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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Observations: Little is known about the longevity of these animals, though it has been reported that they live up to 8 years (Ernest 2003).
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Trophic Strategy

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White-tailed jackrabbits are strict herbivores. They feed on grasses, forbs, and shrubs in varying amounts. In the summer months, when many succulent plants are readily found, L. townsendii feeds on flora such as clover (Trifolium sp.) and dryland sedge (Carex obtusata). As the winter months approach, white-tailed jackrabbits turn to the bark of shrubs such as Parry's rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus parryi) and plants like alfalfa (Medicago sativa) that are exposed through the snow. Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and western wheat grass (Agropyron smithii) are also imporant parts the diet (Kim, 1987 and Chapman et al., 1982). This species has been known to winter in barns and feed extensively on the hay found inside (Banfield, 1974). White-tailed jackrabbits are generally voracious eaters and captive specimens have been known to eat as much as .5 kg of plant matter daily (Kim, 1987).

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Associations

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Lepus townsendii is a favorite prey item of animals such as red fox, grey fox, coyote, bobcat, cougar, badger, snakes, owls, eagles, and many species of hawks. The general method of predator avoidance is to lie perfectly still in the form, relying on their cryptic coloration to avoid detection, with large ears pointed slightly up for predator detection. Jackrabbits may attempt to slink off silently but will bound away with surprising speed and height when surprised. Zig-zag patterns as well as proficient swimming have been observed in predator escapes.

Known Predators:

  • red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
  • grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)
  • coyotes (Canis latrans)
  • bobcats (Lynx rufus)
  • mountain lions (Puma concolor)
  • badgers (Taxidea taxus)
  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • owls (Strigiformes)
  • eagles and hawks (Accipitridae)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Morphology

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The pelage of Lepus townsendii varies with season and habitat. The upper parts range from yellowish to grayish brown in colour, with white or grey on the underside. The throat and face are somewhat darker with coarser hair. In the northern extent of the range where there is significant snow fall during the year, a pure white colouration is attained with the possibilty of a buffy tint on the face, ears, feet and back. A slight change may be noted in the more southern range where only the sides of the animal become white while the back retains a more buffy-grey tinge. An early to late spring moult reverses this process. As the common name indicates, the tail is always white which may possess a buffy dorsal stripe. Ears of this jackrabbit are rimmed in white and tipped in black year round. The juvenile pelage is similar but paler in colour with more under fur and less developed course guard hairs (Kim, 1987).

White-tailed jackrabbits have a number of other distinct morphological characters which reflect adaptation to their environment and ecology. Enormous ears equipped with generous blood flow are used for heat dissipation in the warmer portions of the range, while they also provide an excellent means of predator detection. L.townsendii have large hind legs which facilitate high jumps and quick escapes from predators (Forsyth,1999). The dental formula is 2/1 0/0 3/2 3/3 =28 with huge upper insicors for nipping plants (Chapman et al.,1982)

Though females are slightly larger in size, there is no other apparent sexual dimorphism (Kim, 1987).

Range mass: 3 to 4 kg.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 7.698 W.

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Life Expectancy

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Lepus townsendii lives to approximately 8 years of age in the wild.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
8 (high) years.

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Habitat

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White-tailed jackrabbits prefer open grasslands but thrive in pastures and fields. This species can also be found in forested areas up to high alpine tundra, from 40 to 4300 meters elevation.

Range elevation: 40 to 4300 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Distribution

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White-tailed jackrabbits are found throughout west-central Canada and the United States with an elevation span of 40 to 4,300 m. They range from the Great Plains of Saskatchewan and Alberta east to extreme southwest Ontario down into Wisconsin and across the continent to the Rocky Mountains with a southern limit in central California (Wilson and Ruff, 1999). There has been a noted range reduction from the south east over the past half-century, notably in Kansas, due to habitat alteration from increased agriculture and competition from the sympatric black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus). An accompanying range increase to the north has been observed over time (Kim, 1987).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Associations

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White-tailed jackrabbits are an important prey source for medium to large sized predators in the ecosystems in which they live. They also impact vegetation community composition through their grazing activities.

