Large flying foxes feed on flowers, nectar, and fruit such as bananas and mangos. Common foods also include the pollen and flowers of coconut, durian, and fig trees. When foraging, they slice the rind with their teeth and extract the fruit with their long tongue, which is also used for lapping up nectar. They can carry up to 200 g of food at a time. On a daily basis, large flying foxes can eat half of their body weight in fruit.
Plant Foods: leaves; fruit; nectar; pollen; flowers
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )
Pteropus vampyrus is commonly hunted for food and sport throughout its geographic range. In peninsular Malaysia, an estimated 22,000 flying foxes are legally hunted each year. No other information exits on potential predators of this species. Its nocturnal and roosting lifestyle likely decreases risk of predation.
Known Predators:
Pteropus vampyrus is one of the largest bats in the world. Forearm length ranges from 180 to 220 mm, mean wingspan is 1.5 m, and body mas ranges from 0.6 to 1.1 kg. It has long pointed ears and a dog-like or fox-like face and head. Pelage varies in color and texture with age and sex . Upper dorsal fur is short and stiff, with longer, woolier fur on the venter. Head and upper body are covered with a dark mantle ranging in color from mahogany-red to black, and the venter is often darker than the rest of the body. Its wings have short rounded tips. Except for parts close to the body and the edge of the wing membrane, wing membranes lack fur. Young are born with dark skin and fur but become paler as they develop. Males have thicker and stiffer pelage than females and glandular neck tufts with dark bases. Pteropus vampyrus is different from most Pteropus in that it has darker underparts and a dark mantle. For example, P. giganteus and P. lylei have pale underparts that contrast with the darker dorsal pelage. Pelage color occasionally varies as a few P. vampyrus specimens have lighter mantles, and some have a gray or silver venter.
Large flying foxes have robust skulls, with a nearly complete orbit and a thick, wide zygomatic arch. The postorbital processes reaches more than halfway to the zygomatic arch. The dental formula is 2/2, 1/1, 3/3, 2/3 for a total of 34 teeth. Upper canines have a prominent anterior groove and a smaller groove on the inner surface.
Range mass: 0.6 to 1.1 kg.
Average wingspan: 1.5 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently
Pteropus vampyrus can live 15 to 30 years in captivity, and an average of 15 years in the wild.
Average lifespan
Status: wild: 15 years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 15 to 30 years.
Large flying foxes inhabit tropical forests and swamps. They occur primarily in secondary forests and use agricultural areas during forging bouts. Populations also occur on oceanic islands. During the day, groups often roost in large trees. Roost sites are often used for many years and trees become stripped of bark and foliage by the bats' sharp claws. Roosting trees are often found in mangrove forests, coconut groves, and mixed fruit orchards. Studies in Subic Bay, Philippines have shown that foraging locations range between 0.4 and 12 km from the roost. They prefer undisturbed forests in lowlands, beaches, and mangroves, for roosting and select against disturbed and agricultural areas. Large flying foxes are commonly found in riparian areas.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest
Wetlands: swamp
Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian
Pteropus vampyrus is found from Madagascar to Australia and in mainland Asia and Indonesia. It occurs in most of continental and insular Southeast Asia; from southern Myanmar and southern Vietnam through Malaysia to Singapore. It is present throughout most of Indonesia. This species is also found in southern Burma and southern Thailand and extends to the east Philippines, Sumatra, and Timor. Pteropus vampyrus is native to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam.
Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )
Flying foxes are important frugivores in tropical forests. They serve as seed dispersers and pollinators of forest trees, including durian, which produce a high-priced fruit that is considered a delicacy in southeast Asia. Members of the genus Pteropus are often the only seed dispersers or pollinators large enough to carry the large fruit they feed upon. They also pollinate canopy trees when searching for nectar. Seed dispersal by large flying foxes is thought to play an important role in the regeneration of cleared forests. They are host to the parasitic nematode Litmosa maki, which inhabits the abdominal cavity. In malaysia, ectoparasites from the families Laelapidae, Nycteribiidae, and Spinturnicidae have also been reported.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
As a pollinator and seed disperser, Pteropus vampyrus plays an important role in maintaining forest structure and composition throughout its geographic range. Humans hunt P. vampyrus for sport, and there is a significant international market, both legal and illegal, for its meat and the various by-products that are used in traditional medicines. For example, its fat is valued in Pakistan, where some believe it helps cure rheumatism, and others claim that its meat can help cure asthma. Shipments of P. vampyrus carcasses have been confiscated on numerous occasions in Guam, and trade continues to be monitored.
