida


Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/3Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/4
Eugnatha Juliformia

Julida (Schnurfüßer)


Juliformia incertae sedis


Spirobolida


Spirostreptida


Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/3Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/4
Merocheta

Polydesmida (Bandfüßer)


Nematophora

Callipodida


Chordeumatida (Samenfüßer)


Stemmiulida


Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/3
Vorlage:Klade/Wartung/3


Pentazonia Limacomorpha

Glomeridesmida (Urtausendfüßer)


Oniscomorpha

Glomerida (Saftkugler)


Sphaerotheriida (Riesenkugler)






Innere Systematik

Die Ordnung wird in fünf Familien mit folgenden Gattungen unterteilt:[2]

Einzelnachweise

  1. K. M. Ashwini und K. R. Sridhar: Breakdown of plantation residues by pill millipedes (Arthrosphaera magna) and assessment of compost quality. Current Science, Vol. 90, No. 7, 10. April 2006, S. 954–959 Online (Toter Link)
  2. a b Spharotheriida auf millibase.org, A global species catalog of the myriapod class Diplopoda, abgerufen am 22. Juni 2021.
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wikipedia DE

Riesenkugler: Brief Summary ( German )

provided by wikipedia DE
 src= Verbreitungskarte der Riesenkugler  src= Indischer Riesenkugler auf einer Hand als Größenvergleich  src= Ein Vertreter der Gattung Zoospaherium aus der Familie Arthrosphaeridae aus Madagaskar  src= Ein Vertreter der Ordnung Procyliosomatidae aus Australien  src= Ventralansicht eines Exemplars der Familie Sphaerotheriidae aus Südafrika  src= Ein Exemplar aus der Familie Zephroniidae aus Malaysia

Die Riesenkugler (Sphaerotheriida) bilden eine Ordnung innerhalb der zu den Tausendfüßern gehörenden Doppelfüßer. Ebenso wie die heimischen Saftkugler können sich die Riesenkugler bei Gefahr zu einer festen Kugel zusammenrollen. Die Riesenkugler können zusammengerollt eine Kugel von der Größe eines Golfballs bis zu der eines Tennisballs bilden. Diese Kugel kann durch Fressfeinde nicht geöffnet werden, da die Ränder der zweiten und der letzten Rückenplatte genau ineinander passen. Die erwachsenen Riesenkugler haben 13 Rumpfsegmente, die an den Rückenschilden äußerlich leicht zu erkennen sind. Der Halsschild ist wesentlich kleiner als der nachfolgende Brustschild. Die 13. Rückenplatte ist mit dem Analschild zu einer großen Schildplatte verwachsen. Mit über 330 Arten handelt es sich um eine der artenreicheren Ordnungen der Doppelfüßer.

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Sphaerotheriida

provided by wikipedia EN

Sphaerotheriida is an order of millipedes[1] in the infraclass Pentazonia,[2] sometimes known as giant pill millipedes.[3] They inhabit Southern Africa, Madagascar, South and Southeast Asia, Australia and New Zealand.[4] Like the Northern Hemisphere pill millipedes of the order Glomerida, these millipedes can roll into a ball when disturbed. When they are rolled-up, most sphaerotheriidans reach a maximum size of a cherry [5] or golf ball,[6] but some species from Madagascar can even reach the size of an orange[7] (an example of island gigantism; illustration - [1]). When rolled-up, predators are unable to unravel giant pill millipedes since the margins of their second and last dorsal plates fit perfectly into one another, creating a sealed ball. A few giant pill millipede species are able to produce sound, the only millipedes known to do this.[8] This order of millipedes is also unique in that some African species are used for medicinal purposes.[9]

Morphology

Sphaerotheriidans are characterized by a relatively conservative body morphology; superficially all species and genera look the same.[4] Dorsally, the head of an adult is followed by twelve body tergites (collum, thoracic shield, and ten normal tergites) and the anal shield. Ventrally, adult females possess twenty-one leg pairs (forty-two legs in total), while adult males carry two additional modified leg pairs, the anterior and posterior telopods under their anal shield. The telopods resemble chelae and/or clamp-like structures, which are probably used in holding the female during mating.[4] In the position of the male telopods, the females instead have a sclerotized subanal plate, which in some species such as those belonging to the family Arthrosphaeridae, is enlarged and is used to produce vibrations (stridulation).[4] Furthermore, unlike other large-bodied millipede orders, Sphaerotheriida do not have glands that excrete poisonous or ill-smelling substances. Instead they depend entirely on their rolling-up behavior for protection.

A pill millipede from the Western Ghats, India

Sphaerotheriida somewhat resemble the North American and Eurasian pill millipedes of the order Glomerida, but are generally larger in size (20–80 millimetres or 0.8–3.1 inches body length). Until the end of the 20th century only the largest known species in the order Glomerida rivalled the size of even the smallest known Sphaerotheriida, but in the early 21st century a much smaller Sphaerotheriid was described from Madagascar: full-grown specimens of Microsphaerotherium ivohibiensis are just the size of a pea.[10] Also on Madagascar, some giant pill millipede species exhibit island gigantism, reaching more than 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in outstretched length and a size comparable to an orange when rolled up.[7]

The orders differ in the number of tergites in adults (10 or 11 in Glomerida, 12 in Sphaerotheriida) and legs (17 or 19 in Glomerida, 21 or 23 in Sphaerotheriida), and show great differences in their head morphology and genital openings, among other traits.[11] Millipedes in both orders develop by hemianamorphosis.[12]

Both orders have the ability to roll into a perfect ball, protecting the head, antennae, and the vulnerable underside. However, this rolled-up position (volvation) is achieved differently. In Glomerida, the enlarged second body ring (thoracic shield) has a more or less visible gap within which fit the tips of tergites 3–11, whereas in Sphaerotheriida the tips of tergites 3–12 fit perfectly into a groove on the thoracic shield. Juvenile sphaerotheriidans show the same gap as the Glomerida.[13] Many giant pill millipede species have special ledges ('locking carinae') on the underside of the tergite tips and the anal shield which can be moved above a brim on the thoracic shield. These millipedes remain passively locked-up since they do not need continuous muscle contractions to remain in the rolled-up position.

Distribution

Arthrosphaera bicolor (Arthrosphaeridae), named and painted by Reginald Innes Pocock

In general, Sphaerotheriida have a Gondwanan distribution (the exception is Zephroniidae from southeast Asia and adjacent regions).[4][14] Gondwana was the large southern continent that formed after the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea.[15] It included the modern-day landmasses of South America (which however lacks sphaerotheriidans), New Zealand, Australia, India, and Madagascar. It is believed that the Sphaerotheriida originated in Gondwana and then diverged into its various forms.

Sphaerotheriida is divided into four families whose distributions do not overlap: Procyliosomatidae, Zephroniidae, Sphaerotheriidae and Arthrosphaeridae. The most basal family, Procyliosomatidae, lives in Australia and New Zealand.[4][16] The Zephroniidae (synonym Sphaeropoeidae) occurs in southeast Asia from the Himalayas and China south and east to Sulawesi and inhabits some Philippines islands.[4] The family Sphaerotheriidae only occurs in South Africa with isolated populations in Zimbabwe and Malawi (probably introduced).[6] The Arthrosphaeridae are distributed in southern India and Madagascar.[4]

A few giant pill millipede species have been dispersed by humans, probably inadvertently. Examples include the Sri Lankan Arthrosphaeridae species Arthrosphaera brandtii which has established a population in the Usambara Mountains, Tanzania,[17] as well as some South African Sphaerotherium species which have isolated populations in Malawi.[18] Another likely candidate is Sechelliosoma forcipatum, a small species of the southeast Asian family Zephroniidae, currently only known from a single island in the Seychelles.[19]

Ecology

Little is known about the ecology, development and life history of Sphaerotheriida, but apparently all species are detritivores, feeding on dead organic matter such as leaves and wood on the forest floor. Like earthworms, they play an important role in decomposition; by breaking down decaying organic matter they release locked up nutrients back into the soil.[20][21][22][23] Such recycling is essential for plant nutrition and accordingly for the entire ecology. It is possible that giant pill millipedes rely on special bacteria in their gut, much as termites do, to exploit the nutritional value of otherwise indigestible material such as lignin.

Like most millipedes, Sphaerotheriida inhabit mainly the leaf litter of humid forests. Some species, however, show an arboreal (tree-living) lifestyle,[24] and in these the rolling-up reflex has been suppressed.[25]

Defense against predation

Giant pill millipede in rolled-up position

The rolling-up ability and tough skeletal armor of the Sphaerotheriida offer protection against some predators, but a wide variety of predators feed on them, or even specialise in them as a source of food.[26] Species that specialize in feeding on giant pill millipedes necessarily have evolved special structures or behaviors to overcome their defences. Examples include the South African snail family Chlamydephoridae which almost exclusively feeds on giant pill millipedes[27] Another example is the meerkat (Suricata suricata) which has been reported (at least in captivity) to throw rolled-up sphaerotheriids against rocks in order to break them. This behaviour however, is their way of breaking open many refractory food items, such as snails and hard-shelled eggs.[26]

Apart from the rolling-up behavior of giant pill millipedes, camouflage may be an important defense mechanism against predators that hunt by sight, such as birds.

Sphaerotheriida also are subject to internal parasitism, and several species of nematodes are obligate parasites of particular species of giant pill millipedes.[28][29]

Taxonomy

Various sphaerotheriidans (and a beetle) illustrated in 1859

By 2014, over 326 species in around 34 genera[30] in approximately 20 genera had been described.[4][31][32]

Arthrosphaera Pocock, 1895 – 40 species, India, Sri Lanka
Zoosphaerium Pocock, 1895 – 55 species, Madagascar
Sphaeromimus de Saussure & Zehntner, 1902 – 10 species, southeast Madagascar
Microsphaerotherium Wesener & van den Spiegel, 2007 – 2 species, Madagascar
Cyliosoma Pocock, 1895 – 15 species, Australia
Cynotelopus Jeekel, 1986 – monotypic, southwest Australia
Procyliosoma Silvestri, 1917 – 11 species, Eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand
Sphaerotherium Brandt, 1833 – 54 species, South Africa, Zimbabwe
Kylindotherium Attems, 1926 – monotypic, South Africa
Bothrobelum Verhoeff, 1924 – monotypic, Borneo
Cryxus Leach, 1814 – monotypic, Asia
Indosphaera Attems, 1935 – 2 species N. India, Myanmar
Kophosphaera Attems, 1935 – 5 species, N. India, Nepal
Leptotelopus Silvestri, 1897 – monotypic, Myanmar
Prionobelum Verhoeff, 1924 – 8 species, Vietnam, SW China
Sphaerobelum Verhoeff, 1924 – 4 species, Vietnam
Zephronia Gray, 1832 – 37 species N. India, Myanmar, Malayan Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo
Sphaeropoeus Brandt, 1833 – 22 species, N. India, Myanmar, Malayan Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo
Tigridosphaera Jeekel, 2000 – 4 species, Malayan Peninsula
Castanotherium Pocock, 1895 – 50 species, Indonesian Islands, Philippines
Castanotheroides Chamberlin, 1921 – 3 species, Philippines
Sechelliosoma Mauriès, 1980 – monotypic, Seychelles
Rajasphaera Attems, 1935 – monotypic, Borneo

Phylogeny

The first modern phylogenetic study of Sphaerotheriida (simplified below) was conducted by Wesener and VandenSpiegel in 2009, using morphological data from 36 species in 10 genera. The South African family Sphaerotheriidae was found to be sister to the Madagascar family Arthrosphaeridae. The Australian genus Procyliosoma was found to be distinct from all other genera and placed in its own family, Procyliosomatidae.[4]