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Benefits

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White-tailed jackrabbits were a significant food source for early settlers of North America and continue to be a year round game animal. Their pelts were once highly prized and widely used in the commercial fur industry.

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material

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Gosline, A. 2001. "Lepus townsendii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_townsendii.html
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Benefits

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White-tailed jackrabbits are often viewed as a threat by farmers as they can destroy crops, eat hay stores, and girdle trees (Chapman et al., 1982). Because of low population densities and grassland preferences, the impact of L. townsendii on argriculture is usually small. (Banfield, 1974).

Negative Impacts: crop pest

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Conservation Status

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White-tailed jackrabbits are abundant through most of their range and have no special conservation status. They are considered "least concern" by the IUCN. The subspecies Lepus townsendii townsendii is considered a mammal of special concern in California, where populations have declined dramatically, probably as a result of competition with livestock and overgrazing by livestock.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Behavior

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These animals generally make no vocalizations, but will scream if caught or injured (Banfield, 1974). They are likely to rely extensively on their acute hearing and sense of smell to perceive their environment, but also have good vision and whiskers that help them in navigating and finding food. Like most mammals, they probably also rely extensively on chemical cues for communicating reproductive condition.

Communication Channels: acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Untitled

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Two sub-species of Lepus townsendii are recognized with L. t. campanius occuring to the east of the Continental Divide and L. t. townsendii occuring to the west. Though there is little difference between the two, L. t. campanius is slightly larger and some subtle pelage variation is observed (Kim, 1987).

Lepus townsendii acquired its name from J.K. Townsend, who collected the type specimen (Kim, 1987).

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Reproduction

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Three to five males may pursue one female concurrently during mating season, leading to aggresive charging among them. The courting behaviour of white-tailed jackrabbits consists of a series of aggresive charges and jumps. Circling between male and female lasts from 5-20 minutes and is followed by copulation.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

The breeding season of white-tailed jackrabbits lasts from February to July with a peak from March to June. Ovulation is induced, requiring copulation or suitable stimulation. (Chapman et al., 1982). One to four litters with from 1 to 11 (averaging 4 to 5) young are born each year. A maximum of one litter is produced in more nothern climates. The gestation period is commonly reported as 42 days but this length varies, possibly due to altitude and habitat (Kim, 1987). This species exhibits breeding synchrony with male spermatogenesis and a postpartum estrus that facilitates conception soon after birth of young (Kim, 1987).

At birth the young weigh approximately 90-100 grams, have open eyes, full fur, and limited mobility within half an hour. The young begin to forage at approximately 2 weeks of age and are fulled weaned at one month. Sexually maturity is reached by 7 or 8 months though there is little evidence of reproduction until the spring following their birth.

Breeding interval: From 1 to 4 litters are born each year, depending on environmental conditions.

Breeding season: The breeding season of white-tailed jackrabbits lasts from February to July with a peak from March to June.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 11.

Average number of offspring: 5.

Range gestation period: 36 to 43 days.

Average gestation period: 42 days.

Range weaning age: 15 (low) days.

Average weaning age: 30 days.

Average time to independence: 1 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 8 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 8 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; induced ovulation ; viviparous ; post-partum estrous

Average birth mass: 94.32 g.

Average number of offspring: 4.3.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
333 days.

Female L. townsendii nurse and care for their young for about 1 month. Females often create nests for the protection of their young from dried grass, leaves, and hair. Young are born fully furred and are capable of some level of mobility shortly after birth.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female)

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White-tailed jackrabbit

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The white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii), also known as the prairie hare and the white jack, is a species of hare found in western North America. Like all hares and rabbits, it is a member of the family Leporidae of order Lagomorpha. It is a solitary individual except where several males court a female in the breeding season. Litters of four to five young are born in a form, a shallow depression in the ground, hidden among vegetation. This jackrabbit has two described subspecies: L. townsendii townsendii occurring west of the Rocky Mountains and L. townsendii campanius occurring east of the Rocky Mountains.[2]

