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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 20.8 years
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Conservation Status

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Turkey vultures are a common species throughout their range. The IUCN lists them as a species of Least Concern.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Turkey vulture chicks and eggs are preyed on by mammalian nest predators, such as raccoons. Young and adults are sometimes preyed on by owls. Although turkey vultures have few natural predators, they are known for their defense mechanism of regurgitating semi-digested meat--which deters most predators due to its putrid smell.

Most documented mortality of turkey vultures is caused by human interactions, including collisions with vehicles and structures and entrapment in fencing and leg-hold traps. Problems caused by black vultures are sometimes blamed on turkey vultures by association. Humans sometimes destroy turkey vultures and their roosts.

In 1994 there was an observation at Isla Espiritu Santo, Baja California, Mexico, of yellow-footed gulls (Larus livens) attacking a turkey vulture that had flown near their breeding colony.

Known Predators:

  • humans (Homo sapiens)
  • great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
  • raccoons (Procyon lotor)
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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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There are six subspecies of turkey vultures: three in North America and three in South and Central America. Cathartes aura septentrionalis is found in the eastern United States and west into Minnesota, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Cathartes aura meridionalis is located mainly west of C. a. septentrionalis and into Baja California, excluding the lower Colorado River valley. Cathartes aura aura is found in the lower Colorado River valley, including most of Arizona, and in southern New Mexico and Texas. Cathartes aura ruficollis is found from Costa Rica south to northern Argentina and east of the Andes, Cathartes aura jota is found in the highlands of southern Colombia through Argentina, and Cathartes aura falklandica is found west of the Andes from Ecuador and Peru through Chile and on the Falkland Islands.

Depending on the subspecies, turkey vultures vary from 0.85 to 2 kg and can have a total length between 64 and 81 cm. Sexes do not differ, all have a brownish black plumage with a bare head and neck. The head and neck skin color can vary from pink to bright red. Turkey vultures are commonly mistaken for black vultures. However, they can be distinguished by their grey primary and secondary feathers and their black head and neck color.

Based on their wing surface to weight ratio, turkey vultures have light wing loading. This makes them more buoyant in air than other vultures and better able to utilize thermals to help them stay in flight with minimal energy usage.

Range mass: 0.85 to 2.00 kg.

Range length: 64 to 81 cm.

Range wingspan: 170 to 183 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Life Expectancy

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There is little recorded information on the lifespan of turkey vultures. A banded individual lived up to 16 years and 10 months. One study demonstrated that up to one-fifth of all adult turkey vultures die each year.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
17 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
10 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
202 months.

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Turkey vultures occupy a diverse range of habitats. They are found in forested as well as open environments. Turkey vultures can be found anywhere they can effectively find a carrion food supply. They are easily habituated to humans and human development.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural ; riparian ; estuarine

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Distribution

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Turkey vultures range as far north as the southern border of Canada and as far south as Tierra del Fuego, Chile. Over the past few decades, they have been expanding their geographic range northward. This expansion may be a result of laws and restrictions on hunting this species.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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Turkey vulture diets vary depending on their habitat. Vultures living around agriculture feed mainly on the carrion of domestic animals, mostly livestock. They also rely heavily on roadkill in areas of human development. A study in South Carolina found that in non-agricultural areas, their primary source of food was wild carrion. Turkey vultures preferentially feed on smaller carcasses, but will feed on dead animals of any size. They prefer freshly dead carcasses but cannot get through the thick skin of larger animals, so must wait for some decay to enable entering body cavities. To find their food they rely on their keen sense of smell and vision. They are one of the few bird species that has an acute sense of smell. In some cases, turkey vultures have been seen eating rotten fruits and vegetables and occasionally they prey on insects, reptiles, or bird nestlings. Turkey vultures have also been observed eating coyote and domestic animal dung.

Animal Foods: birds; reptiles; carrion ; insects

Other Foods: dung

Primary Diet: carnivore (Scavenger )

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Because turkey vultures are major consumer of carrion, they play an important role in biodegradation.

Black vultures follow turkey vultures to carcasses and then aggressively out-compete them at the carcass.

There are multiple parasitic bacteria that have been associated with turkey vultures. In a study in Texas, two ectoparasites from families Cimididae and Hippoboscidae were found to be on some turkey vultures. Another study at the University of California showed that turkey vultures are capable of contracting Chlamydiosis. This was observed in a captive subject at a raptor rehabilitation center in California in 1983.