Pentazonia Glomeridesmida

Glomeridesmus

Glomerida

Glomeroides

Sphaerotheriida

Procyliosomatidae

Zephroniidae

Sechelliosoma

Sphaeropoeus

Zephronia

Castanotherium

Sphaerotheriidae

Arthrosphaeridae

Sphaeromimus

Arthrosphaera

Microsphaerotherium

Zoosphaerium

References

  1. ^ R. L. Hoffman (1980). "Contributions à l'étude de la faune terrestre des îles granitiques de l'archipel des Séchelles". Revue Zoologique africaine. 94 (1): 138–168.
  2. ^ William A. Shear & Gregory D. Edgecombe (2010). "The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda". Arthropod Structure & Development. 39 (2–3): 174–190. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2009.11.002. PMID 19944188.
  3. ^ "Giant Pill Millipedes (Order Sphaerotheriida)". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Thomas Wesener & Didier van den Spiegel (2009). "A first phylogenetic analysis of giant pill millipedes (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida), a new model Gondwanan taxon, with special emphasis on island gigantism". Cladistics. 25 (6): 545–573. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00267.x. PMID 34879594. S2CID 86041765.
  5. ^ Beverley A. Holloway (1956). "Revision of the New Zealand pill millipedes (Oniscomorpha, Sphaerotheridae)" (PDF). Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 84 (2): 431–446.
  6. ^ a b D. van den Spiegel, S. I. Golovatch & M. Hamer (2003). "Revision of some of the oldest species in the millipede genus Sphaerotherium, Brandt, 1833 (Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida, Sphaerotheriidae), with new synonymies". African Invertebrates. 43: 143–181. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04.
  7. ^ a b Thomas Wesener & Johann-Wolfgang Wägele (2008). "The giant pill millipedes of Madagascar: revision of the genus Zoosphaerium (Myriapoda, Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida)" (PDF). Zoosystema. 30 (1): 5–85. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-12.
  8. ^ U. Haacker (1968). "Das Sexualverhalten von Sphaerotherium dorsale (Myriapoda, Diplopoda)". Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft. 3: 454–463.
  9. ^ D. G. Herbert, M. L. Hamer, M. Mander, N. Mkhize & F. Prins (2003). "Invertebrate animals as a component of the traditional medicine trade in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa". African Invertebrates. 44 (2): 327–344. Archived from the original on 2011-09-03.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ T. Wesener & D. van den Spiegel (2007). "Microsphaerotherium ivohibiensis, a new genus and species of giant-pill millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriidaa, Arthrosphaerinae)". Journal of Afrotropical Zoology. 3: 153–160.
  11. ^ H. Enghoff (1984). "Phylogeny of millipedes – a cladistic analysis". Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 22: 8–26. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.1984.tb00559.x.
  12. ^ Enghoff, Henrik; Dohle, Wolfgang; Blower, J. Gordon (1993). "Anamorphosis in Millipedes (Diplopoda) — The Present State of Knowledge with Some Developmental and Phylogenetic Considerations". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 109 (2): 103–234. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1993.tb00305.x.
  13. ^ H. P. Wesner. "Die Einkugelung" (in German).
  14. ^ C. A. W. Jeekel (1974). "The group taxonomy and geography of the Sphaerotheriida (Diplopoda)". Symposia of the Zoological Society of London. 32: 41–52.
  15. ^ Jason R. Ali & Jonathan C. Aitchison; Aitchison (2008). "Gondwana to Asia: plate tectonics, paleogeography and the biological connectivity of the Indian subcontinent from the Middle Jurassic through latest Eocene (166–35 Ma)". Earth-Science Reviews. 88 (3): 145–166. Bibcode:2008ESRv...88..145A. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.01.007.
  16. ^ C. A. W. Jeekel (1986). "Millipedes from Australia". Beaufortia. 36 (3): 35–50.
  17. ^ H. Enghoff (1978). "Arthrosphaera cf. brandti (Humbert), a giant pill millipede found in Tanzania, probably introduced from Sri Lanka". Revue de zoologie africaine. 91 (4): 997–999.
  18. ^ D. van den Spiegel (2002). "On the occurrence of Sphaerotherium punctulatum in Malawi (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriidae)". Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Zoologique. 290: 171–174.
  19. ^ J.-P. Mauriés (1980). "Contributions à l'étude de la faune terrestre des îles granitiques de l'archipel des Séchelles". Revue Zoologique africaine. 94 (1): 138–168.
  20. ^ C. S. Crawford (1992). "Millipedes as model detritivores". Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischen Verein Innsbruck. 10: 277–288.
  21. ^ J. P. Curry (1994). Grassland Invertebrates. Chapman and Hall, London. p. 437. ISBN 0-412-16520-1.
  22. ^ James M. Lawrence & Michael J. Samways (2003). "Litter breakdown by the Seychelles giant millipede and the conservation of soil process on Cousine Island, Seychelles". Biological Conservation. 113: 125–132. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00355-5.
  23. ^ K. M. Ashwini & K. R. Sridhar (2002). "Towards organic farming with the millipede Arthrosphaera magna" (PDF). Current Science. 82 (1): 20–22.
  24. ^ U. Haacker & S. Fuchs (1972). "Tree climbing in pill-millipedes". Oecologia. 10 (2): 191–192. Bibcode:1972Oecol..10..191H. doi:10.1007/BF00347991. PMID 28306865. S2CID 7089577.
  25. ^ T. Wesener & P. Sierwald (2005). "New giant pill millipede species from the littoral forest of Madagascar (Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida, Zoosphaerium)" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1097: 1–60. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1097.1.1.
  26. ^ a b Thomas Eisner & Joseph A. David; Davis (1967). "Mongoose throwing and smashing millipedes". Science. 155 (3762): 577–579. Bibcode:1967Sci...155..577E. doi:10.1126/science.155.3762.577. PMID 17737407. S2CID 30730046.
  27. ^ D. G. Herbert. (2000). "Dining on diplopods: remarkable feeding behaviour in chlamydephorid slugs (Mollusca: Gastropoda)". Journal of Zoology. 251 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00586.x.
  28. ^ Martin L. Adamson & Daniel van Waerebeke (1984). "Xustrostoma margarettae n. gen., n. sp. (Rhigonematidae; Nematoda) from a sphaeroteroid (order Glomerida) diplopod in Madagascar". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 62 (10): 2092–2096. doi:10.1139/z84-303. ISSN 0008-4301.
  29. ^ Van waerebeke, D. (1985). "Glomerinema ratsimamangi n. gen., n. sp. (Nematoda, Rhigonematidae) parasite de Gloméris (Diplopode) à Madagascar : description et spermiogenèse". Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée. 60 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1051/parasite/198560123. ISSN 0003-4150. open access
  30. ^ T. Wesener, I. Bespalova & P. Sierwald (2010). "Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)". African Invertebrates. 51 (1): 133–161. doi:10.5733/afin.051.0102.
  31. ^ Wesener, Thomas (2009). "Unexplored richness: discovery of 31 new species of giant pill millipedes endemic to Madagascar, with a special emphasis on microendemism (Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida)" (PDF). Zootaxa. 2097: 1–134. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2097.1.1.
  32. ^ a b Wesener, Thomas (2014). "A new phylogenetic analysis of the Sphaerotheriida (Diplopoda) with a revision of the Australian giant pill-millipedes". Invertebrate Systematics. 28 (2): 196. doi:10.1071/IS13048. S2CID 83889399.
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Sphaerotheriida: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

Sphaerotheriida is an order of millipedes in the infraclass Pentazonia, sometimes known as giant pill millipedes. They inhabit Southern Africa, Madagascar, South and Southeast Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Like the Northern Hemisphere pill millipedes of the order Glomerida, these millipedes can roll into a ball when disturbed. When they are rolled-up, most sphaerotheriidans reach a maximum size of a cherry or golf ball, but some species from Madagascar can even reach the size of an orange (an example of island gigantism; illustration - [1]). When rolled-up, predators are unable to unravel giant pill millipedes since the margins of their second and last dorsal plates fit perfectly into one another, creating a sealed ball. A few giant pill millipede species are able to produce sound, the only millipedes known to do this. This order of millipedes is also unique in that some African species are used for medicinal purposes.

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Sphaerotheriida ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Sphaerotheriid pill millipede (Order Sphaerotheriida) (4364601900).jpg

Sphaerotheriida (англ.)отряд крупных двупарноногих многоножек из инфракласса Pentazonia (Diplopoda). Около 300 видов[1].

Распространение

Южное полушарие[2]: Южная Африка, Мадагаскар, Индия, Юго-Восточная Азия, Австралия, Новая Зеландия[3][4].

Все 4 семейства встречаются в разных местах и их ареалы не перекрываются. Наиболее базальное семейство Procyliosomatidae представлено только в Австралии и на Новой Зеландии[2][5]. Семейство Zephronidae (= Sphaeropoeidae) обитает в Юго-Восточной Азии от Гималай и Китая до Сулавеси и Филиппин на востоке[2]. Семейство Sphaerotheriidae встречается только в Южной Африке с изолированными популяциями в Зимбавбе и Малави (возможно, интродуцировано)[6]. Семейство Arthrosphaeridae встречается в южной Индии и на Мадагаскаре[2].

Описание

Утолщённое тело состоит из головы, грудного сегмента, 12 тергитов и 21 (самки) или 23 (самцы) пар ног (в сумме 42 или 44 ноги). У самцов имеются дополнительные 2 пары ног (телоподы) под анальным диском[2][7]. Длина до 95 мм, ширина до 55 мм. Голова крупная, округлая. Глаза крупные, состоят из множества оцеллий. Дорсальная бороздка и параноты отсутствуют. 2-й тергит большой, 13-й сегмент антенн короткий и толстый[3]. Населяют подстилочный слой влажных лесов, известны древесные виды[8].

Большинство изученных видов детритоядные, питаются опавшими листьями и ветвями и другим мёртвым органическим материалом. Подобно дождевым червям играют важную роль в почвообразовательном процессе[9][10][11][12].

Подобно многоножкам Северного полушария из отряда Glomerida способны сворачиваться в шар при беспокойстве. В свёрнутом состоянии они имеют максимальный размер вишни[13] или мяча для гольфа[6], но некоторые виды из Мадагаскара могут образовать шар размером с бейсбольный мяч[14] (пример островного гигантизма).

Некоторые виды гигантских многоножек Sphaerotheriida способны издавать звуки (единственные среди всех многоножек)[15]. Этот отряд уникален и тем, что некоторые африканские виды используются местными племенами в медицинских целях[16].

Содержатся любителями в террариумах во многих странах мира[17].

Несмотря на защитные приспособления Sphaerotheriida (плотные покровы и способность сворачиваться) некоторые животные специализированы на питании гигантскими многоножками этого отряда. Например, суриката (Suricata suricata)[18] или улитки семейства Chlamydephoridae (Mollusca: Gastropoda; Южная Африка), которые питаются исключительно Sphaerotheriida[19]. Из внутренних паразитов Sphaerotheriida известны специализированные формы среди нематод[20][21].

Систематика

4 семейства, 21 род[1] (или 23[2]), около 300 видов[22]. Отряд Sphaerotheriida включают в состав Pentazonia, который рассматривается или в ранге инфракласса[1] или подкласса[23]. От сходного отряда сворачивающихся многоножек Glomerida более крупными размерами (от 2 до 8 см), числом тергитов (10 или 11 у Glomerida, 12 у Sphaerotheriida) и ног (17 или 19 у Glomerida, 21 или 23 у Sphaerotheriida), морфологией головы, гениталий и другими признаками[7].

Arthrosphaera Pocock, 1895 — 40 видов, Индия, Шри-Ланка
Zoosphaerium Pocock, 1895 — 55 видов, Мадагаскар
Sphaeromimus de Saussure & Zehntner, 1902 — 3 вида, ю.-в. Мадагаскар
Microsphaerotherium Wesener & van den Spiegel, 2007 — 2 вида, Мадагаскар
Procyliosoma Silvestri, 1917 — 11 видов, Восточная Австралия, Тасмания, Новая Зеландия
Bothrobelum Verhoeff, 1924 — 1 вид, Борнео
Cryxus Leach, 1814 — 1 вид, Азия
Indosphaera Attems, 1935 — 2 вида, С.Индия, Мьянма
Kophosphaera Attems, 1935 — 5 видов, С.Индия, Непал
Leptotelopus Silvestri, 1897 — 1 вид, Мьянма
Prionobelum Verhoeff, 1924 — 8 видов, Вьетнам, ю.-з. Китай
Sphaerobelum Verhoeff, 1924 — 4 вида, Вьетнам
Zephronia Gray, 1832 — 37 видов, С.Индия, Мьянма, Малайский полуостров, Ява, Суматра, Борнео
Sphaeropoeus Brandt, 1833 — 22 вида, С.Индия, Мьянма, Малайский полуостров, Ява, Суматра, Борнео
Tigridosphaera Jeekel, 2000 — 4 вида, Малайский полуостров
Castanotherium Pocock, 1895 — 50 видов, Индонезия, Филиппины
Castanotheroides Chamberlin, 1921 — 3 вида, Филиппины
Sechelliosoma Mauriès, 1980 — 1 вид, Сейшельские острова
Rajasphaera Attems, 1935 — 1 вид, Борнео
Sphaerotherium Brandt, 1833 — 54 вида, Южная Африка, Зимбабве
Kylindotherium Attems, 1926 — 1 вид, Южная Африка
Epicyliosoma Silvestri, 1917 — 15 видов, Австралия
Cynotelopus Jeekel, 1986 — 1 вид, ю.-з. Австралия