Description

The white-tailed jackrabbit is a large species of hare and the largest species called "jackrabbit", although two larger hares (the Arctic and Alaskan hares) are found further north in North America. This jackrabbit has an adult length of 56 to 65 cm (22 to 26 in), including a tail measuring 6.6 to 10.2 cm (2.6 to 4.0 in), and a weight between 2.5 and 4.3 kg (5.5 and 9.5 lb). From winter to spring, weight tends to increase due to pregnancy in females, but decrease due to the stresses of reproductive competition in males. Thus, females in Iowa went from averaging 3,600 g (7.9 lb) in winter to 3,800 g (8.4 lb) in spring and males from averaging 3,400 g (7.5 lb) in winter to 3,100 g (6.8 lb) in spring.[3] At the northernmost extremity of its range, it can be almost twice as large as in the middle of its range. In Saskatchewan, rare specimens have been recorded over 9 kg (20 lb). It has distinctive, large, grey ears with black tips which are chestnut brown and white on the inside; and the long, powerful hind legs characteristic of hares. The back, flanks and limbs are dark brown or greyish-brown and the underparts are pale grey. The ear, from the notch, measures from 10 to 11.3 cm (3.9 to 4.4 in) and the hindfoot measures 14.5 to 16.5 cm (5.7 to 6.5 in). The tail is white with a dark central stripe above. Females are slightly larger than males. In northern populations, this hare moults in the autumn and becomes white all over except for its ears.[4] They generally make no sound, but will emit a shrill scream if they are injured or caught.[5]

Distribution and habitat

The white-tailed jackrabbit is native to western and central parts of North America. Its range includes British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario in Canada and Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri and Illinois in the United States. It is found in plains and prairie and in alpine meadows with scattered coniferous trees up to an elevation of about 3,000 m (10,000 ft) in Colorado.[2] The white-tailed jackrabbit is slightly larger than the black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and where their ranges overlap, they are segregated by their habitat, as the former tends to live in higher altitudes and the latter in more arid lowland habitats.[6]

Whitetails are often seen in urban parks and on suburban parks in Western Canada. People often come across bunnies alone during the day in spring and mistakenly assume they are abandoned by their mothers. The Edmonton Humane Society has issued public statements asking that bunnies not be brought into animal shelters.[7]

White-tailed jackrabbit in the snow at Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge (Wyoming)

Behaviour

The white-tailed jackrabbit is nocturnal and lies up during the day in a form, a shallow depression in the ground hidden under vegetation, emerging at dusk to feed. The forms of this species range from 46 to 61 cm (18 to 24 in) long, 20 to 30 cm (7.9 to 11.8 in) wide, and up to 20 cm (7.9 in) deep.[8] Often, discernible paths lead away from the form and others among the plants at often-visited feeding sites. In winter snow, the forms are interconnecting, cave-like structures. This jackrabbit is a solitary species and feeds on grasses and other green plants, including cultivated crops. In southern Colorado, from summer through fall into winter, the diet varied from 70% (summer) to 4% (winter) forbs, 43% (fall) to 4% (winter) grasses and 76% (winter) to 7% (summer) scrubs. During the winter its diet includes buds, twigs and bark feed on off of low shrubs.[4] It tends to be more selective in its feeding habits than the black-tailed jackrabbit which disadvantages it where their ranges overlap.[6] It has good eyesight, excellent hearing, and sensitive whiskers and is probably able to detect olfactory clues as to whether another jackrabbit is ready to breed.[5]

The breeding season is variable and depends upon latitude and environmental factors; it extends from February to July in different parts of the range.[6] Several males may compete aggressively for the attention of a female by charging at each other, leaping, and jostling. Ovulation by the female takes place after copulation. The gestation period is about 42 days and in preparation for the birth, the female prepares a fur-lined nest under dense vegetation. A litter consists of up to 11 young, although four or five is a more typical number. The leverets weigh about 100 g (3.5 oz). They have their eyes open and are fully furred at birth and soon begin to move around. They start to forage around two weeks old and are weaned at four weeks. They are sexually mature around seven months old, but do not breed until the year after their birth.[5]