Ecosystem Impact: biodegradation

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • black vultures (Coragyps atratus)
  • Haematosiphon inodorus
  • Olfersia bisulcata
  • Chlamydia psittaci
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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Turkey vultures are important as scavengers. They remove dead carcasses, which can pose a health risk to humans and livestock.

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Benefits

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Because turkey vultures commonly roost with black vultures where they co-occur, they are sometimes associated with the negative impacts of black vultures. In Virginia, black vultures have been caught killing young livestock and harassing, injuring, or even killing domestic pets. Numerous non-lethal attempts have been made to remove vultures from the area include: deter these roosts by removing carrion, moving expectant cattle to alternate pastures, pyrotechnics to scare off vultures, and monitoring livestock several times a day. These efforts are generally ineffective. Lethal methods of removal are common among farmers to prevent further economic losses. Turkey vultures rarely kill small animals, relying almost exclusively on carrion.

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Behavior

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Like most vultures, turkey vultures lack complexity in vocalizations. Most vocalizations are grunts, hisses, and barking sounds, used mainly for predator deterrence. Visual cues are used in mating rituals and may be used in other forms of communication.

Turkey vultures have a well-developed sense of smell and are one of the only species of birds worldwide that uses smell extensively. They use their keen sense of smell and their vision to locate carcasses. Black vultures take advantage of this, following turkey vultures to carcasses and then excluding them.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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To start the mating ritual, several birds gather on the ground and begin hopping around in a circle with wings partially spread. In flight a bird might closely follow a potential mate while continuing a ritual of flapping and diving.

Adult mated pairs spend much more time with one another than with other vultures. Mating-pair bonds last throughout the breeding season and often all year long.

Mating System: monogamous

Breeding takes place from March to June in North America. Nest sites are usually found in sheltered areas such as hollow trees or logs, crevices in cliffs, or in old buildings. Little or no nest is actually built in these sites. Their eggs are laid on debris or the flat bottom of the nest site. Eggs are off-white and marked with brown and lavender. Incubation time is typically 30 to 40 days. Young reach the fledging stage at 70 to 80 days old and are independent about a week later.

Breeding interval: Turkey vultures breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from March to June in North America.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 3.

Range time to hatching: 30 to 40 days.

Range fledging age: 70 to 80 days.

Range time to independence: 80 to 90 days.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average eggs per season: 2.

Turkey vulture chicks are altricial. Adults care for them for 70 to 80 days by regurgitating well-digested food several times daily and providing some protection. Both adults care fr the young. If adults are threatened when nesting, they might flee, regurgitate on the intruder, or play dead.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

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Farmer, A. 2008. "Cathartes aura" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cathartes_aura.html
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Adam Farmer, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web
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Biology

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Active during the day, the turkey vulture is commonly encountered perched, with wings outstretched in the morning sun. The reason for this behaviour is not entirely clear, but it may be to dry out the feathers, prior to taking to the air (3). Once aloft, this species is a graceful flyer, often gliding close to the ground, with wings angled upwards forming a slight V-shape (3) (4). The turkey vulture feeds almost exclusively on carrion and, unlike most birds, has a highly developed sense of smell, which it uses to locate carcasses, even under a cover of vegetation. This ability means that the turkey vulture is often the first scavenger to arrive at a carcass, allowing it to feed before the arrival of larger birds of prey, which drive this species away (2) (5). In response to its diet of rotting meat, the turkey vulture has evolved a remarkably high tolerance for microbial toxins, and plays an important ecological role in disposing of carcasses that could otherwise breed disease (5). Unlike some larger vultures, the turkey vulture very rarely kills, and only tackles sick or injured animals, nestlings and insects (2) (5). The turkey vulture's breeding season varies according to location, with populations in temperate parts of North America laying eggs between May and June, while populations in Central America lay between February and April (2). Breeding in tropical parts of South America is less well known (2), although egg-laying has been recorded between August and January in Chile (5). Turkey vultures do not provide nesting material, and simply lay a clutch of two eggs directly on the ground in shallow caves or under dense undergrowth, or alternatively in a hollow tree stump or log. After 38 to 41 days of incubation, the eggs hatch, and the young are brooded for a further 70 to 80 days before fledging (2). Although turkey vulture populations in Central and South America generally remain in a single location throughout the year, North American subspecies make lengthy migrations. During the period between September and November, loose flocks of tens of thousands of birds form, which fly south to South America, sometimes as far as Paraguay, to spend the winter (2) (5).
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Conservation

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While there is little requirement at present to conserve the turkey vulture (1), the Turkey Vulture Society is working to promote scientific study of this fascinating and ecologically important species and reduce its persecution (6).
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Description

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With a bright, pinkish-red head, brownish-black plumage and a two metre wingspan, the turkey vulture is a highly distinctive bird of prey (2). The head is almost entirely bald, except for some sparse black bristles, and often bears a number of whitish warts. The reddish colouration, which contrasts strongly with the whitish beak, develops as individuals mature, with juvenile birds initially possessing dark grey skin on the head, covered thinly by short downy feathers (2) (3). There are currently six recognised subspecies of turkey vulture (3), which can be distinguished by location, size and intensity of head colouration (2) (3).
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Habitat

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In accordance with the turkey vulture's extensive range, its habitat preferences are extremely broad. Populations are found in coastal deserts, grassland, savanna, temperate forest, and even dense tropical rainforest (2) (3).
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Range

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The turkey vulture has an extremely expansive range, with the nominate subspecies Cathartes aura aura being found in south-western North America, south to Costa Rica and the Greater Antilles (3). An introduced population also occurs in Puerto Rico (2). Cathartes aura septentrionalis occupies eastern and south-eastern North America, while Cathartes aura meridionalis inhabits southern Canada and northern and central USA (3). Cathartes aura ruficollis is found in southern Central America and lowland South America east of Andes (3), as well as in Trinidad (2). Cathartes aura jota occupies the slopes and valleys of the Andes from Colombia to Patagonia, while Cathartes aura falklandicus is foundfrom Ecuador, south through the western Andes to Tierra del Fuego and the Falklands (3).
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Status

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Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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There are currently no major threats to the turkey vulture, its population and range are extremely large, stable and in some areas are increasing (1) (2). Nevertheless, due to the unjustified negative associations sometimes held with regard to vultures, in some regions the turkey vulture faces local persecution (3) (6).
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Cathartes aura

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A large (26-32 inches) dark raptor, the Turkey Vulture is most easily identified by its dark brown body, featherless red head, and huge wingspan. This species may be separated from the related Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) by that species’ smaller size, gray head, and shorter tail. Male and female Turkey Vultures are similar to one another in all seasons. The Turkey Vulture breeds across much of the United States (patchily distributed in the Great Plains) and southern Canada south to southern South America. Populations breeding on northern and interior portions of this range migrate south to the southern half of the U.S. for the winter. Populations breeding in the southeastern U.S., California, and the tropics are generally non-migratory. Turkey Vultures typically breed and roost in dense woodland while feeding in more open habitats, such as grasslands, meadows, and fields. In some areas, Turkey Vultures also utilize man-made structures, such as abandoned buildings and utility poles. This species feeds almost exclusively on carrion, rarely killing prey itself. Due to this species’ need to scavenge for food, Turkey Vultures are most easily observed soaring high above the ground in search of carrion. Scientists have discovered that this species possesses a more developed sense of smell than the Black Vulture, and that Black Vultures often wait for Turkey Vultures to find food before driving them off and taking the carcass for themselves. This species is primarily active during the day.

Threat Status: Least Concern

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Reid Rumelt

Cathartes aura

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A large (26-32 inches) dark raptor, the Turkey Vulture is most easily identified by its dark brown body, featherless red head, and huge wingspan. This species may be separated from the related Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) by that species’ smaller size, gray head, and shorter tail. Male and female Turkey Vultures are similar to one another in all seasons. The Turkey Vulture breeds across much of the United States (patchily distributed in the Great Plains) and southern Canada south to southern South America. Populations breeding on northern and interior portions of this range migrate south to the southern half of the U.S. for the winter. Populations breeding in the southeastern U.S., California, and the tropics are generally non-migratory. Turkey Vultures typically breed and roost in dense woodland while feeding in more open habitats, such as grasslands, meadows, and fields. In some areas, Turkey Vultures also utilize man-made structures, such as abandoned buildings and utility poles. This species feeds almost exclusively on carrion, rarely killing prey itself. Due to this species’ need to scavenge for food, Turkey Vultures are most easily observed soaring high above the ground in search of carrion. Scientists have discovered that this species possesses a more developed sense of smell than the Black Vulture, and that Black Vultures often wait for Turkey Vultures to find food before driving them off and taking the carcass for themselves. This species is primarily active during the day.