Примечания

  1. 1 2 3 William Shear. (2011). Class Diplopoda de Blainville in Gervais, 1844. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. — Zootaxa 3148:149 — 164.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thomas Wesener & Didier van den Spiegel (2009). “A first phylogenetic analysis of giant pill millipedes (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida), a new model Gondwanan taxon, with special emphasis on island gigantism”. Cladistics. 25 (6): 545—573. DOI:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00267.x. Текст "Science " пропущен (справка)
  3. 1 2 Milli-PEET: Identification Tables
  4. Rowland M. Shelley, Sergei I. Golovatch. Atlas of Myriapod Biogeography. I. Indigenous Ordinal and Supra-Ordinal Distributions in the Diplopoda: Perspectives on Taxon Origins and Ages, and a Hypothesis on the Origin and Early Evolution of the Class (англ.) // Insecta Mundi. — Gainesville, Florida: Center for systematic entomology, Inc., 2011. — No. 0158-0161. — P. 1-134. — ISSN 0749-6737. (18 March 2011).
  5. C. A. W. Jeekel (1986). “Millipedes from Australia”. Beaufortia. 36 (3): 35—50.
  6. 1 2 D. van den Spiegel, S. I. Golovatch & M. Hamer (2003). “Revision of some of the oldest species in the millipede genus Sphaerotherium, Brandt, 1833 (Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida, Sphaerotheriidae), with new synonymies”. African Invertebrates. 43: 143—181. Архивировано из оригинала 2011-10-04. Проверено 2013-01-25. Используется устаревший параметр |deadlink= (справка)
  7. 1 2 H. Enghoff (1984). “Phylogeny of millipedes – a cladistic analysis”. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 22: 8—26. DOI:10.1111/j.1439-0469.1984.tb00559.x.
  8. U. Haacker & S. Fuchs (1972). “Tree climbing in pill-millipedes”. Oecologia. 10 (2): 191—192. DOI:10.1007/BF00347991.
  9. C. S. Crawford (1992). “Millipedes as model detritivores”. Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischen Verein Innsbruck. 10: 277—288.
  10. J. P. Curry. Grassland Invertebrates. — Chapman and Hall, London, 1994. — P. 437. — ISBN 0-412-16520-1.
  11. James M. Lawrence & Michael J. Samways (2003). “Litter breakdown by the Seychelles giant millipede and the conservation of soil process on Cousine Island, Seychelles”. Biological Conservation. 113: 125—132. DOI:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00355-5.
  12. K. M. Ashwini & K. R. Sridhar (2002). “Towards organic farming with the millipede Arthrosphaera magna (PDF). Current Science (Bangalore). 82 (1): 20—22.
  13. Beverley A. Holloway (1956). “Revision of the New Zealand pill millipedes (Oniscomorpha, Sphaerotheridae)” (PDF). Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 84 (2): 431—446.
  14. Thomas Wesener & Johann-Wolfgang Wägele (2008). “The giant pill millipedes of Madagascar: revision of the genus Zoosphaerium (Myriapoda, Diplopoda, Sphaerotheriida)” (PDF). Zoosystema. 30 (1): 5—85. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 2011-06-12. Проверено 2013-01-25. Используется устаревший параметр |deadlink= (справка)
  15. U. Haacker (1968). “Das Sexualverhalten von Sphaerotherium dorsale (Myriapoda, Diplopoda)”. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft. 3: 454—463.
  16. D. G. Herbert, M. L. Hamer, M. Mander, N. Mkhize & F. Prins (2003). “Invertebrate animals as a component of the traditional medicine trade in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa”. African Invertebrates. 44 (2): 327—344. Архивировано из оригинала 2011-09-03. Проверено 2013-01-25. Используется устаревший параметр |deadlink= (справка)
  17. Pill Millipede Care Sheet (неопр.). Golden Phoenix Exotica. Архивировано 6 февраля 2013 года.
  18. Thomas Eisner & Joseph A. David (1967). “Mongoose throwing and smashing millipedes”. Science. 155 (3762): 577—579. DOI:10.1126/science.155.3762.577. PMID 17737407.
  19. D. G. Herbert. (2000). “Dining on diplopods: remarkable feeding behaviour in chlamydephorid slugs (Mollusca: Gastropoda)”. Journal of Zoology. 251 (1): 1—5. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00586.x.
  20. Martin L. Adamson & Daniel van Waerebeke (1984). “Xustrostoma margarettae n. gen., n. sp. (Rhigonematidae; Nematoda) from a sphaeroteroid (order Glomerida) diplopod in Madagascar”. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 62 (10): 2092—2096. DOI:10.1139/z84-303. ISSN 0008-4301.
  21. Daniel van Waerebeke (1985). “Glomerinema ratsimamangi n.gen., n.sp. (Nematoda, Rhigonematidae) parasite de Glomeris (Diplopode) à Madagascar: description et spermiogenese”. Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée. 60 (1): 23—32. ISSN 0003-4150.
  22. T. Wesener, I. Bespalova & P. Sierwald (2010). “Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)”. African Invertebrates. 51 (1): 133—161.
  23. William A. Shear & Gregory D. Edgecombe (2010). “The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda”. Arthropod Structure & Development. 39 (2—3): 174—190. DOI:10.1016/j.asd.2009.11.002. PMID 19944188.
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Sphaerotheriida: Brief Summary ( Russian )

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Sphaerotheriid pill millipede (Order Sphaerotheriida) (4364601900).jpg

Sphaerotheriida (англ.) — отряд крупных двупарноногих многоножек из инфракласса Pentazonia (Diplopoda). Около 300 видов.

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