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Balm Of Gilead

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.

Comments

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Balsam fir is frequently segregated into two varieties (e.g., H.J. Scoggan 1978--1979) based on whether the bracts are included (var. balsamea ) or exserted (var. phanerolepis Fernald), the latter considered by Liu T. S. (1971) to be a hybrid between Abies balsamea and A . fraseri . D.T. Lester (1968) demonstrated, however, that bract length may vary within a cone, annually, and from tree to tree. Nevertheless, a tendency exists for the exserted variety to be found most commonly from Newfoundland south through New England (R.C. Hosie 1969; B.F. Jacobs et al. 1984); it is not found west of Ontario. Western populations lack 3-carene and have other minor chemical differences separating them from eastern balsam fir (E.Zavarin and K.Snajberk 1972; R.S. Hunt and E.von Rudloff 1974). Morphologic variation in balsam fir has been studied mainly east of Ontario; the populations to the west have been ignored for the most part, although they may yield stronger evidence for species subdivision.

In Alberta, populations intermediate between western Abies balsamea and A . bifolia (E.H. Moss 1953; R.S. Hunt and E.von Rudloff 1974, 1979) may be classified as A . balsamea ´ bifolia . In West Virginia and Virginia, populations of balsam fir tend to be more similar to A . fraseri than are more northern populations (B.F. Jacobs et al. 1984).

Balsam fir ( Abies balsamea ) is the provincial tree of New Brunswick.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Description

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Trees to 23m; trunk to 0.6m diam.; crown spirelike. Bark gray, thin, smooth, in age often becoming broken into irregular brownish scales. Branches diverging from trunk at right angles, the lower often spreading and drooping; twigs mostly opposite, greenish brown, pubescence sparse. Buds hidden by leaves or exposed, brown, conic, small, resinous, apex acute; basal scales short, broad, nearly equilaterally triangular, glabrous, resinous, margins entire, apex sharp-pointed. Leaves 1.2--2.5cm ´ 1.5--2mm, 1-ranked (particularly on lower branches) to spiraled, flexible; cross section flat, grooved adaxially; odor pinelike (copious ß-pinene); abaxial surface with (4--)6--7(--8) stomatal rows on each side of midrib; adaxial surface dark green, slightly or not glaucous, with 0--3 stomatal rows at midleaf, these more numerous toward leaf apex; apex slightly notched to rounded; resin canals large, ± median, away from margins, midway between abaxial and adaxial epidermal layers. Pollen cones at pollination red, purplish, bluish, greenish, or orange. Seed cones cylindric, 4--7 ´ 1.5--3cm, gray-purple, turning brown before scale shed, sessile, apex round to obtuse; scales ca. 1--l.5 ´ 0.7--1.7cm (relationship reversed in more western collections), pubescent; bracts included or exserted and reflexed over scales. Seeds 3--6 ´ 2--3mm, body brown; wing about twice as long as body, brown-purple; cotyledons ca. 4. 2 n =24.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Habitat & Distribution

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Boreal and northern forests; 0--1700m; St. Pierre and Miquelon; Alta., Man., N.B., Nfld., N.S., Ont., P.E.I., Que., Sask.; Conn., Iowa, Maine, Mass., Mich., Minn., N.H., N.Y., Pa., Vt., Va., W.Va., Wis.
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cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Synonym

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Pinus balsamea Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 1002. 1753
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
source
Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Brief Summary

provided by EOL authors
Abies balsamea, balsam fir, is a coniferous evergreen tree in the Pinaceae family, native to areas with cold climates northeastern U.S. and Canada. It is important in northeastern North America, where it forms large single-species stands or is one of the dominant species in several boreal forest types in the northern United States and in Canada. A small- to medium-sized tree with light and relatively week wood, its timber is used primarily for pulpwood for paper manufacture, and in light interior construction (or as plywood), but it is a popular Christmas tree, and is the Provincial tree of New Brunswick. Balsam fir typically grows to 14–20 meters (46–66 feet) tall, with a narrow, symmetrical, conic crown. Bark on young trees is smooth, grey, and dotted with resin blisters (which tend to spray when ruptured), becoming rough and fissured or scaly on old trees. The leaves are flat needle-like, 15 to 30 millimeters (½–1 in) long, dark green above often with a small patch of stomata near the tip, and two white stomatal bands below, and a slightly notched tip. They are arranged spirally on the shoot, but with the leaf bases twisted to appear in two more-or-less horizontal rows. The cones are erect, 4–8 cm (1.5–3 inches) long, dark purple, ripening brown and disintegrating to release the winged seeds in September. In addition to its use as for pulpwood and Christmas trees, balsam fir bark and leaves produce oleoresins that are used to make turpentine, varnishes, and Canada balsam (used as a slide fixative) and in the manufacture of medicinal compounds. The resin is reported to have numerous medical uses, as an antiseptic and general healing agent, and was used to treat sore throat and coughs, colds, and fevers by North American native peoples including the Ojibwa, as well as in Western pharmaceuticals such as Buckley’s Mixture cough syrup in Canada. Balsam fir grows in low swampy areas and areas with ample moisture, although it may also occur on well-drained hillsides. It commonly occurs with trees species such as spruces (Picea), birches (Betula sp.), and aspens (Populus sp.). It is moderately important to wildlife. The young trees are used as cover for mammals and nesting sites for birds. Deer and moose browse the leaves, sometimes extensively in winter "deer yards." At least 8 species of songbirds and several mammal species eat the winged seeds. Balsam fir is popular for the fragrance of its needles, inspiring poetic reflections: “To anyone whose childhood summers were spent [in the great North Woods], the delicious spicy fragrance of Balsam needles is the dearest odor in all of Nature” (Peattie 1991). (Burns and Honkala 1990, Farrar 1995, Harlow et al. 1991, Martin et al. 1951, Peattie 1991, PFAF 2011, Wikipedia 2011)
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Jacqueline Courteau
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Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the terms: seed, tree

Fire creates seedbeds favorable for balsam fir germination and
establishment. If seed is available, balsam fir readily establishes on
burned sites. In northern Minnesota, balsam fir seedlings were
established within 5 years of a stand-destroying fire; seed originated
from an unburned mixed-conifer stand across a river [28]. Balsam fir
seedlings establish after fall fires that occur when seed is ripe and
still on the tree [11].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
balsam fir
balsam
Canadian balsam
Canada balsam
eastern fir
bracted balsam fir
blister fir
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Value

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More info for the terms: cover, hardwood

Balsam fir provides important winter cover for white-tailed deer and
moose. Balsam fir stands attract ungulates because snow is not as deep
as in adjacent hardwood stands [30]. Lowland balsam fir stands are used
extensively by white-tailed deer as winter yarding areas [21], and by
moose with calves during severe winters [30]. During summer, deer,
bear, and moose often rest under the shade of balsam fir trees [30].
Young balsam firs provide cover for small mammals and birds. Martens,
hares, songbirds, and even deer hide from predators in balsam fir
thickets [30]. Grouse and songbirds seek shelter during winter within
the evergreen foliage [5]. In Maine, fishers often nest in witches
brooms in balsam fir trees [4].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description

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More info for the terms: duff, tree

Balsam fir is a native, coniferous, evergreen, small to medium-sized,
upright tree. At maturity it may reach a height of 40 to 90 feet (12-27
m) and a d.b.h. of 12 to 30 inches (30-75 cm) [5]. Maximum age is about
200 years. Balsam fir has a dense, narrowly pyrimidal crown terminating
in a slender, spirelike top. Open-grown trees may have live branches
extending to the ground, but trees in well-stocked stands have dead,
persistent lower branches [29]. The needles are flat, resinous, and 0.4
to 1.2 inches (1-3 cm) long [5]. Erect cones occur on the upper side of
1-year-old branches in the upper crown. The bark is gray and smooth and
contains numerous raised resin blisters. On older trees the bark
becomes brown and scaly but is less than 0.5 inch (1.2 cm) thick [5].
Balsam fir has a shallow root system that is mostly confined to duff and
upper mineral soil layers. Roots rarely penetrate more than 30 inches
(75 cm) below the ground surface, except in sandy soils [21].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Balsam fir is widely distributed in northeastern North America. It
occurs from Newfoundland west across northern Quebec, northern Ontario,
central Manitoba, and Saskatchewan to northwestern Alberta, south about
400 miles (640 km) to central Alberta, southeast to northern Minnesota
and Wisconsin, and east to New England [21]. In the United States,
scattered populations occur in southern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin,
northeastern Iowa, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and northern Virginia.
The two varieties are distributed as follows [5]:

var. balsamea - from Newfoundland and Labrador west to northeastern
Alberta and south to Minnesota, Wisconsin, southern
Ontario, northern Pennsylvania, New York, and New
England. It is local in northeastern Iowa.

var. phanerolepis - from Newfoundland and Labrador to Ontario and Maine
and in the high mountains of New Hampshire, Vermont,
and New York. It is also common in the higher
mountains of Virginia and West Virginia.
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: fire regime, seed

Balsam fir is easily killed by fire. Seedlings establish after fire
only if surviving seed trees are present. Balsam fir is therefore a
rare postfire pioneer [14].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Management Considerations

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More info for the terms: fire suppression, fuel, herbaceous, prescribed fire, tree

Prescribed fire: Prescribed fire can be used to convert balsam fir
forests to other species. It is an important silvicultural tool in
spruce budworm-infested stands. Burning infested stands eliminates the
unaffected balsam fir understory and prepares the site for other
commercial species, particularly black spruce [25]. In northern
Ontario, prescribed burning on sites pretreated by tramping (leveling
the dead trees with bulldozers) successfully prepared a spruce
budworm-killed balsam fir stand for planting [38]. Tramping aided fire
spread in this summer burn, when green herbaceous plants might otherwise
have hindered it. The standing dead trees were dry before tramping.
Some large balsam fir boles were completely consumed and 55 percent of
balsam fir slash between 2.75 and 5 inches (7-13 cm) in diameter were
consumed. Prescribed fires can also be used to kill balsam fir
seedlings and saplings in pine and mixed-wood types. In these types,
low-intensity surface fires are sufficient to kill balsam fir saplings
[37].

Fire behavior: Balsam fir tree mortality is often between 70 and 100
percent after the collapse of a spruce budworm outbreak [25]. These
altered forests are more flammable because the dead trees provide dry
aerial fuel and the newly exposed understory is drier than normal. Fire
suppression in spruce budworm-killed stands is extremely difficult [25].
Experimental burns in spruce budworm-killed stands have been explosive.
In balsam fir stands with 30- to 90-year-old dead trees averaging 23 to
39 feet (7-12 m) in height, spring fires (before flushing of understory
vegetation), under conditions of high but not extreme fire danger,
burned with intensities as high as 38,000 KW/m and spread rates in
excess of 148 feet/minute (45 m/min.) [50]. Tree crown and surface fuel
consumption were nearly complete, and standing tree boles smoldered for
hours after the passage of the fire front. These hot fires transport
large amounts of peeling bark, fine twigs, and branchlets in convection
columns which start spot fires downwind [49].

Decay after fire: Fire-killed balsam fir deteriorates rather slowly.
Commercial salvage operations are possible for a number of years after
stand-killing fires [5]. However, budworm-killed trees quickly succumb
to wood-rotting fungi and are largely unusable after 1 to 3 years [34].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: bog, shrub

Balsam fir grows on a wide variety of upland and lowland sites. It
occurs on mountain slopes and glaciated uplands as well as on alluvial
flats, peatlands, and swamps. It is found in pure, mixed coniferous,
and mixed coniferous-deciduous stands.

Soils: Balsam fir grows on sites underlain by a variety of parent
materials, including gneiss, schist, anorthosite, diabase, slate,
sandstone, and limestone. It grows mostly on acid Spodosol, Inceptisol,
and Histisol soil orders [21]. It grows on all soil textures, from
heavy clay to rocky. It tolerates a wide range of soil acidity. In the
Lake States, balsam fir is most common on cool, wet-mesic sites with
soil pH values between 5.1 and 6.0 [21]. In northeast Wisconsin it
commonly grows on limestone outcrops [45].

Associated trees: Associated trees of uplands include white spruce, red
spruce, paper birch, aspen, white ash (Fraxinus americana), yellow birch
(Betula alleghaniensis), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red maple,
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), eastern hemlock, and white pine. Lowland
associates are black spruce, white spruce, tamarack (Larix laricina),
red maple, black ash (Fraxinus nigra), and northern white-cedar [17].

Understory: Common shrub associates include beaked hazel (Corylus
cornuta), bog Labrador-tea (Ledum groenlandicum), mountain maple (Acer
spicatum), Canada yew (Taxus canadensis), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus),
sheep laurel (Kalmia angustifolia), and hobblebush (Viburnum
lantanoides) [21].

Elevation: Balsam fir grows from near sea level along the Atlantic
seaboard to timberline at 5,600 feet (1,700 m) in the Appalachian
Mountains, and to 6,200 feet (1,890 m) in the White Mountains in New
Hampshire [21].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white cedar
38 Tamarack
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
60 Beech - sugar maple
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
204 Black spruce
251 White spruce - aspen
253 Black spruce - white spruce
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

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More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: forest

K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: seed, wildfire

Balsam fir is the least fire-resistant conifer in the northeastern
United States [48]. Most fires kill balsam fir trees and destroy the
seeds [14]. Trees have thin, resinous, easily ignitable bark and
shallow roots [1,21]. Seeds have no endosperm to protect them from high
temperatures. Cones are not necessarily destroyed by fire, but immature
seeds will not ripen on fire-killed trees.

If balsam fir trees are killed over extensive areas by summer fires, no
seed will be available to revegetate the burned area. This occurred
following the 1936 wildfire on Isle Royale which burned 26,000 acres
(10,500 ha). Most of the balsam fir trees were killed, and for 30 years
after the fire, balsam fir was largely absent from the burned area [27].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Balsam fir is a major food of moose during winter. It tends to be
utilized more when snow is deep and moose populations are high [41].
Moose may browse balsam fir in winter to save energy because the twigs
weigh 8 to 13 times more than deciduous twigs of similar length and
therefore it requires less time and effort to consume equivalent amounts
[41]. Balsam fir is unimportant in the diets of caribou and
white-tailed deer. Spruce and ruffed grouse feed on balsam fir needles,
tips, and buds, which often make up 5 to 10 percent of the fall and
winter diet. Red squirrels feed on balsam fir male flower buds, and
less frequently on leader and lateral buds in late winter and spring
when other foods are scarce [5]. Stands attacked by the spruce budworm
attract numerous insect-eating birds, especially warblers and
woodpeckers [30].
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Key Plant Community Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: climax, forest, tree

Balsam fir is more commonly found in mixed than in pure stands. It does
occurs as a dominant species in pure stands in Newfoundland, Ontario,
and Quebec. Its importance as a major forest tree declines west of
Manitoba [5]. Balsam fir is a principal tree of boreal mixed stands in
Canada, where it occurs with paper birch (Betula papyrifera), aspen
(Populus tremuloides), black spruce (Picea mariana), and white spruce
(P. glauca) [46].

In the Lake States, climax stands of balsam fir are relatively uncommon
[21,45]. In Maine, balsam fir forms pure stands on flats between swamps
and uplands [5]. In the Adirondacks, balsam fir sometimes dominates
upper slopes above 3,200 feet (975 m) [5]. In New England and the Lake
States, balsam fir is more commonly found in mixed stands, especially in
forests dominated by black spruce, red spruce (Picea rubens), white
spruce, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), northern white-cedar (Thuja
occidentalis), paper birch, aspen, and red maple (Acer rubrum)
[5,30,45].

Balsam fir is listed as a dominant part of the vegetation in the
following community type (cts) and ecosystem (eas) classifications:

Area Classification Authority

PQ: Gaspe Peninsula forest veg. cts Zoladeski 1988
ON forest eas Jones & others 1983
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
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bibliographic citation
Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, forest

Silviculture: Balsam fir is managed under both even- and uneven-aged
silvicultural systems [22,23,30]. Balsam fir types are usually
converted to other forest types because of their susceptibility to
spruce budworm outbreaks and because of the relatively low value of the
timber [30].

Wildlife damage: White-tailed deer, snowshoe hares, and especially
moose browse balsam fir reproduction on cutovers. This often retards
growth but is seldom fatal [30]. In Newfoundland, 4-foot-tall (1.2 m)
balsam fir survived up to 12 years of heavy moose browsing [8].

Release: Several herbicides are used to release balsam fir from
competing hardwoods. Balsam fir is resistant to 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T,
glyphosate, and hexazinone [30,40].

Insects: The spruce budworm is the most serious damaging agent of
balsam fir. Historically, cyclical spruce budworm epidemics have killed
trees over vast areas [55]. The most susceptible stands are those
with the following characteristics [30]:

(1) High basal area or percentage of stand in balsam fir and/or white
spruce;
(2) Mature stands (50 years or older), especially if
extensive;
(3) Open stands with tops of balsam fir and/or white spruce
protruding above the canopy;
(4) Stands on poorly drained soils that are extremely wet or dry; and
(5) Stands downwind of a budworm outbreak area.

Once an outbreak begins, trees usually die after 3 to 5 years of
continuous defoliation. Johnston [30] has outlined management
principles for spruce-budworm-infested balsam fir.

Other serious insect pests include the hemlock looper and blackheaded
budworm, defoliators primarily associated with mature and overmature
stands [30]. The introduced balsam wooly adelgid, which occurs in
southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States, attacks stems,
twigs, and buds and can kill trees within 3 years [21].

Rots: Several heart, butt, and root rots cause much decay in living
trees. Heart rots often infect more than 50 percent of 70-year-old
trees [6].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Nutritional Value

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
In Newfoundland, healthy balsam fir plants with dark blue-green foliage
are more nutritious than plants with yellow or light green foliage.
Chemical analysis of balsam fir browse during the growing season varied
according to color as follows [8]:

(percent composition on dry matter basis)

foliage color protein fat fiber ash N-free Mg K
Extract

very yellow 4.65 7.54 25.2 2.1 60.60 0.12 0.32
yellow 5.49 8.29 22.01 2.49 61.72 0.18 0.15
light green 6.33 7.71 22.83 2.44 60.69 0.13 0.27
green 6.89 8.08 21.36 3.24 60.43 0.13 0.42
dark green 8.59 7.88 20.67 3.54 59.41 0.09 0.44
dark blue-green 13.54 5.55 26.24 3.68 50.99 0.13 1.01

On logged-over land in Newfoundland, twigs from balsam fir saplings in
thinned stands contained 33 percent more protein and 17 percent more
crude fat than those from unthinned stands [53].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

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CT IA ME MA MI MN NH NY PA VT
VA WV WI AB LB MB NB NF NS ON
PE PQ SK
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Other uses and values

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More info for the term: tree

Balsam fir is a popular Christmas tree in the East and grown on
plantations for this purpose. The branches are used to make Christmas
wreaths. The fragrant needles are used as a stuffing in souvenir
pillows sold in New England [21].

Balsam fir is occasionally used in landscaping. It can be used in
screenings, mass plantings, and windbreaks but requires abundant soil
moisture for these purposes [21].

Bark blisters contain oleoresin, which is used in the optics industry as
a medium for mounting microscope specimens and as a cement for various
parts of optical systems [21].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Palatability

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Balsam fir is moderately to highly palatable to moose in winter.
Palatability varies between individual plants. Green-foliaged
individuals are often browsed heavily, while chlorotic plants are
avoided [5]. This is attributed to the higher nutrient content of
healthy plants with dark green foliage.

The palatability of balsam fir to white-tailed deer and caribou is low
[5]. White-tailed deer may eat small amounts of balsam fir due to its
abundance, but it is not a preferred food [51].

In laboratory experiments, mice and voles preferred the seeds of pines
(Pinus spp.), spruces (Picea spp.), and eastern hemlock over balsam fir
seeds [5].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology

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More info on this topic.

Phenological events proceed as follows [5]:

Event Southern part of range Northern part of range

flowering begins early May early June
seeds ripen late August-early Sept. October
seedfall begins early September October
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the term: seed

Balsam fir is generally slow to reestablish after fire. Because most
trees are killed by fire, it relies on rare survivors found in protected
pockets within the burn or trees from adjacent unburned areas to provide
seed for postfire seedling establishment. Associates such as aspen,
paper birch, black spruce, and jack pine usually seed in aggressively
following fire and quickly dominate the site. Balsam fir is usually
rare or absent for the first 30 to 50 years after fire, but thereafter
gradually establishes under the canopy of its seral associates
[2,14,20].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: root crown, secondary colonizer

Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: hardwood, layering, litter, natural, seed, tree

Seed production and dispersal: Balsam fir is a prolific seed producer.
Seed production begins when plants are about 20 years old or 15 feet
tall [5], and regular seed production occurs after trees are about 30
years old. Some seed is produced every year, with heavy seed crops
occurring at 2- to 4-year intervals [21]. Most seeds are shed in
autumn, but small amounts fall throughout the winter and into spring
[21]. The winged seeds are primarily dispersed by wind. Most fall
within 80 to 200 feet (25-60 m) of the tree, but some travel up to 525
feet from the tree (160 m) [21]. Some seed is dispersed by small
mammals.

Only about 50 percent of balsam fir seeds are sound [24]. Germinative
capacity is relatively low, ranging from about 20 to 50 percent [5].
Seeds remain viable for less than 1 year under natural conditions [21].

Germination and seedling establishment: Most seeds germinate between
late May and early July [21]. If moisture is sufficient, seedlings will
establish on almost any substrate, but establishment is generally best
on mineral soil. Other good seedbeds include rotting wood embedded in
humus because it can remain moist even during prolonged drought, and
rotting logs and stumps because they have a tendency to shed hardwood
leaf litter which can smother seedlings [36]. Hardwood leaf litter is a
poor seedbed; seedlings on deep layers of hardwood litter usually die
within a few weeks of germination [5]. However, balsam fir establishes
more readily on shallow litter (less than 3 inches [7.5 cm]) than other
conifers because seedlings quickly develop a deep root system [21].
Seedlings are very shade tolerant. Once established they can withstand
many years of suppression.

Vegetative reproduction: Layering occurs in swamps and mossy areas, and
under white and jack pine (Pinus strobus, P. banksiana) overstories [5].
In the White Mountains of New Hampshire, prostrate balsam fir above
5,500 feet (1,700 m) in elevation reproduce almost entirely by layering
[5].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status

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More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: climax, mesic

Balsam fir is a late successional or climax species. Following fire, it
is replaced by pioneering hardwoods and conifers, such as aspen, paper
birch, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), jack pine, and black spruce.
Except for scattered survivors, it is mostly absent for the first few
postfire decades. In Ontario, balsam fir seedlings often first appear
under aspen-birch-spruce types 30 to 50 years after fire [5,36]. Balsam
fir seedlings are shade tolerant and less exacting in seedbed
requirements than many associates. It readily establishes under a
canopy of hardwoods and conifers. In the Lake States, an understory of
balsam fir seedlings is almost ubiquitous in several upland and lowland
forests [30]. In boreal forests, it is usually a common understory
component beneath pines, aspen, and paper birch [7,15,28]. In the
continued absence of fire, balsam fir may assume dominance as the canopy
of the pioneering trees begins to break up.

In the Lake States, balsam fir can become climax on poorly drained clay
soils. It often succeeds aspen, paper birch, and sometimes black spruce
[17]. On mesic sites, it is often replaced by shade-tolerant hardwoods
such as sugar maple [30].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

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More info for the term: fern

The currently accepted scientific name of balsam fir is Abies balsamea
(L.) Mill [32]. The genus Abies consists of about 40 species of
evergreen trees found in the Northern Hemisphere. Nine Abies species,
including balsam fir, are native to the United States.

Balsam fir is widely distributed and exhibits geographic variation. Two
varieties based on morphological differences are recognized [47]:

var. balsamea
var. phanerolepis Fern.

Balsam fir is closely related to Fraser fir (A. fraseri). These species
are probably relicts of an ancestral taxon which exhibited north-south
clinal variation [24]. Trees in Virginia and West Virginia are possibly
hybrids between these two species [32]. Some authorities recognize
Fraser fir as a variety of balsam fir: A. b. var. fraseri [21].

Balsam fir hybridizes with subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa) where their
ranges overlap in the Canadian Rockies [24].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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More info for the term: seed

The use of balsam fir for rehabilitation purposes is largely unexplored.
It is probably best suited for long-term revegetation. Nursery-grown
stock is available for outplanting. Methods for collecting, processing,
testing, storing, and sowing balsam fir seed, as well as nursery
practices for seedling production, have been outlined in the literature
[5,16,24].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wood Products Value

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Balsam fir wood is used primarily for pulpwood and lumber for light
frame construction. It is also used extensively for cabin logs. The
wood is lightweight, relatively soft, low in shock resistance, and has
good splitting resistance. Balsam fir is not well suited for use as
posts and poles because it decays rapidly. Minor wood products include
paneling, crates, and other products not requiring high structural
strength [5,21].
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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1991. Abies balsamea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Associated Forest Cover

provided by Silvics of North America
Tree species associated with balsam fir in the boreal region of Canada are black spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (Picea glauca), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). In the more southerly northern forest region, additional associates include bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tamarack (Larix laricina), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), and northern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis). Red spruce (Picea rubens) is an important associate in New Brunswick and Maine. Occasional associates are balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), gray birch (Betula populifolia), red pine (Pinus resinosa), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), and American elm (Ulmus americana) (10).

Pure stands of balsam fir or stands in which balsam fir is the major component of growing stock make up the forest cover type Balsam Fir (Society of American Foresters Type 5) (10). Balsam fir is also a major component in two other eastern forest cover types: Red Spruce-Balsam Fir (Type 33) and Paper Birch-Red Spruce-Balsam Fir (Type 35). It is an associated species in 22 eastern forest cover types and in 4 western forest cover types.

Common shrubs associated with balsam fir include beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta), mountain maple (Acer spicatum), Labrador-tea (Ledum groenlandicum), Canada yew (Taxus canadensis), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus var. strigosus), sheep-laurel (Kalmia angustifolia), and hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides) (10,41).

Among the herbaceous plants commonly found under balsam fir are twinflower (Linnaea borealis), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), starflower (Trientalis borealis), creeping snowberry (Gaultheria hispidula), sedges (Carex spp.), common woodsorrel (Oxalis montana), bluebead lily or cornlily (Clintonia borealis), painted trillium (Trillium undulatum), cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), and spinulose woodfern (Dryopteris spinulosa).

Certain associations of shrubs, herbs, and mosses indicate forest site quality (41). The four main indicator associations, designated as Hylocomium/ Hypnum, Cornus/Maianthemum, Oxalis/Cornus, and Viburnum/Oxalis indicate, in the order listed, increasing productivity of site and increasing proportions of shrubs and hardwood trees in natural stands. Only the Hylocomium/Hypnum sites are likely to be occupied by pure balsam fir.

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Climate

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Balsam fir grows best in the eastern part of its range in southeastern Canada and the Northeastern United States. This area is characterized by cool temperatures and abundant moisture. Growth is optimum in areas with a mean temperature of 2° to 4° C (35° to 40° F), a January average ranging from -18° to -12° C (0° to 10° F), a July mean temperature ranging from 16° to 18° C (60° to 65° F), and mean annual precipitation ranging from 760 to 1100 mm (30 to 43 in) (1).

The mean annual temperature within the range of balsam fir varies from -4° to 7° C (25° to 45° F). Mean annual precipitation records show as much as 1400 mm (55 in) to as little as 390 mm (15 in). The amount of growing season precipitation is from 150 to 620 mm (6 to 25 in) (1). There are 80 to 180 frost-free days and about 110 days for optimum growth (1).

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Damaging Agents

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Many agents act to hinder the growth of balsam fir. Insects and diseases may be devastating. Flammable needles, often close to the ground, shallow root systems, and thin resinous bark make balsam fir susceptible to severe damage and mortality from fire. Susceptibility to wind damage is especially high in old unmanaged stands growing on wet shallow soils. Various species of mice, voles, and birds consume balsam fir seed; birds and squirrels nip buds; and black bears girdle mature trees.

Balsam fir has several insect enemies, the most important by far being the spruce budworm. Despite its name, the spruce budworm prefers fir over spruce; it is most likely to cause heavy damage and mortality in stands that contain mature fir, or that have a dense stocking of fir or a high proportion of fir in relation to other species. Vast budworm outbreaks in eastern North America, perhaps as many as 11 since 1704, have killed tens of millions of cubic meters (hundreds of millions of ft³) of balsam fir (6). Defoliation causes extensive root mortality. Evidence of budworm attack such as deformation, buried leaders, and decay can be seen 40 or more years later (1). Detailed articles about this important insect pest, with suggestions to alleviate damage, have been written (7,32) and a comprehensive bibliography assembled (25).

A classification system for tree vigor and budworm resistance was developed as a guide for selecting spruce and fir trees to remove or retain so as to make spruce-fir stands less vulnerable to spruce budworm attack. Silvicultural techniques designed to increase stand resistance to budworm cannot achieve their aim in the short term; several stand entries over the long term may be required, especially in stands dominated by balsam fir regeneration (46).

The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), an introduced insect, is found in Southeastern Canada and in the Northeastern United States. Unless checked by low winter temperatures, populations build up and weaken or kill many trees. Severe stem attack can kill trees within 3 years. The insect also attacks twigs and buds, causing swellings and resulting in loss of new buds, gradual death of twigs and tops, and severe damage to regeneration. An abnormal growth of tracheids caused by insect saliva results in dark, brittle "redwood" (41).

The red heart fungus (Haematostereum sanguinolentum), causes much decay in living balsam fir. It enters almost entirely through injuries to the trunk and living branches (18). Losses from red heart rot are two or three times greater than those caused by butt rots (11,41). Six root and butt rots in balsam fir are economically important. These include the shoestring rot (Armillaria mellea), the two brown cubical rots (Tyromyces balsameus and Coniophora puteana), and the three white stringy rots (Poria subacida, Resinicium bicolor, and Scytinostroma galactinium). Another root disease of importance is Serpula himantioides. Phaeolus schweinitzii and Inonotus tomentosus also cause a small percentage of the root and butt rot in balsam fir (18). Mechanical or insect-caused wounds to the roots or basal areas of trees provide entrances for these fungi (41). Although the root and butt rots are not responsible for an excessive amount of cull in standing trees, they do weaken trees and make them more susceptible to wind damage, especially if trees are 20 cm (8 in) d.b.h. and larger. The defect caused by these rots is severe enough to be the decisive factor in setting the pathological rotation of fir at about 70 years (11,18,41).

Rot can begin in balsam fir as early as 40 years and increases as the trees get older. More than half generally are infected by the time they are 70 years old. No reliable external indicator of rot is known and even fruiting bodies are rare on living trees. Site seems to have an effect on the incidence and severity of rot; generally, the drier the site, the greater the damage from rot (41).

Specific causes of seedling diseases in nurseries have not been thoroughly reported. The foliage diseases of balsam fir are many but none are economically important to wood production. The same can be said for balsam fir's many stem or canker diseases (18).

The most conspicuous disease of balsam fir is witches' broom, caused by the rust fungus Melampsorella caryophyllacearum. Broomed shoots are upright and dwarfed and have yellow needles. Trunk and branch swellings are produced in the shoots (18).

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Flowering and Fruiting

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Exposure to light influences flowering in balsam fir. In New Brunswick, female strobili were observed on 83 percent of dominant, 59 percent of codominant, and 6 percent of intermediate trees. None were found on suppressed trees (41).

Balsam fir is monoecious. In spring, 1 year before pollination, male (staminate) and female (ovulate or pistillate) strobili differentiate from flower buds. The strobili are microscopically recognizable at this time. Male strobili usually are distinguishable before the female strobili because they initially develop more rapidly. Flower buds usually open in late May or early June before vegetative buds (41) but have been reported as flowering as early as late April (42).

Male strobili, yellowish-red and tinged with purple, develop in the axils of leaves along the undersides of the 1-year-old twigs, usually in dense clusters. Their position in the crown is mostly within 5 m (15 ft) of the top and is almost always below the female strobili. Female strobili are purplish and are found singly or in small groups, confined to the top 1.5 m (5 ft) of the crown. They are located on the upper side of the twig and, like the male strobili, develop on the previous year's twig. Flower production is best on the outer end of branches (41,42). At maturity, male flowers are about 3 mm (0.1 in) long; female flowers are about 25 mm (1.0 in) long (1).

Pollen grains are yellow; when developed, their average diameter is 90 µ (0.00354 in). In one series of observations in Ontario, fertilization occurred on June 25 (1). The mature fruit is an erect cone 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) long with short, round, irregularly notched scales and pointed tips. There are thin, closely overlapping fan-shaped scales near the center of the cone. The cone matures and ripens during the first fall in late August and early September. The scales and shorter bracts drop away with the seeds, leaving the central axis, which can persist for many years.

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Genetics

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Population Differences Variation in balsam fir appears to be clinal and continuous and related to altitudinal gradient and to both east-west and north-south geographic gradients. Variation has been explored in a number of studies.

Balsam fir seedlings grown from seed collected along an elevational gradient in New Hampshire showed a clinal pattern of carbon dioxide uptake with respect to the elevational gradient. This suggests an adaption to temperature through natural selection (14). Another study failed to show that geographical variation in food quality of balsam fir needles is important to the spruce budworm diet but did suggest variation in food quality between locations (33).

In the southern Appalachians the monoterpenes- alpha-pinene and beta-phellandrene- appear to be the best taxonomic characteristics for separating balsam fir from Fraser fir, with alpha-terpene increasing southward and beta-terpene increasing northward. Because no regional variation pattern was evident for wood specific gravity or tracheid length, it has been suggested that only one species of balsam fir with three varieties be recognized in the Eastern United States: Abies balsamea var. balsamea, Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis, and Abies balsamea var. fraseri (29,39).

Balsam fir provenances from eastern portions of the range exhibited more vigor than those from western portions (24). This trait continued through 11 (22) and 13 years of total tree age (9). Southern sources tended to flush later, indicating selection for minimizing damage from the balsam gall midge (Dasineura balsamicola) and for resistance to late spring frost.

Specific gravity and tracheid length generally vary along an east-west gradient, with eastern sources of lower specific gravity and longer tracheids (9). Generally, trees from slow-growing sources have higher specific gravities and shorter tracheids than trees from fast-growing sources.

Races and Hybrids No distinct races of balsam fir have been identified. Botanical varieties of balsam fir have been described, Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis being most important. This variety, the bracted balsam fir, is distinguished by its cone scales, which are shorter than the bracts. The variety phanerolepis is found infrequently from Labrador and Newfoundland to Maine and Ontario, and in the high mountains of New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. It is found locally in northern Virginia and West Virginia (21,41,42), and commonly in several locations in Nova Scotia.

Until the late 1930's, natural or artificial hybrids of balsam fir had not been reported in North America. There were earlier reports, however, of hybrids between balsam fir and Siberian fir (Abies sibirica) in Europe (1).

Balsam fir is closely related to Fraser fir (A. fraseri). A taxon of doubtful status, A. intermedia, representing a possible cross between the two species, has been reported. This cross has also been reported as A. balsamea var. phanerolepis (1). Subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa) also may hybridize with balsam fir where they adjoin in Alberta (42). Workers in Canada apparently have been successful in some instances in hybridizing balsam fir with several species of Abies, among them European silver fir (A. alba), alpine fir, and Fraser fir (1). Similar attempts in the United States have been only partially successful.

European horticulturists have propagated many forms of balsam fir for ornamental purposes. Plant form, needle color, and branch length and angle are characteristics usually manipulated. Nineteen such cultivars have been listed (1).

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Growth and Yield

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Balsam fir at maturity is small to medium size, depending on location and growing conditions. In general, heights range from 12 to 18 m (40 to 60 ft); diameters range from 30 to 46 cm. (12 to 18 in) at breast height (41). Where growth is optimum, as in the Green River watershed in New Brunswick, some trees can reach 27 m (90 ft) in height and 75 cm. (30 in) in d.b.h. The reported record d.b.h. for balsam fir is 86 cm (34 in). Maximum age is about 200 years (1). How large or how fast balsam fir grows, or how much a stand of balsam fir will yield is related to site factors such as biotic, climatic, and soil conditions, and to age. The condition of the tree or stand and the composition and structure of the stand also influence growth.

Diameter growth was related to vigor and crown length-to-height ratio in a study in Maine. Balsam fir with high vigor and a ratio of at least 0.7- the proportion of live-crown length to total tree height averaged 6.1 cm (2.4 in) of growth in d.b.h. in 10 years. Less vigorous trees with smaller crown-length ratios ranged downward to an average of 1.0 cm (0.4 in) of growth in 10 years. Vigorous trees with room to grow attain a d.b.h. of at least 25 cm (10 in) in about 50 years (41). In uneven-aged stands of several density classes in Maine, balsam fir grew faster in diameter than spruce and hemlock (35).

Data obtained from stem analysis of balsam fir growing on sites of varying quality in northern Maine has shown height growth curves to be polymorphic (fig. 1). Height growth varies with site quality. From these curves the average site index of a stand can be estimated (16). Monomorphic or harmonized site index curves for balsam fir are also available (17).


Figure 1-Polymorphic site index curves (base age 50 years
at breast height) for balsam fir in northern Maine, as derived
from stem data
(16).

Balsam fir is a strong contender for space in stands in which it grows. A 20-year record of stands containing balsam fir in the Penobscot Experimental Forest in Maine showed that the periodic annual volume ingrowth of the species, as a proportion of total volume ingrowth, greatly exceeded its representation in the original stands (12). Because of its many natural enemies, however, volume mortality of balsam fir also greatly exceeds its original representation in these stands.

Balsam fir accounted for 35 percent of the average annual net growth in predominantly softwood stands and 32 percent in mixed stands that were extensively managed. These stands were growing at annual rates of 3.5 m³/ha (49.3 ft³/acre) and 2.9 m³/ha (41.1 ft³/acre), respectively (31).

Yields in total cubic-foot volume, including stump and top, of all trees larger than 1.5 cm (0.6 in), in d.b.h. are given in table 1. These yields are based on sample plots in even-aged spruce-fir stands, mostly on old fields. They tend to exaggerate the yields that might be expected from the irregular stands that develop after harvesting (41).

Table 1- Total tree volume (exclusive of roots) of balsam fir greater than 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in d.b.h. by age and site index (41).       Site index¹   12.2 m
or 40 ft 15.2 m
or 50 ft 18.3 m
or 60 ft 21.3 m
or 70 ft Age yr   m³/ha     20 6 8 9 12 30 50 67 85 102 40 136 182 229 276 50 204 274 344 414 60 245 329 413 497 70 267 360 452 543 80 286 384 481 579 90 300 403 506 609 yr   ft³/acre     20 80 110 135 165 30 720 960 1,210 1,455 40 1,940 2,600 3,270 3,940 50 2,190 3,920 4,920 5,910 60 3,500 4,700 5,900 7,100 70 3,820 5,140 6,450 7,760 80 4,080 5,480 6,870 8,270 90 4,290 5,760 7,230 8,700 ¹Base age 50 years when age is measured at d.b.h.- total tree age is estimated to be 65 years at that time. Simulating the management and growth of forest stands containing balsam fir is possible because of advances in computer technology. A matrix model, FIBER (36), has been developed for stands in the Northeast. Even-aged and multi-aged stands, containing balsam fir, spruce, northern hardwoods, and other associated species, can be programmed to simulate a range of silvicultural treatments.

In a ranking with both hardwoods and softwoods from around the world, balsam fir is highest with a total above-ground ovendry biomass at age 50 of 184 t/ha (82 tons/acre). Annual increment or annual net primary production averages 10.3 t/ha (4.6 tons/acre) (20). In New Brunswick (3), dry-matter production of balsam fir in pure stands increased dramatically with increases in stand densities of from 1,730 stems per hectare (700/acre) to 12,350/ha (5,000/acre). At an average age from release of 43 years, total above-ground biomass was 96 t/ha (43 tons/acre) for the least dense stand and 143 t/ha (64 tons/acre) for the most dense stand.

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Reaction to Competition

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Balsam fir has a strong ability to become established and grow under the shade of larger trees (7,11). It is classified as very tolerant. Because relative tolerance of species may vary with soil fertility, climate, and age, balsam fir is rated as both more and less shade tolerant than red spruce, and more tolerant than either black or white spruce (41). Intraspecific competition is evident in many sapling and small pole-size stands of pure balsam fir. As these stands mature, dominance usually is expressed. Competition is severe in dense fir thickets, however, and growth rates of individual trees suffer greatly. Other major competition is from the shade-tolerant hardwoods.

In New England, balsam fir is considered a subclimax type, except that it may be a climax species in the zone below timberline. It tends to become climax in Quebec and in the Lake States (41).

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Rooting Habit

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Balsam fir root systems are mostly confined to the duff layer and to the upper few centimeters of mineral soil (11). Windfall potential is high. Damage from wind is especially likely when the shallow root systems are loosened by heavy rainfall and gusty winds and where timber removals from stands not previously thinned have been poorly conducted. These usually older, dense stands are susceptible probably because root development has been poor.

Root penetration on deep or shallow soils extends to 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) and has been reported to a depth of 137 cm (54 in) in sandy soils in northern Ontario. Lateral roots of balsam fir are usually strongly developed and extend horizontally in all directions to 1.5 m (5 ft) or more (1).

Root breakage and other root damage caused by swaying trees may not be as severe as is commonly thought. Most investigators agree, however, that some root breakage probably occurs because of frostheaving and swaying. During epidemics of spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), rootlet mortality can reach 75 percent after 3 consecutive years of defoliation (1).

Balsam fir root grafts are probably common and have been reported frequently. Abrasion of the bark of roots of swaying trees on lowland soils and interroot compatibility and growth pressure on upland soils apparently account for the majority of root grafts. Infection may spread through grafted roots to damage other balsam fir trees (1).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Regular seed production probably begins after 20 to 30 years. Cone development has been reported for trees 15 years of age and younger and only 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. Good seed crops occur at intervals of 2 to 4 years, with some seed production usually occurring during intervening years (1). On the average, 35 L (bushel) containing 1,000 to 2,000 cones weighs approximately 16 kg (35 lb) and yields 1000 to 1200 g (35 to 42 oz) of cleaned seeds. The number of cleaned seeds per kilogram (2.2 lb) ranges from 66,000 to 208,000 and averages 131,000. These are about 134 seeds per cone (42). The seed yield of balsam fir ranged from 5.6 to 20.2 kg/ha (5 to 18 lb/acre) during several good seed years in Ontario (1). Over a 37-year period, annual seed production in this area averaged 1,950 seeds per square meter (181/ft²) (15).

The period of balsam fir seedfall is long and dissemination distances vary. Seedfall begins late in August, peaks in September and October, and continues into November. Some seeds fall throughout the winter and into early spring. Most of the seeds are spread by wind-some to great distances over frozen snow-and some are spread by rodents. Although seeds may disseminate from 100 m (330 ft) to more than 160 m (525 ft), effective distances are 25 m to 60 m (80 to 200 ft) (1,11,28). Many seeds falling with the cone scales land close to the base of the tree.

Balsam fir seeds have dormant embryos and should be stratified in moist sand at about 50 C (410 F) for at least 30 days before planting. Germination is epigeal (42).

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Seedling Development

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Within the range of suitable temperatures, moisture is more important than light for germination. In fact, light intensities of only 10 percent of full sunlight result in successful germination (1). The low capacity of planted balsam fir seeds to germinate may be attributed in part to seed injury during the cleaning process. The age of the tree may also contribute to the viability of seeds.

A study in Michigan (41) showed that germination was highest for a 41-year-old tree (68 percent), varied for trees 30 years old (8 to 57 percent), and was lowest for trees 155 years old (10 percent). Testing of 32 commercial seed lots showed average germination of about 26 percent with a range of 4 to 62 percent (42). Once the seed reaches the ground, its viability diminishes quickly and is gone within 1 year (13). It has been suggested, however, that in cold swamps viability of some seeds is retained for 2 to 3 years (1).

Most germination occurs from late May to early July. Survival the first winter is questionable if germination occurs after mid-July (1). If enough moisture is available, almost any seedbed type is satisfactory, but mineral soil-neither too sandy nor too heavy-with some shade is best. Litter and humus are poor seedbeds, especially if moisture is inadequate or -light is excessive. Competition, often severe, makes heavy sod the poorest seedbed (11).

A thick layer of duff exceeding about 8 cm (3 in) is less favorable for balsam fir but even worse for the slower growing associated spruces. Balsam fir seedlings may have a heavy central root, much like a taproot, that extends to the bottom of the humus layer and then splits into several laterals. In general, balsam fir roots grow more rapidly and penetrate deeper than red spruce roots. Where seasonal root elongation of young balsam fir growing in humus averaged 10.6 cm (4.2 in), red spruce was 7.6 cm (3.0 in), and white spruce 9.0 cm (3.5 in), or 39 percent and 18 percent less, respectively (1).

Because the surface of thick duff usually dries out, there may be some delayed germination as late as August. Few seedlings become established, however. The closer seeds lie to mineral soil, the greater the initial establishment of seedlings.

Seedlings starting in the open may sustain heavy mortality when surface temperatures exceed 46° to 54° C (115° to 130° F) or when there is drought or frost heaving. Seedlings may also be smothered or crushed by litter, ice, snow, and hardwood leaves. Losses after the first year usually are minor. As seedlings develop, light at intensities of at least 50 percent of full sunlight are necessary for optimum growth (11,41). Damage caused by late spring frost to new foliage of young seedlings is seldom severe.

Balsam fir seedlings about 15 cm (6 in) tall can be considered to be established (11), especially if secondary branching has occurred. Early growth is then determined largely by the amount and character of dominant competition. Bracken, raspberry, and hardwood sprouts-especially the maples-are the chief competitors on heavily cutover lands in the Northeast. These species may increase dramatically when the original basal area is reduced by 50 percent or more and may dominate the site for 10 to 25 years (2). Unless there has been some soil disturbance, there will be little regeneration of balsam fir and spruce immediately following logging (45). Both balsam fir and the spruces can survive many years of suppression and still respond to release (11,41). The space required for the continual development and establishment of new seedlings probably exceeds that created by the removal of individual trees. To ensure successful regeneration relatively small groups of trees should be removed initially (12).

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Soils and Topography

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Balsam fir grows on a wide range of inorganic and organic soils originating from glaciation and generally falling within the acid Spodosol, Inceptisol, and Histosol soil orders. These are characterized by a thick mor humus and a well-defined A2 horizon, usually gray in appearance because of leaching, and commonly caused by abundant rainfall, cool climate, and coniferous cover. Many of the glacial till soils in New England are shallow and have a compact layer about 46 cm (18 in) below the surface (11).

Soil moisture was the most important predictor of site index in a study in Newfoundland. Soil nutrient status and topography, in that order, were of lesser importance. Glacial tills, often shallow, cover much of the area (27).

Balsam fir has been reported as growing on soils of a wide range of acidity. In the northern Lake States it is most common on cool, wet-mesic sites with pH values between 5.1 to 6.0 (19). Optimum growth occurs on soils where the pH of the upper organic layers is between 6.5 and 7.0 (1). On gravelly sands and in peat swamps, growth is comparatively slow (41).

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Special Uses

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The most important products made from balsam fir wood are pulpwood and lumber (43). The wood of balsam fir, as well as that of other true firs, is creamy white to pale brown. The sapwood has little odor or taste. Wood structure in the true firs is so similar that identification of species is impossible by examining only the wood (1,43).

Balsam fir is pulped by all of the pulping processes. Sulfate and semichemical processes are used most extensively. A fiber length of 3 to 4 mm A 12 to 0.16 in) is good, as is fiber quality. Because balsam fir is less dense than other major pulpwood species, its yield is lower (37).

The wood of balsam fir is light in weight, relatively soft, low in shock resistance, and has good splitting resistance. Recent testing of several mechanical properties of balsam fir and of red, white, and black spruce indicates strength values for balsam fir generally exceeding those of white spruce. In some tests, strength values were equivalent to or only slightly below the values of red and black spruce (5,34). Nail-holding capacity is low. Balsam fir is very low in resistance to decay (43). The major use of balsam fir lumber is for light-frame construction. Minor uses include paneling, crates, and other products not requiring high structural strength.

Balsam fir provides food or cover for some animals and both food and cover for others. Moose rely on balsam fir in winter when it is a major source of food. The use of balsam fir by deer for cover and shelter is well documented. During severe winter weather, especially in northern areas of the white-tailed deer range, lowland balsam fir stands and spruce-balsam fir swamps are used extensively as winter yarding areas. The fact that these sites usually contain, at best, only small amounts of preferred food suggests their attractiveness as shelter.

Other mammals use balsam fir to varying degrees. The snowshoe hare uses it for cover, and there is some seed and phloem feeding by various species of mice and voles. Red squirrels occasionally feed on balsam fir seed, bark, and wood. They prefer flower buds to vegetative buds. There is some use of wood by beaver for dam building, but little is used as food. Black bear strip bark and lick the exposed surfaces between bark and wood (1).

Balsam fir provides a minor part of the diet for both the spruce grouse and the ruffed grouse. Buds, tips, and needles are consumed, and more feeding occurs in winter than in summer. Thickets of balsam fir provide shelter for both birds (1). The response of bird populations to several forestry practices in stands containing balsam fir has been recorded (8,40). Species composition, the vertical and horizontal structure of the stand, and the extent of spruce budworm infestation influence the composition and density of bird populations.

Balsam fir is not widely planted as an ornamental nor does it offer much potential in areas other than northern New England, Canada, and perhaps the Lake States. Plantings as screens or as windbreaks are successful only when the moisture requirement of the species is met (1). On certain lands and especially on public lands, the unique presence of spruce-fir stands suggests management for esthetic values. In the southern Appalachian mountains, coniferous forests containing balsam fir are managed for watershed protection (44).

Oleoresin, a substance confined to the bark blisters of balsam fir, is used as a medium for mounting microscopic specimens and as a cement for various parts of optical systems. It is also used in the manufacture of medicinal compounds and spirit varnishes (4).

Balsam fir wood is not prized for fuelwood, but industries that use balsam fir for pulp and lumber products are using increasingly larger quantities of wood waste for the production of energy. The heating value of ovendry fir bark is 21 166 600 joules/kg (9,100 Btu/lb) (26).

The fir tree has been a favorite Christmas tree for more than 400 years. It remains among the top three species. In 1980, balsam fir ranked second behind Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), commanding 13.9 percent of the market (38). Sheared plantation-grown trees are usually preferred over wildings by retailers and consumers. Wreath-making is another holiday business that rivals that of Christmas tree sales in some areas. Prolonged needle retention after harvest, color, and pleasant fragrance are characteristics of balsam fir that make it attractive for these uses. Fragrance alone accounts for use of the needles as stuffing for souvenir pillows commonly sold in New England gift shops.

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Vegetative Reproduction

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Layering is not an important means of regeneration except for prostrate balsam fir growing in the more northern and mountainous locations such as Isle Royale in Lake Superior, and the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Layering also occurs in open swamps and deep mossy areas and under white pine and jack pine overstories. Trees of any age apparently may layer. Second generations, vegetatively produced, develop when connecting tissues decay and separate (1).

Balsam fir apparently grafts easily (41). In a study in New York, greenhouse grafts were 85 percent successful and field grafts were 80 percent successful. One attempt to air-layer balsam fir was unsuccessful (1). Balsam fir Christmas trees are stump cultured from lateral branches or adventitious shoots.

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Brief Summary

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Pinaceae -- Pine family

Robert M. Frank

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) is one of the more important conifers in the northern United States and in Canada. Within its range it may also be referred to as balsam, Canadian balsam, eastern fir, and bracted balsam fir. It is a small to medium-sized tree used primarily for pulp and light frame construction, and it is one of the most popular Christmas trees. Wildlife rely extensively on this tree for food and shelter.

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Distribution

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In Canada, balsam fir extends from Newfoundland and Labrador west through the more northerly portions of Quebec and Ontario, in scattered stands through north-central Manitoba and Saskatchewan to the Peace River Valley in northwestern Alberta, then south for approximately 640 km (400 mi) to central Alberta, and east and south to southern Manitoba.

In the United States, the range of balsam fir extends from extreme northern Minnesota west of Lake-of-the-Woods southeast to Iowa; east to central Wisconsin and central Michigan into New York and central Pennsylvania; then northeastward from Connecticut to the other New England States. The species is also present locally in the mountains of Virginia and West Virginia (23,30).

Balsam fir grows from sea level to within 15 to 23 m (50 to 75 ft) below the 1917 m (6,288 ft) summit of Mount Washington in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. At this elevation prostrate balsam fir is found in sheltered areas (1).


- The native range of balsam fir.

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Physical Description

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Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Primary plant stem smooth, Tree with bark smooth, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex obtuse, Leaf apex mucronulate, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs pubescent, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone exerted, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds brown, Seeds purple, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Abies balsamea

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Abies balsamea or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada (Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to West Virginia).[3]

Description

Balsam fir is a small to medium-size evergreen tree typically 14–20 metres (46–66 ft) tall, occasionally reaching a height of 27 metres (89 ft). The narrow conic crown consists of dense, dark-green leaves. The bark on young trees is smooth, grey, and with resin blisters (which tend to spray when ruptured), becoming rough and fissured or scaly on old trees. The leaves are flat and needle-like, 15 to 30 mm (58 to 1+18 in) long, dark green above often with a small patch of stomata near the tip, and two white stomatal bands below, and a slightly notched tip. They are arranged spirally on the shoot, but with the leaf bases twisted so that the leaves appear to be in two more-or-less horizontal rows on either side of the shoot. The needles become shorter and thicker the higher they are on the tree. The seed cones are erect, 40 to 80 mm (1+12 to 3+14 in) long, dark purple, ripening brown and disintegrating to release the winged seeds in September.

Medicinal

For thousands of years Native Americans used Balsam fir for medicinal and therapeutic purposes. The needles are digested directly off the tree by many animals and humans. Higher content dosage is ingested in tea. Balsam Fir contains vitamin C, which has been studied for its effects on bacterial and viral infections.[4]

Reproduction

The male reproductive organs generally develop more rapidly and appear sooner than the female organs. The male organs contain microsporangia which divide to form sporogenous tissue, composed of cells which become archesporial cells. These develop into microspores, or pollen-mother cells, once they are rounded and filled with starch grains. When the microspores undergo meiosis in the spring, four haploid microspores are produced which eventually become pollen grains. Once the male strobilus has matured the microsporangia are exposed at which point the pollen is released.

The female megasporangiate is larger than the male. It contains bracts and megasporophylls, each of which contains two ovules, arranged in a spiral. These then develop a nucellus in which a mother cell is formed. Meiosis occurs and a megaspore is produced as the first cell of the megagametophyte. As cell division takes place the nucleus of the megaspore thickens, and cell differentiation occurs to produce prothallial tissue containing an ovum. The remaining undifferentiated cells then form the endosperm.

When the male structure releases its pollen grains, some fall onto the female strobilus and reach the ovule. At this point the pollen tube begins to generate, and eventually the sperm and egg meet at which point fertilization occurs.[5]

Varieties

There are two varieties:

  • Abies balsamea var. balsamea (balsam fir) – bracts subtending seed scales short, not visible on the closed cones. Most of the species' range.
  • Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis (bracted balsam fir or Canaan fir) – bracts subtending seed scales longer, visible on the closed cone. The southeast of the species' range, from southernmost Quebec to West Virginia. The name Canaan fir derives from one of its native localities, the Canaan Valley in West Virginia. Some botanists regard this variety as a natural hybrid between balsam fir and Fraser fir (Abies fraseri), which occurs further south in the Appalachian mountains.

Ecology

Balsam firs are very shade tolerant, and tend to grow in cool climates, ideally with a mean annual temperature of 40 °F (4 °C), with consistent moisture at their roots.[6] They typically grow in the following four forest types:

  • Swamp – swamp forest types never completely dry out, so balsam firs have constant access to water. The ground is covered in sphagnum and other mosses. In swamps, balsam firs grow densely and slowly, and are slender.
  • Flat – sometimes referred to as "dry swamps," these areas are better drained than swamps but still retain moisture well. Fern moss covers the ground and there is a possibility of ground rot. In flat areas balsam fir grows fast, tall, and large, mixed with red spruce.
  • Hardwood slope – ground rot is common in this well-drained area, and leaf litter covers the forest floor. Balsam firs grow fast, tall, and large along with big hardwood trees such as yellow birch, sugar maple and beech.
  • Mountain top – On mountain tops, stands of balsam fir occasionally develop fir waves. They often grow at an elevation of 760 to 1,520 m (2,500 to 5,000 ft) in pure strands, or in association with black spruce, white spruce, and trembling aspen. The development is similar to that in swamps with slow growth resulting in slender, short trees. Some of the low branches touch the ground, and may grow roots to produce an independent tree.[7]

The foliage is browsed by moose and deer.[8] The seeds are eaten by American red squirrels, grouse, and pine mice;[9] the tree also provides food for crossbills and chickadees, as well as shelter for moose, snowshoe hares, white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse, and other small mammals and songbirds. The needles are eaten by some lepidopteran caterpillars, for example the Io moth (Automeris io).

Abies balsamea is one of the most cold-hardy trees known, surviving at temperatures as low as −45 °C (−49 °F) (USDA Hardiness Zone 2). Specimens even showed no ill effects when immersed in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C (−320.8 °F).[10]

Conservation Status

It is listed as endangered in Connecticut. This status applies to native populations only.[11]

Pests

The balsam fir is the preferred main host of the eastern spruce budworm, which is a major destructive pest throughout the eastern United States and Canada.[12] During cyclical population outbreaks, major defoliation of the balsam fir can occur, which may significantly reduce radial growth.[13] This can kill the tree. An outbreak in Quebec in 1957 killed over 75% of balsam fir in some stands.[14]

The needles of balsam fir can be infected by the fungus Delphinella balsameae.[15]

Cultivation

Christmas trees

Both varieties of the species are very popular as Christmas trees, particularly in the northeastern United States. Balsam firs cut for Christmas are not taken from the forest, but are grown on large plantations. The balsam fir is one of the greatest exports of Quebec and New England. It is celebrated for its rich green needles, natural conical shape, and needle retention after being cut, and it is notably the most fragrant of all Christmas tree varieties.[16]

Many of these plantations are family farms handed down from generation to generation. The techniques of shearing, growing, and other cultivation secretly passed down from grandparents to grandchildren. Families like the Rousseau's of Quebec, Rose of New Brunswick, and Kessler's (North Pole Xmas Trees) of New Hampshire have kept family traditions for almost a century.

The balsam fir was used six times for the US Capitol Christmas Tree between 1964 and 2019.[10]

In northern areas of Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin balsam fir branches (boughs) are used to make Christmas wreaths.

Horticulture

Abies balsamea is also grown as an ornamental tree for parks and gardens. Very hardy down to −20 °C (−4 °F) or below, it requires a sheltered spot in full sun. The dwarf cultivar A. balsamea 'Hudson’ (Hudson fir), grows to only 1 m (3.3 ft) tall by 1.5 m (4.9 ft) broad, and has distinctive blue-green foliage with pale undersides. It does not bear cones. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[17][18]

Other cultivars include:-

  • ‘Angustata’
  • 'Argentea'
  • 'Brachylepis'
  • 'Coerulea'
  • 'Columnaris'
  • 'Glauca'
  • 'Globosa'
  • 'Longifolia'
  • 'Lutescens'
  • 'Macrocarpa'
  • 'Marginata'
  • 'Nana'
  • 'Nudicaulis'
  • 'Paucifolia'
  • 'Prostrata'
  • 'Pyramidalis'
  • 'Variegata'
  • 'Versicolor' [19]

Other uses

Balsam fir essential oil in clear glass vial

The resin is used to produce Canada balsam, and was traditionally used as a cold remedy and as a glue for glasses, optical instrument components, and for preparing permanent mounts of microscope specimens. Given its use as a traditional remedy and the relatively high ascorbic acid content of its needles, historian Jacques Mathieu has argued that the balsam fir was the "aneda" that cured scurvy during the second expedition into Canada of Jacques Cartier.[20] The wood is milled for framing lumber (part of SPF lumber), siding and pulped for paper manufacture. Balsam fir oil is an EPA approved nontoxic rodent repellent. The balsam fir is also used as an air freshener and as incense.[21]

Prior to the availability of foam rubber and air mattresses, balsam fir boughs were a preferred mattress in places where trees greatly outnumbered campers. Many fir limbs are vertically bowed from alternating periods of downward deformation from snow loading and new growth reaching upward for sunlight. Layers of inverted freshly cut limbs from small trees created a pleasantly fragrant mattress lifting bedding off the wet ground; and the bowed green limbs were springs beneath the soft needles. Upper layers of limbs were placed with the cut ends of the limbs touching the earth to avoid uncomfortably sharp spots and sap.[22]

Native American ethnobotany

The Native Americans use it for a variety of medicinal purposes.[23]

The Abenaki use the gum for slight itches and as an antiseptic ointment.[24] They stuff the leaves,[25] needles and wood into pillows as a panacea.[26]

The Algonquin people of Quebec apply a poultice of the gum to open sores, insect bites, boils and infections, use the needles as a sudatory for women after childbirth and for other purposes, use the roots for heart disease, use the needles to make a laxative tea, and use the needles for making poultices.[27]

The Atikamekw chew the sap as a cold remedy, and use the boughs as mats for the tent floor.[28]

The Cree use the pitch for menstrual irregularity, and take an infusion of the bark and sometimes the wood for coughs. They use the pitch and grease used as an ointment for scabies and boils. They apply a poultice of pitch applied to cuts. They also use a decoction of pitch and sturgeon oil used for tuberculosis, and take an infusion of bark for tuberculosis. They also use the boughs to make brush shelters and use the wood to make paddles.[29]

The Innu people grate the inner bark and eat it to benefit their diet.[30]

The Iroquois use a steam from a decoction of branches as a bath for rheumatism and parturition, and ingest a decoction of the plant for rheumatism. They take a compound decoction for colds and coughs, sometimes mixing it with alcohol. They apply a compound decoction of the plant for cuts, sprains, bruises and sores.[31] They apply a poultice of the gum and dried beaver kidneys for cancer.[32] They also take a compound decoction in the early stages of tuberculosis, and they use the plant for bedwetting and gonorrhea.[33]

The Maliseet use the juice of the plant as a laxative,[34] use the pitch in medicines,[35] and use an infusion of the bark, sometimes mixed with spruce and tamarack bark, for gonorrhea.[36] They use the needles and branches as pillows and bedding, the roots as thread, and use the pitch to waterproof seams in canoes.[35]

The Menominee use the inner bark as a seasoner for medicines, take an infusion of the inner bark for chest pain, and use the liquid balsam pressed from the trunk for colds and pulmonary troubles. They also use the inner bark as a poultice for unspecified illnesses.[37] They also apply gum from plant blisters to sores.[38]

The Miꞌkmaq use a poultice of inner bark for an unspecified purpose,[37] use the buds, cones and inner bark for diarrhea, use the gum for burns, colds, fractures, sores and wounds, use the cones for colic, and use the buds as a laxative. They also use the bark used for gonorrhea and buds used as a laxative.[39] They use the boughs to make beds, use the bark to make a beverage, and use the wood for kindling and fuel.[40]

The Ojibwe melt the gum on warm stones and inhale the fumes for headache.[41] They also use a decoction of the root as an herbal steam for rheumatic joints.[41] They also combine the gum with bear's grease and use it as an ointment for hair.[42] They use the needle-like leaves in as part of ceremony involving the sweat bath, and use the gum for colds and inhale the leaf smoke for colds.[43] They use the plant as a cough medicine.[44] The gum is used for sores and a compound containing leaves is used as wash. The liquid balsam from bark blisters is used for sore eyes.[43] They boil the resin twice and add it to suet or fat to make a canoe pitch.[45] The bark gum is taken for chest soreness from colds, applied to cuts and sores, and decoction of the bark is used to induce sweating. The bark gum is also taken for gonorrhea.[46]

The Penobscot smear the sap over sores, burns, and cuts.[47]

The Potawatomi use the needles to make pillows, believing that the aroma prevented one from getting a cold.[48] They also use the balsam gum as a salve for sores, and take an infusion of the bark for tuberculosis and other internal afflictions.[48]

Tree emblem

Balsam fir is the provincial tree of New Brunswick.

See also

Gallery

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Abies balsamea". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42272A2968717. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42272A2968717.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b "Abies balsamea". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 12 Oct 2016 – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
  3. ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Abies balsamea (balsam fir)". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  4. ^ Hemilä, Harri (December 2003). "Vitamin C and SARS coronavirus". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 52 (6): 1049–1050. doi:10.1093/jac/dkh002. PMC 7110025. PMID 14613951.
  5. ^ Bakuzis, E.V.; Hansen, Henry L.; Kaufert, Frank H. (January 1965). Balsam Fir: A Monographic Review. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 2, 8–14. ISBN 9780816661282.
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Abies balsamea: Brief Summary

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Abies balsamea or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada (Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to West Virginia).

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