Ecology

White-tailed jackrabbits influence the composition of the turf through their selective grazing activities. They are important prey species for various mammalian predators. Red (Vulpes vulpes) and grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) occasionally capture one, though not many large adults. They are perhaps most important prey for mid-sized carnivores such as the American badger (Taxidea taxus), the coyote (Canis latrans), and the bobcat (Lynx rufus) and small supplemental prey for larger ones such as the mountain lion (Puma concolor) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus).[9] Snakes sometimes attack them (usually young ones) and bird predators include eagles, hawks, and owls. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are the only avian predators large enough to regularly take full-grown white-tailed jackrabbits, though ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis) and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) may occasionally take an adult, though these latter two species and other largish raptorial birds typically attack young.[10][11][12][13] They attempt to evade detection by crouching in the vegetation where their cryptic colouration makes them difficult to observe. They may slink away, but if detected, they bound away at speed, adopting a zigzag course. They can run up to 55 km/hr (34 mi/hr) and leap up to 5 m (16 ft).[5] They are also hunted and eaten by humans.[5]

Status

The white-tailed jackrabbit is assessed as being of "Least Concern" by the IUCN in its Red List of Threatened Species because it has an extensive range and is fairly common across most of its range. The population size may be declining slightly, but not at a rate that would justify listing this hare in a more threatened category.[2]

In Wyoming, however, it has become scarce in Grand Teton National Park, where it has not been seen recently.[2] Briefly reputed to have been extirpated in Yellowstone National Park, where it was at one time abundant,[14] it is now clear from observations, roadkilled specimens, and historical records that white-tailed jackrabbits are still present in the park.[15] The causes of the decline in populations in Wyoming is unclear.[2]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to White-tailed jackrabbit.

References

  1. ^ Hoffman, R.S.; Smith, A.T. (2005). "Order Lagomorpha". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Brown, D.E.; Smith, A.T. (2019). "Lepus townsendii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T41288A45189364. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T41288A45189364.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  3. ^ Kline, P. D. (1963). Notes on the biology of the jackrabbit in Iowa. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci, 70, 196-204.
  4. ^ a b "White-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii)". ARKive. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: North American Mammals. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  5. ^ a b c d e Gosline, Anna (2001). "Lepus townsendii: white-tailed jackrabbit". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  6. ^ a b c "Lepus townsendii: White-tailed Jackrabbit". North American Mammals. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  7. ^ "thestar.com - The Star - Canada's largest daily". thestar.com. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  8. ^ Jackson, H.H.T. 1961. Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 504.
  9. ^ Lim, B. K. (1987). Lepus townsendii. Mammalian Species, (288), 1-6.
  10. ^ Olendorff, Richard R. (1976). The Food Habits of North American Golden Eagles. American Midland Naturalist (The University of Notre Dame) 95 (1): 231–236.
  11. ^ Gerrard, J. M. and Bortolotti, G. R. (1988). The Bald Eagle: haunts and habits of a wilderness monarch. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
  12. ^ Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World by Leslie Brown & Dean Amadon. The Wellfleet Press (1986), ISBN 978-1555214722.
  13. ^ Errington, P. L., Hamerstrom, F., & Hamerstrom, F. (1940). The Great Horned Owl and its prey in north-central United States (Vol. 277). Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.
  14. ^ Berger J (2008). "Undetected species losses, food webs, and ecological baselines: a cautionary tale from the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, USA". Oryx. 42 (1): 139. doi:10.1017/S0030605308001051.
  15. ^ Gunther, Kerry; Renkin, Roy; Halfpenny, Jim; Gunther, Stacey; Davis, Troy; Schullery, Paul; Whittlesey, Lee (2009). "Presence and Distribution of White-tailed Jackrabbits in Yellowstone National Park". Yellowstone Science. 17 (1): 24–32.
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White-tailed jackrabbit: Brief Summary

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The white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii), also known as the prairie hare and the white jack, is a species of hare found in western North America. Like all hares and rabbits, it is a member of the family Leporidae of order Lagomorpha. It is a solitary individual except where several males court a female in the breeding season. Litters of four to five young are born in a form, a shallow depression in the ground, hidden among vegetation. This jackrabbit has two described subspecies: L. townsendii townsendii occurring west of the Rocky Mountains and L. townsendii campanius occurring east of the Rocky Mountains.

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