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug
In some areas, large flying foxes are viewed as agricultural pests, as forage sites often include fruit farms. They are also exceptionally noisy while feeding, and many farmers use flapping or whirling devices and bright lights to deter them. Large flying foxes carry a number of zoonotic diseases such as the Hendra virus and the Nipah virus. Nipah virus first appeared in humans in Malaysia in 1998, followed by cases in Bangladesh and India. Evidence suggests that large flying foxes are reservoirs for a number of different henipaviruses, including Nipah. In particular, it is suspected that this species was the reservoir hosts of the 1998 Nipah outbreak in pigs and humans. The long distance movements of large flying foxes increases its potential to transfer these diseases to other countries in the Australian and Asian regions.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species classifies Pteropus vampyrus. Its populations are in significant decline, and major threats include chronic over-harvesting and the destruction of its primary habitats. If harvesting continues at its current rate, P. vampyrus could disappear from western Malaysia in as little as 6 years. In the Philippines, major threats include hunting and targeting due to noise. Hunting of P. vampyrus has more than doubled since 1996. Likewise, in 2003, an estimated 4,500 large flying foxes were killed in a single location and sold into trade. Habitat destruction due to deforestation is also a major threat to their persistence in Malaysia.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists Pteropus vampyrus under Appendix II. Efforts to conserve P. vampyrus are underway, and hunting laws have been established to reduce harvest rates. Unfortunately, anti-poaching laws and harvest limits are difficult to enforce. Currently, colony management on small islands appears to be the most effective protection of P. vampyrus. Due to its migratory behavior and its tendency to travel long distances during nocturnal foraging bouts, a more regional management approach may be necessary to successfully conserve this species.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
During flight, Pteropus vampyrus tends to remain silent. During feeding, however, it is often very noisy. Returning to the roost at dawn is also associated with loud vocalizations, which are used in territorial behavior and to help maintain inter-individual spacing at roost sites. Evidence suggests that P. vampyrus vocalizes to communicate emotion as well. It uses vision rather then echolocation for in-flight navigation, and they find food using their acute senses of sight and smell.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Other Communication Modes: choruses ; pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Synonyms include for Pteropus vampyrus include Pteropus caninus, Pteropus celaeno, Pteropus edulis, Pteropus funereus, Pteropus javanicus, Pteropus kalou, Pteropus kelaarti, Pteropus kopangi, Pteropus lanensis, Pteropus malaccensis, Pteropus natunae, Pteropus nudus, Pteropus phaiops, Pteropus pluton, Pteropus pteronotus, and Pteropus sumatrensis.
Pteropus vampyrus is most often polygynous, with males protecting a small harem and mating with up to ten females. Dominant males occupy the best roosting sites, and there is a social hierarchy among males.
Mating System: polygynous
Unlike other pteropods, which have fused horns on the baculum, Pteropus vampyrus has a saddle-shaped baculum. It ranges from 4.5 to 8.2 mm and is wider than it is long. Females typically give birth to only one offspring per year. Synchronous birthing occurs within each population, and timing depends on local geography and seasonality. In peninsular Malaysia, mating peaks from November to January. In Thailand, birthing peaks during March and April and in the Philippines it peaks during April and May. In captive populations, birthing peaks during May and June. Mean body mass newborns is 133g (20-30% of maternal body mass) and their forearm length is around 79.5 mm. Mothers carry their young during the first few days after parturition, then leave them at the roost during foraging bouts. Young are weaned by 2 to 3 months after birth.
Breeding interval: once yearly
Breeding season: Mating season varies according to local geography and climate
Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Range gestation period: 140 to 192 days.