References

  • Cathartes aura. Xeno-canto. Xeno-canto Foundation, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). The Internet Bird Collection. Lynx Edicions, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • eBird Range Map - Turkey Vulture. eBird. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Peterson, Roger Tory. Birds of Eastern and Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. Print..
  • Kirk, David A. and Michael J. Mossman. 1998. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/339

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Rumelt, Reid B. Cathartes aura. June-July 2012. Brief natural history summary of Cathartes aura. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
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Robert Costello (kearins)
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Turkey vulture

provided by wikipedia EN

The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) is the most widespread of the New World vultures.[2] One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.[1]

Like all New World vultures, it is not closely related to the Old World vultures of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The two groups strongly resemble each other because of convergent evolution; natural selection often leads to similar body plans in animals that adapt independently to similar conditions.

The turkey vulture is a scavenger and feeds almost exclusively on carrion.[3] It finds its food using its keen eyes and sense of smell, flying low enough to detect the gasses produced by the beginnings of the process of decay in dead animals.[3] In flight, it uses thermals to move through the air, flapping its wings infrequently. It roosts in large community groups. Lacking a syrinx—the vocal organ of birds—its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses.[4] It nests in caves, hollow trees, or thickets. Each year it generally raises two chicks, which it feeds by regurgitation.[5] It has very few natural predators.[6] In the United States, the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.[7]

Names

Cathartes aura is the scientific name of the turkey vulture. It is also known in some North American regions as buzzard or turkey buzzard and in some areas of the Caribbean as the John crow or carrion crow.[8]

Taxonomy

In flight over Cuba

The turkey vulture received its common name from the resemblance of the adult's bald red head and its dark plumage to that of the male wild turkey, while the name "vulture" is derived from the Latin word vulturus, meaning "tearer", and is a reference to its feeding habits.[9] The word buzzard is used by North Americans to refer to this bird, yet in the Old World that term refers to members of the genus Buteo.[10] The turkey vulture was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus as Vultur aura in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, and characterised as "V. fuscogriseus, remigibus nigris, rostro albo" ("brown-gray vulture, with black wing flight feathers and a white beak").[11] It is a member of the family Cathartidae, along with the other six species of New World vultures, and included in the genus Cathartes, along with the greater yellow-headed vulture and the lesser yellow-headed vulture. Like other New World vultures, the turkey vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.[12]

The taxonomic placement of the turkey vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures has been in flux.[13] Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world. Some earlier authorities suggested that the New World vultures were more closely related to storks.[14] More recent authorities maintained their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures[15] or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes.[16]

However, recent genetic studies indicate that neither New World nor Old World vultures are close to falcons, nor are New World vultures close to storks.[17] Both are basal members of the clade Afroaves,[18] with Old World vultures comprising several groups within the family Accipitridae, also containing eagles, kites, and hawks,[19][20] while New World vultures in Cathartiformes are a sister group to Accipitriformes[18] (containing the osprey and secretarybird along with Accipitridae[20]).

There are five subspecies of turkey vulture:

Description

Skull of a turkey vulture

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A large bird, it has a wingspan of 160–183 cm (63–72 in), a length of 62–81 cm (24–32 in), and weight of 0.8 to 2.41 kg (1.8 to 5.3 lb).[25][26][27][28] Birds in the northern limit of the species' range average larger in size than the vulture from the neotropics. 124 birds from Florida averaged 2 kg (4.4 lb) while 65 and 130 birds from Venezuela were found to average 1.22 and 1.45 kg (2.7 and 3.2 lb), respectively.[29][30][31] It displays minimal sexual dimorphism; sexes are identical in plumage and in coloration, and are similar in size.[32] The body feathers are mostly brownish-black, but the flight feathers on the wings appear to be silvery-gray beneath, contrasting with the darker wing linings.[25] The adult's head is small in proportion to its body and is red in color with few to no feathers. It also has a relatively short, hooked, ivory-colored beak.[33] The irises of the eyes are gray-brown; legs and feet are pink-skinned, although typically stained white. The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid.[34]

