Pseudotriton montanus has been found to live past 15 years in captivity. The lifespan of mud salamanders in nature has not been well documented.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: >15 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 15.1 years.
Garter snakes and water snakes are the main predators of mud salamanders.
Psudotriton montanus has complex antipredator defenses, including warning signals and toxic secretions. When threatened, a salamander tucks its head against its body. Then it rears up its hind legs and tail, balancing its weight on the forelegs. The tail curls over the head. This defensive posture, as well as a toxic substance that is secreted along the salamander's back, fends off predators.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: aposematic
Mud salamanders have a stocky body with a short tail, and range in length from 7.5 to 16 cm. Females tend to be larger than males. Body color varies geographically. Most of the adults are red or reddish-brown with round black spots or blotches on the dorsal side. Color becomes darker with age. Mud salamanders generally have 16 to 17 costal grooves found along the dorsal side.
Range length: 7.5 to 16 cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: female larger
Peudotriton montanus prefers habitats near freshwater, including swamps, bogs, springs and streams that provide a muddy regions for burrowing. Present at elevations below 700 m, these salamanders sometimes inhabit unoccupied crayfish holes.
Range elevation: 0 to 700 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Aquatic Biomes: rivers and streams
Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog
Mud salamanders (Pseudotriton montanus) are found in the southeastern United States. The species is found as far north as southern New York and as far south as northern Florida. Mud salamanders are found from the Atlantic coast in the east to Kentucky and Tennessee in the west.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
The eating habits of P. montanus have not been well studied. This species is thought to eat earthworms, insects, and arthropods. Mud salamanders may also eat other salamanders.
Animal Foods: amphibians; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Vermivore)
The ecosystem roles of mud salamanders are not well understood. The species is a generalist predator on small invertebrates in its habitat, but the extent to which these animals affect prey populations is unknown. Further, the importance of salamandersin the diets of their predators is not known. More research is needed on this species.
There is no known positive economic importance of P. montanus for humans.
There is no known negative economic importance of P. montanus for humans.
Eggs are deposited on stalks near water, in cracks near streams, in burrows, or in leaf litter. The eggs are deposited singly or in clusters of up to six eggs, and hatch between January and March. Larvae are aquatic. They are dark in color with a hint of red. Metamorphosis takes place when young are 35 to 44 millimeters in length, anywhere between 15 and 30 months of age. Newly metamorphosed salamanders are usually yellow in color, but darken to the reddish tint typical of adults.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
Research on mud salamanders has not been extensive and sightings tend to be rare. The species is not thought to be threatened, but degradation of water quality and habitat loss are possible threats to mud salamanders. A thorough consideration of the conservation status of P. montanus requires more information than is currently available.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
The communication and perception of this species has not been well studied. The presence of eyes suggests that visual cues may be significant in interpreting the environment. Tactile signals are also important, especially during mating, when a female must be lubricated by glands on a male's tail.
The extent to which these animals use chemical and auditory cues to interpret their environments is not known.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile
Male mud salamanders actively search for mates. It is not known if there is competition for mates. Males may mate several times per year with different females. It is unknown whether males keep the same mates throughout their lives.
When a mate is found, the male performs a tail undulation display. The female then straddles his tail, allowing glands on the male's tail to lubricate her. The male is then able to deposit his sperm into the female.
Mating System: polygynous
Males reach sexual maturity at about 2.5 years, but females may not become reproductive until they are 4 or 5 years old. Male mud salamanders may reproduce several times per year and it appears that they breed annually. Sexually mature females breed every other year.
Breeding occurs during the warmer months of the year. Female mud salamanders lay eggs on stalks near water, in cracks near streams, or in burrows. Egg deposition is normally during autumn or early winter. A female may stay with her eggs to aid the incubation process. Incubation typically lasts three or more months, with embryos hatching in the winter. Clutches range in size between 65 and 200.
Breeding interval: Male mud salamanders may breed several times per year. Female mud salamanders breed at most once per year, but once every two years is common.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs in the warmer months of the year and egg deposition takes place in autumn or early winter.
Range number of offspring: 65 to 200.
Average time to hatching: 3 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 to 5 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.5 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous
Knowledge of the parental behavior of this species is incomplete. As in all vertebrates, females provision eggs with nutrients for development. Females deposit eggs in a places appropriate for incubation, such as cracks and burrows, and are thought to stay with a clutch during incubation. Female mud salamanders are generally not found during the three months of incubation. Males of this species are not known to provide any parental care.
Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female)
The mud salamander (Pseudotriton montanus) is a bright red salamander of the family Plethodontidae. It is found in streams, seeps and swamps and underneath logs, rocks and leaves. It is endemic to the eastern half of the United States with one isolated population in central Mississippi. Mud salamanders are rarely seen plethodontids that inhabit muddy wetland and riparian habitats.[2] Mud salamanders don’t generally live above 700 meters in elevation in the Appalachian Mountains, resulting in two geographically isolated populations.[3] Mud salamanders have short stocky bodies ranging from 7.5 to 16 cm long. Body color ranges with age and locality. There are four subspecies in the mud salamander complex, namely the Gulf Coast mud salamander, rusty mud salamander, Midland mud salamander and the eastern mud salamander. Mud salamanders are ectothermic, meaning that they cannot control their body temperature and it fluctuates with the temperature. The mud salamander is readily confused with two other species, the red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) and the spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus).
The taxonomy of Pseudotriton montanus and its closest relatives is unsettled. Several subspecies have been described, and some of these might warrant full species rank. In particular, Pseudotriton diastictus maybe treated as a species or a subspecies (Pseudotriton montanus diastictus).[4] The rest of this article is following the latter position.
The larvae of Pseudotriton montanus are slender and uniformly light in color, with brown pigmentation in small irregular blotches and flecks.[5]
Adult mud salamanders are known for their reddish-brown color, brown eyes, stocky girth, and short tails. They have between 30 and 40 distinct round black spots on their backs by the time they reach adulthood.[6] Younger mud salamanders are typically bright red, orangish-brown, or crimson,[7] with unmarked stomachs and separated spots. As they age, the salamanders darken to a dark purplish-red or even brown. They also acquire more spots, including larger spots, and spotted stomachs.[8] Body color also varies with locality. Coastal mud salamanders tend to be more dark and drab, whilst inland mud salamanders are brighter and have more contrast against the black polka dots that sporadically pattern their bodies.
Mud salamanders can reach lengths of 3–8 in (7.6–20.3 cm) in adulthood, and are typically stocky.[9] They have 16 to 17 coastal grooves found along the dorsal sides of their bodies.[10][11]
The mud salamander is readily confused with two other species, the red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) and the spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus). It can be distinguished from the red salamander by looking at the eyes and snout. While the mud salamander has dark brown eyes and a short snout, the red salamander has golden yellow eyes and a long snout. The mud salamander can be distinguished from the spring salamander by having a shorter body length, and by not having the nasal ridge associated with spring salamanders.
The mud salamander produces a proteinaceous skin toxin along the backside of its body that can induce symptoms such as extreme irritability, hypothermia, and physical weakness in their predators.[12]
Mud salamanders breed during the warmer months of the year. Egg deposition commonly occurs during autumn and winter. The females reproduce at most once per year (usually once per two years), while males may breed several times a year. It is thought that the irregular reproductive cycle of females is a facultative adaptation which prolongs life during variable mortality rates and can increase overall reproductive success.[13] "When a mate is found, the male performs a tail undulation display. The female then straddles his tail, allowing glands on the male's tail to lubricate her. The male is then able to deposit his sperm into the female".[14] Females reach reproductive maturity around four to five years old, while males reach reproductive maturity around two to two and a half years old. The males will reach sexual maturity their first year after metamorphosis, but will reach breeding condition after a few summers. The males will produce sperm annually and try to mate between July and November, and the females will begin to oviposit in the fall.[15] "A female may stay with her eggs to aid the incubation process. Incubation typically lasts three or more months, with embryos hatching in the winter. Clutches range in size between 65 and 200[16] and increases as a function of body size.[17]