Range weaning age: 2 to 3 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Pteropus vampyrus offspring are born with eyes open and fully furred, but in many ways are altricial. They are carried with the mother initially, then left in the roost after a couple of days so that the mother can feed. Mothers nurse young for the first 2 to 3 months after parturition, or until weaning is complete, which can be anywhere from 3 to 5 months. All parental care is provided by the mother, though males often help protect and defend their harem.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Male); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)
The large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus, formerly Pteropus giganteus), also known as the greater flying fox, Malayan flying fox, Malaysian flying fox, large fruit bat, kalang, or kalong, is a southeast Asian species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae.[3] Despite its scientific name, it feeds exclusively on fruits, nectar, and flowers, like the other flying foxes of the genus Pteropus. It is noted for being one of the largest bats.[4] As with nearly all other Old World fruit bats, it lacks the ability to echolocate but compensates for it with well-developed eyesight.[5]
P. vampyrus
Location of the large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus) relative to some other members of its genus[6]The large flying fox was one of the many mammal species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, receiving the name Vespertilio vampyrus.[2] The holotype was collected on Java.[7]: 70 Its species name "vampyrus" is derived from Slavic "wampir" meaning "blood-sucking ghost or demon: vampire".[4] This name was chosen in reference to its "alleged blood-sucking habits",[7]: 87 although it is entirely vegetarian and largely frugivorous.[4]
Based on phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA, the closest relative of the large flying fox is the Rodrigues flying fox (Pteropus rodricensis).[6] Because the genus Pteropus is so speciose, it is further subdivided into species groups. The large flying fox is the namesake of the "vampyrus" group, which also includes the following species:[6]
The large flying fox is among the largest species of bat.[4] It weighs 0.65–1.1 kg (1.4–2.4 lb) and has a wingspan of up to 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in).[8][9] Its head-body length is 27–32 cm (11–13 in).[10] Its forearm length is 180–220 mm (7.1–8.7 in)[4] As is common with most megabats, it has a fox-like face. It lacks a tail and has pointed ears. The hairs on much of its body are long and woolly, but are shorter and more erect on the upper back.[4] The mantle hairs tend to be the longest.[11] The color and texture of the coat differ between sexes and age classes.[12] Males tend to have slightly stiffer and thicker coats than females.[4] Immature individuals are almost all dull gray-brown.[8] Young have a dark-colored mantle that becomes lighter in males when they mature.[4] The head has hairs that range in color from mahogany-red and orange-ochreous to blackish. The ventral areas are brown or blackish, tinged with chocolate, gray or silver.[12] The mantle can vary from pale dirty-buff to orange-yellow, while the chest is usually dark-golden brown or dark russet.[4] The large flying fox has a large and robust skull. The dental formula is 2.1.3.22.1.3.3. It has a total of 34 teeth.[11][13] The large flying fox's wings are short and somewhat rounded at the tips. This allows them to fly slowly, but with great maneuverability.[4] The wing membranes are only haired near the body.
This species primarily feeds on flowers, nectar and fruit. When all three food items are available, flowers and nectar are preferred.[8][11][12] The pollen, nectar, and flower of coconut and durian trees, as well as the fruits of rambutan, fig and langsat trees, are consumed. Flying foxes will also eat mangoes and bananas.[12][14][15] With fruit, the flying fox prefers the pulp, and slices open the rind to get it.[15] With durian tree flowers, the flying fox can lick up the nectar without doing apparent damage to the flower.[4] The large flying fox is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Moniliformis convolutus.[16]
Colonies of large flying foxes fly in a scattered stream.[11] They may fly up to 50 km (31 mi) to their feeding grounds in one night. Vocalizations are not made during flight.[11] Large flocks fuse into family or feeding groups upon arrival at feeding grounds.[4] Flying foxes may circle a fruit tree before landing, and usually land on the tips of branches in an upright position, then fall into a head-down position from which they feed.[4] Feeding aggregations tend to be very noisy.[17]
Flowering trees form the basis of territories in this species. Territorial behavior includes growling and the spreading of wings.[17] During antagonistic behavior, individuals maintain spacing with wrists/thumbs sparring, bites, and loud vocalizations.[12] When moving to a suitable resting place after landing, an individual may fight with conspecifics along the way.[12] A roosting flying fox is positioned upside down with its wings wrapped up.[18] When it gets too warm, a flying fox fans itself with its wings.[12] Roosting bats are restless until midmorning.
Female large flying fox gestations are at their highest between November and January in Peninsular Malaysia, but some births occur in other months.[19] In Thailand, gestation may take place during the same period with young being born in March or early April.[11][19] Females apparently give birth during April and May in the Philippines,[18] and usually give birth to only one young.[11] For the first days, the mothers carry their young, but leave them at the roost when they go on their foraging trips.[4] The young are weaned by two to three months.[11]
The large flying fox ranges from Malay Peninsula, to the Philippines in the east and Indonesian Archipelago of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Timor in the south.[20] In certain areas, the bat prefers coastal regions, but it can also be found at elevations up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft).[21]
Flying foxes inhabit primary forest, mangrove forest, coconut groves, mixed fruit orchards, and a number of other habitats.[19] During the day, trees in mangrove forests and coconut groves may be used as roosts.[12] In Malaysia, flying foxes prefer lowland habitats below 365 m.[14] In Borneo, they inhabit the coastal areas, but move to nearby islands to feed on fruit.[8] Flying foxes roost in the thousands (maximum). One colony was recorded numbering around 2,000 individuals in a mangrove forest in Timor[12] and colonies of 10,000–20,000 have also been reported.[4] In general, mangrove roosts have lower numbers of resting bats compared to lowland roost sites, which could mean mangrove forests are only used temporarily.[14]
The large flying fox is hunted for bushmeat. In Peninsular Malaysia, 1,756 hunting licenses were issued for the large flying fox from 2002–2006. In total, these hunting licenses permitted the hunting of 87,800 large flying foxes, or about 22,000 each year. Based on population modeling, the loss of the estimated 22,000 large flying foxes annually is unlikely to be sustainable. A 2009 study predicted extinction of the Peninsular Malaysian population within 6–81 years if 22,000 individuals are lost to hunting each year.[22]
The large flying fox is a natural reservoir of the Nipah virus. It is generally considered as the reservoir that led to the 1998 Malaysian outbreak, which was the first emergence of the disease in humans and pigs.[23] In a study of seventeen large flying foxes, Nipah virus was only isolated from one individual, which was at the time of capture. However, in maintaining the bats in quarantine for one year, researchers found that the bat was negative for antibodies against Nipah virus for the first eleven months, but was then seropositive once more. Two other bats—from which the Nipah virus was never detected—also registered as seropositive at points within the year. This suggested that the Nipah virus can recrudesce in the large flying fox, or maintain itself after periods of remission. The virus also recrudesces in humans, with humans becoming fatally ill with the disease up to four years after first exposure.[24]
As of 2022, the large flying fox is evaluated as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It meets the criteria for this designation because it is likely experiencing significant population decline. The bushmeat trade is resulting in unsustainable harvest of this species. Additionally, it is experiencing habitat loss through deforestation.[1] The large flying fox is on Appendix II of CITES, which restricts international trade.[25]
One threat to the large flying fox is habitat destruction.[19] Flying foxes are sometimes hunted for food, and the controls on hunting seem to be unenforceable.[4] In some areas, farmers consider them pests as they sometimes feed on their orchards.[14] This species is also hunted for bushmeat in Indonesia, contributing to its decline.[26]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) The large flying fox (Pteropus vampyrus, formerly Pteropus giganteus), also known as the greater flying fox, Malayan flying fox, Malaysian flying fox, large fruit bat, kalang, or kalong, is a southeast Asian species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. Despite its scientific name, it feeds exclusively on fruits, nectar, and flowers, like the other flying foxes of the genus Pteropus. It is noted for being one of the largest bats. As with nearly all other Old World fruit bats, it lacks the ability to echolocate but compensates for it with well-developed eyesight.