An eastern turkey vulture (C. a. septentrionalis) in flight (Canada)

The two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases.[35] Tracks are large, between 9.5 and 14 cm (3.7 and 5.5 in) in length and 8.2 and 10.2 cm (3.2 and 4.0 in) in width, both measurements including claw marks. Toes are arranged in the classic, anisodactyl pattern.[36] The feet are flat, relatively weak, and poorly adapted to grasping; the talons are also not designed for grasping, as they are relatively blunt.[2] In flight, the tail is long and slim. The black vulture is relatively shorter-tailed and shorter-winged, which makes it appear rather smaller in flight than the turkey vulture, although the body masses of the two species are roughly the same. The nostrils are not divided by a septum, but rather are perforate; from the side one can see through the beak.[37] It undergoes a molt in late winter to early spring. It is a gradual molt, which lasts until early autumn.[5] The immature bird has a gray head with a black beak tip; the colors change to those of the adult as the bird matures.[38] Captive longevity is not well known. As of 2020 there are two captive birds over 45 years old: the Gabbert Raptor Center on the University of Minnesota campus is home to a turkey vulture named Nero with a confirmed hatch-year of 1974,[39] and another male bird, named Lord Richard, lives at the Lindsay Wildlife Experience in Walnut Creek, CA. Lord Richard hatched in 1974 and arrived at the museum later that year.[40] The oldest wild captured banded bird was 16 years old.[3]

Leucistic (sometimes mistakenly called "albino") turkey vultures are sometimes seen.[41][42]

Like most other vultures, the turkey vulture has very few vocalization capabilities. Because it lacks a syrinx, it can only utter hisses and grunts.[4]

Distribution and habitat

The turkey vulture has a large range, with an estimated global occurrence of 28,000,000 km2 (11,000,000 sq mi). It is the most widely distributed vulture in the Americas and rivals its cousin the black vulture as the most abundant raptorial bird worldwide.[2] Its global population is estimated to be 18,000,000 individuals.[1][43] It is found in open and semi-open areas throughout the Americas from southern Canada to Cape Horn. It is a permanent resident in the southern United States, though northern birds may migrate as far south as South America.[3] The turkey vulture is widespread over nearly all American habitats but they tend to show particular habitat preferences.[41] It is most commonly found in relatively open areas which juxtapose with woodland, which are important both for nesting and roosting. Furthermore, turkey vultures in North America generally avoid enclosed forested areas that may hamper their ability to take flight and tend to often favor hill or low mountainous areas that make catching flight easier with less effort.[25][44] This species can be seen over open country, including grasslands but are often absent from completely treeless areas such as some parts of the prairies or Great Plains.[41][45] Additionally, they may adapt to tropical and subtropical forests, shrublands, deserts and semi-desert, wetlands and foothills.[1][41][46] Evidence indicates agricultural land is key habitat for turkey vultures, mainly pastureland or other low-input farmland for foraging and roosting but they tend to only occur ephemerally as flyovers around row-crop type agriculture.[47][48][49] Other manmade habitats can be used, with the species regularly seen over urban areas throughout its range, though they tend to use them more when not breeding, being unable to nest without appropriate habitats, and do not occur as an urban bird nearly as routinely as do black vultures in the tropics and subtropics.[50][51]

This bird with its crow-like aspect gave foot to the naming of the Quebrada de los Cuervos (Crows Ravine) in Uruguay, where they dwell together with the lesser yellow-headed vulture and the black vulture.[52]

Ecology and behavior

Adult bird in horaltic pose

The turkey vulture is gregarious and roosts in large community groups, breaking away to forage independently during the day. Several hundred vultures may roost communally in groups, which sometimes even include black vultures. It roosts often on dead, leafless trees as well as low-density conifers, and will also roost on man-made structures such as water or microwave towers. Though it nests in caves, it does not enter them except during the breeding season.[5] The turkey vulture lowers its night-time body temperature by about 6 degrees Celsius to 34 °C (93 °F), becoming slightly hypothermic.[35]

Turkey vulture flying in the Everglades

This vulture is often seen standing in a spread-winged or horaltic stance. The stance is believed to serve multiple functions: drying the wings, warming the body, and baking off bacteria. It is practiced more often following damp or rainy nights. This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures, by Old World vultures, and by storks.[6] Like storks, the turkey vulture often defecates on its own legs, using the evaporation of the water in the feces and/or urine to cool itself, a process known as urohidrosis.[53] It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet, and causes white uric acid to streak the legs.[54] The turkey vulture has few natural predators and the few recorded predators appear to take them quite infrequently. Fledging, immature and adult vultures, in descending likelihood of predation, may fall prey to great horned owls, golden eagles, bald eagles and potentially red-tailed hawks, while eggs and nestlings may be preyed on by mammals such as raccoons and opossums.[6][26][55][56][57] Foxes can occasionally ambush an adult but species that can climb are more likely to breach and predate nests than adults, while dogs may sometimes rarely kill a turkey vulture as well.[58] Its primary form of defense is regurgitating semi-digested meat, a foul-smelling substance, which deters most creatures intent on raiding a vulture nest.[5] It will also sting if the predator is close enough to get the vomit in its face or eyes. In some cases, the vulture must rid its crop of a heavy, undigested meal to take flight to flee from a potential predator.[33] Its life expectancy in the wild ranges upward of 16 years, with a captive life span of over 45 years being possible.[59][60][39]

The turkey vulture is awkward on the ground with an ungainly, hopping walk. It requires a great deal of effort to take flight, flapping its wings while pushing off the ground and hopping with its feet.[33] While soaring, the turkey vulture holds its wings in a shallow V-shape and often tips from side to side, frequently causing the gray flight feathers to appear silvery as they catch the light. The flight of the turkey vulture is an example of static soaring flight, in which it flaps its wings very infrequently, and takes advantage of rising thermals to stay soaring.[61]

Breeding

The breeding season of the turkey vulture varies according to latitude.[62] In the southern United States, it commences in March, peaks in April to May, and continues into June.[63] In more northerly latitudes, the season starts later and extends into August.[64] Courtship rituals of the turkey vulture involve several individuals gathering in a circle, where they perform hopping movements around the perimeter of the circle with wings partially spread. In the air, one bird closely follows another while flapping and diving.[46]

One chick immediately hatched and one egg not yet hatched

Eggs are generally laid in the nesting site in a protected location such as a cliff, a cave, a rock crevice, a burrow, inside a hollow tree, or in a thicket. There is little or no construction of a nest; eggs are laid on a bare surface. Females generally lay two eggs, but sometimes one and rarely three. The eggs are cream-colored, with brown or lavender spots around their larger end.[46] Both parents incubate, and the young hatch after 30 to 40 days. Chicks are altricial, or helpless at birth. Both adults feed the chicks by regurgitating food for them, and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks. When adults are threatened while nesting, they may flee, or they may regurgitate on the intruder or feign death.[5] If the chicks are threatened in the nest, they defend themselves by hissing and regurgitating.[46] The young fledge at about nine to ten weeks. Family groups remain together until fall.[46]

Feeding

Feeding on a dead gull at Morro Bay, California

The turkey vulture feeds primarily on a wide variety of carrion, from small mammals to large grazers, preferring those recently dead, and avoiding carcasses that have reached the point of putrefaction. They may rarely feed on plant matter, shoreline vegetation, pumpkin, coconut and other crops, live insects and other invertebrates.[46][65] In South America, turkey vultures have been photographed feeding on the fruits of the introduced oil palm.[66][67][68] They rarely, if ever, kill prey themselves; when they do it tends to comprise small weak offspring or very sick individuals of various animals, such as bird eggs and nestlings, as well as reptiles.[69][70][71][72] Turkey vultures have also been observed eating coyote and domestic animal dung. The turkey vulture can often be seen along roadsides feeding on roadkill, or near bodies of water, feeding on washed-up fish.[3] They also will feed on fish or insects that have become stranded in shallow water.[5] It sometimes comes to rubbish dumps, but in general, is a rather different kind of scavenger from the black vulture.[73] Like other vultures, it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion, which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease.[74]

A turkey vulture eating a garter snake

The turkey vulture forages by smell, an ability that is uncommon in the avian world, often flying low to the ground to pick up the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals.[6] The olfactory lobe of its brain, responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals.[6] This heightened ability to detect odors allows it to search for carrion below the forest canopy. King vultures, black vultures, and condors, which lack the ability to smell carrion, follow the turkey vulture to carcasses. The turkey vulture arrives first at the carcass, or with greater yellow-headed vultures or lesser yellow-headed vultures, which also share the ability to smell carrion.[6] It displaces the yellow-headed vultures from carcasses due to its larger size,[74] but is displaced in turn by the king vulture and both types of condor, which make the first cut into the skin of the dead animal. This allows the smaller, weaker-billed turkey vulture access to food, because it cannot tear the tough hides of larger animals on its own. This is an example of mutual dependence between species.[75] Black vultures tend to be more aggressive and often displace turkey vultures which appear to be intimidated especially by the feeding frenzy engaged in by the black vultures when they come in numbers (a behavior turkey vultures are apparently incapable of even when at a carcass in numbers), however pairs or individuals often seem to be able to peaceably share carrion with turkey vultures.[76][77] However, in the tropics such as Peru, turkey vultures appeared to prevail regularly over black vultures, in 56% of cases, perhaps due to the smaller size of the region's black vultures.[78] It is further subservient to large hawks such as red-tailed hawks, Harris's hawks and Buteogallus black hawks, as well as to large falcons like peregrine falcons and crested caracaras, despite most of these birds being rather smaller in body size than a turkey vulture. Often these raptors tend to engage in dive-bombing or other intimidation displays towards the vulture(s) to displace them from carrion or from perch sites. Presumably all sympatric eagles are also dominant, with bald eagles confirmed to easily dominate turkey vultures in Florida.[41][78][79][80] However, in the tropics Swainson's hawks and yellow-headed caracara (as well as lesser yellow-headed vultures) appear to be subservient to turkey vultures.[41][81] Furthermore, turkey vultures are dominant over crows at carrion, but not over common ravens.[82]

Relationship with humans

A side view, showing the perforated nostrils

The turkey vulture is sometimes accused of carrying anthrax or hog cholera, both livestock diseases, on its feet or bill by cattle ranchers and is therefore occasionally perceived as a threat.[41] However, the virus that causes hog cholera is destroyed when it passes through the turkey vulture's digestive tract.[33] This species also may be perceived as a threat by farmers due to the similar black vulture's tendency to attack and kill newborn cattle. The turkey vulture does not kill live animals but will mix with flocks of black vultures and will scavenge what they leave behind. Nonetheless, its appearance at a location where a calf has been killed gives the incorrect impression that the turkey vulture represents a danger to calves.[83] The droppings produced by turkey vultures and other vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation.[84] The turkey vulture can be held in captivity, though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act prevents this in the case of uninjured animals or animals capable of returning to the wild.[85] In captivity, it can be fed fresh meat, and younger birds will gorge themselves if given the opportunity.[33]

The turkey vulture species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States,[7] by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada,[86] and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico.[86] In the US it is illegal to take, kill, or possess turkey vultures, their eggs, and any body parts including but not limited to their feathers; violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to $100,000 for individuals or $200,000 for organizations, and/or a prison term of 1 year.[85] It is listed as a species of least concern by the IUCN Red List. Populations appear to remain stable, and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species, which requires a decline of more than 30 percent in 10 years or three generations.[1]

References

Notes

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Bibliography

  • Ffrench, R. Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. ISBN 0-7136-6759-1
  • Stiles and Skutch. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. ISBN 0-8014-9600-4
  • Kirk, D. A. and M. J. Mossman. 1998. "Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)". In The Birds of North America, No. 339 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

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Turkey vulture: Brief Summary

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The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) is the most widespread of the New World vultures. One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.

Like all New World vultures, it is not closely related to the Old World vultures of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The two groups strongly resemble each other because of convergent evolution; natural selection often leads to similar body plans in animals that adapt independently to similar conditions.

The turkey vulture is a scavenger and feeds almost exclusively on carrion. It finds its food using its keen eyes and sense of smell, flying low enough to detect the gasses produced by the beginnings of the process of decay in dead animals. In flight, it uses thermals to move through the air, flapping its wings infrequently. It roosts in large community groups. Lacking a syrinx—the vocal organ of birds—its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses. It nests in caves, hollow trees, or thickets. Each year it generally raises two chicks, which it feeds by regurgitation. It has very few natural predators. In the United States, the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.

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