The mud salamander inhabits swamps in low elevations, bogs, seeps, springs, and streams that not only provide a muddy bottom, but also clean and clear water. The mud salamander, a burrowing species, seeks shelter in burrows beneath leaf litter, logs, stones, or bark. The mud salamander may also build tunnels in creek banks, as well. These amphibians spend most of their lives in close proximity to water, but also burrow into the soil of the surrounding area. Larvae are usually underground in muddy springs; they are often found in leaf litter, debris, and muck of muddy springs, seeps, and streams. After they lose their gills and become adults, they make burrows in muddy areas. They often use burrows of crayfish and will sit with their heads sticking out of these burrows waiting for prey to pass by. They come out of these burrows at night and forage in the surrounding area. Generally, mud salamanders do not wander as far from their main habitat as their close relatives, the red salamanders. Mud salamanders seem to favor small, muddy seeps and springs that dry up in the summer. Both larval and adult mud salamanders go deep underground during the hottest months of the summer, especially in the small springs and seeps that dry up. The gilled larvae go deep in the mud where the water is underground and the adults remain deep in burrows. During the hottest times of the year, they are usually only found at night or during rains foraging for a short time before they return to their burrows in the mud. Dusky salamanders are often found in the same habitat as mud salamanders and are much easier to find than the mud salamanders. When this is the case, the more abundant dusky salamanders often serve as a food source for the mud salamanders. There are many scenarios where small muddy springs where mud salamanders live feed into larger streams that have more common species such as dusky and two-lined salamanders. In this case, the muds venture into the main stream and can often be found in it because they are looking for more food outside of their smaller, more primary habitat. One reason for this is less competition outside of a smaller habitat full of mud salamanders, another reason is the abundant two lined and dusky salamanders that are food for the larger muds. They can often be found in creeks that do not seem like ideal habitat for them because they have ventured out of their primary habitat for food. Chances are an ideal muddy habitat is within walking distance from where the mud salamander was found in the stream.[18]
Although the only recorded predators of mud salamanders are snakes (garter or water snakes), Pseudotriton montanus exhibits anti-predator techniques such as curling the body, extending rear limbs, and raising its tail to its head to appear larger, as well as being able to release a toxic substance along its dorsum.[19] This toxicity has been equated to being somewhere between the dusky salamander and highly unpalatable red eft.[20] The coloration and defensive posture of the mud salamander has been hypothesized to mimic that of the red eft stage of the eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) which emits a powerful neurotoxin in their skin compared to the mild toxin they produce.[21]
A mud salamander's diet varies with age. In the larval stage, the small creatures tend to feed on equal-sized or smaller, aquatic invertebrates.[22] The salamander larvae are also said to consume other salamander larvae.[23] As an adult, though, the salamander's diet increases in variety, but it still eats smaller prey. Though not much is known about an adult salamander's eating habits,[24] it is known that they are likely to feed on earthworms, beetles, spiders, and even smaller kinds of salamanders.[25] Mud salamanders also can eat invertebrates as small as mites.[24] What the mud salamander tends to eat however, mainly lies in the habitat in which it lives.
Because of the mud salamander's extreme rarity in Virginia, it was put on the threatened species list in 1979. The Virginia Herpetological Society regards this species to be secure globally, but in danger in Virginia because of its extreme rarity there.[26] Many surveys and searches were run in the 1980s to locate the populations of the mud salamander in western Virginia. Although efforts were great, few sightings of this species were made. Because little information about the species is known, it is difficult to find possible threats, but threats to other types of salamanders probably affect mud salamanders. UPDATE several located in Macon County North Carolina (12/15/2015) [27] Update: 4/24/2016 found in National Forest in Lumpkin County, near Dahlonega, GA. 3/28/18. 1 individual found in Eastern Kentucky on a survey of local species by Mr Torrey A. Stegall. County not specified due to their rarity in the state, but it was made clear that the individual was found in the Daniel Boone National Forest.
The mud salamander (Pseudotriton montanus) is a bright red salamander of the family Plethodontidae. It is found in streams, seeps and swamps and underneath logs, rocks and leaves. It is endemic to the eastern half of the United States with one isolated population in central Mississippi. Mud salamanders are rarely seen plethodontids that inhabit muddy wetland and riparian habitats. Mud salamanders don’t generally live above 700 meters in elevation in the Appalachian Mountains, resulting in two geographically isolated populations. Mud salamanders have short stocky bodies ranging from 7.5 to 16 cm long. Body color ranges with age and locality. There are four subspecies in the mud salamander complex, namely the Gulf Coast mud salamander, rusty mud salamander, Midland mud salamander and the eastern mud salamander. Mud salamanders are ectothermic, meaning that they cannot control their body temperature and it fluctuates with the temperature. The mud salamander is readily confused with two other species, the red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) and the spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus).