Scotch Pine

Scots pines shed their pollen in May in copious amounts. The male pollen-producing flowers are located at the base of new shoots. The female cones grow at the tips of stronger new shoots and, once fertilised, ripen after two years. The needles are not shed each year but remain on the tree for two or even three years. Their waxy coating protects against excessive water-loss and the needles have fewer pores than the leaves of deciduous trees. Pines seal damage to their trunks and branches by producing resin; a sticky, viscose secretion that protects the tree against entry by insects and fungal spores. This resin sometimes traps unwary creatures and preserves them. When this resin becomes hard it forms amber, sometimes surviving for millions of years, and can provide a unique record of the insect life that lived in the ancient pine forests. Artists and craftsmen have also found pine a useful source of raw materials. The resin can be refined and the volatile component, turpentine, is used as a solvent. The remaining constituent, rosin, has been used to coat zinc or copper plates used in printing engraved images, and for dressing violin bows. The timber, though classified as 'softwood', is strong and used for a huge range of products, from house and boat-building to furniture, toys and railway sleepers. Once treated with preservative, it weathers well and lasts for years. Many square hectares of pine forest are planted each year to supply industry with timber. The sweet fragrance of pine has even found its way into our homes in the form of scented cleaning products!

There are currently no conservation projects for Scots pine.

Scots pine is one of only three native conifers found in the UK and our only true cone-bearing tree. Although Scots pine can trace its earliest British ancestry back to the end of the Ice Age, it is something of an anomaly in that relatively few of the trees living today are directly descended from those early colonisers. Originally forming extensive forests over most of Britain, a change in the climate to warmer temperatures some 5000 years ago favoured deciduous trees and pushed the range of the Scots pine northwards, out of most of England and Wales. In the seventeenth century, a combination of tree-felling for industrial use and the notorious Highland clearances all but eradicated the tree in northern Scotland. There was estimated to be little more than 10,000 hectares of native Scots pine forest left in Scotland by the 1970s. This tree can grow as high as 40 metres and often has a trunk that is extensively forked. The bark is reddish-brown and forms flaky plates. In common with other pines, the tree bears stiff waxy needles instead of flattened leaves. These grow in pairs from the twigs and are between five and seven centimetres long. The tree also bears its seeds in cones, small egg-shaped woody structures which appear green and resinous in their first year, later drying to produce the familiar mini-pineapple shaped pinecones from which the seeds are dispersed.

The tree prefers light sandy soils and lower altitudes. It has been planted as a windbreak in some regions, notably the East Anglian Breckland. It does not like areas with high rainfall or sea winds.

Scots pine ranges across Europe and Asia, from the Iberian peninsular and Turkey in the south to the edge of the Siberian tundra. It has also been introduced to other countries.

Common in the UK

Scots pine is not a threatened species but for centuries it has been cleared from much of its British range. Today, trees are being allowed to self-set and grow over much of the area where they occurred before the great clearances of the 17th century.

Foodplant / web feeder
communal larva of Acantholyda erythrocephala feeds from web on needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Acompocoris pygmaeus sucks sap of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
Alloeotomus gothicus is associated with Pinus sylvestris

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita gemmata is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita porphyria is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita rubescens var. annulosulphurea is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita rubescens var. rubescens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: minor host/prey

Plant / associate
Anthonomus varians is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
clypeate perithecium of Anthostomella conorum is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-8

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Anthostomella formosa is saprobic on fallen, dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 2-9

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Anthostomella pedemontana is saprobic on fallen, dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / epiphyte
fruitbody of Antrodia ramentacea grows on large, partially fallen and decorticated branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Anungitea dematiaceous anamorph of Anungitea continua is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, then superficial, solitary or caespitose pycnidium of Aposphaeria coelomycetous anamorph of Aposphaeria mediella is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Aradus cinnamomeus sucks sap of upto 25 year old of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse, thin colony of Ascocorticium anomalum is saprobic on fallen log of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-1

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Athelopsis baculifera is saprobic on fallen branch of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Auriscalpium vulgare is saprobic on decayed, buried or partly buried cone of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Bankera fuligineoalba is associated with needle litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Belemnospora dematiaceous anamorph of Belemnospora pinicola is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-7

Foodplant / saprobe
sporodochium of Bloxamia anamorph of Bloxamia bohemica is saprobic on rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-11

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus badius is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus luridiformis var. luridiformis is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Boletus pinophilus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Botryobasidium ellipsosporum is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Botryobasidium intertextum is saprobic on decayed bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Botryobasidium laeve is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Botryobasidium obtusisporum is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Fungus / saprobe
fruitbody of Botryohypochnus isabellinus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Plant / associate
Brachonyx pineti is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Camarops tubulina is saprobic on decorticate wood of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
erumpent pycnidium of Camarosporium coelomycetous anamorph of Camarosporium pini is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-5

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Cantharellus aurora is associated with root of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
Cardiastethus fasciiventris is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
basidiome of Ceraceomyces sublaevis is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
basidiome of Ceraceomyces tessulatus is saprobic on dead, decayed cone of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
basidiome of Ceratellopsis acuminata is saprobic on dead, decayed needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
basidiome of Ceriporia viridans is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
basidiome of Ceriporiopsis gilvescens is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Chalara dematiaceous anamorph of Chalara affinis is saprobic on fallen, rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-7

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Chalara dematiaceous anamorph of Chalara cylindrosperma is saprobic on rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-2

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Chalara dematiaceous anamorph of Chalara fusidioides is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
sporodochium of Cheiromycella dematiaceous anamorph of Cheiromycella microscopica is saprobic on dead wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Chroogomphus rutilus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Chrysomphalina grossula is saprobic on decayed, large log of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Cimberis attelaboides feeds on male catkin (feeds on pollen) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / sap sucker
Cinara pinea sucks sap of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, solitary apothecium of Cistella acuum is saprobic on dead, especially still attached to cut off branches needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-3

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Cladasporium dematiaceous anamorph of Cladosporium staurophorum is saprobic on decaying, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Clonostachys anamorph of Clonostachys compactiuscula is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / parasite
aecium of Coleosporium asterum parasitises live Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / parasite
pycnium of Coleosporium tussilaginis parasitises live needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / pathogen
fruitbody of Collybia fusipes infects and damages live root of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial perithecium of Coniochaeta malacotricha is saprobic on dead branch of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-6

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius armillatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius callisteus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius collinitus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius corrosus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius cyanites is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius diosmus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius evernius is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius fulvescens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius ionophyllus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius limonius is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius malachius is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius malicorius is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius pearsonii is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius poppyzon is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius rubellus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius scaurus var. scaurus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius tabacinus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Cortinarius violilamellatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / pathogen
perennial mycelium of Cronartium flaccidum infects and damages live branch (cortex) of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Crustomyces subabruptus is saprobic on fallen, decayed trunk (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
short-stalked apothecium of Cudoniella rubicunda is saprobic on fallen, dead cone of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
subepidermal, then exposed apothecium of Cyclaneusma minus is saprobic on fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 11-5

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Cystoderma granulosum is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
superficial, shortly-stalked apothecium of Cystopezizella venceslai is saprobic on decorticate, dead log of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, immersed, up to 2mm diam. stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cytospora pini is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 11

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, rather crowded, in irregular lines, oblong, 1-6 chambered, black, pycnidial stroma of Amphorula coelomycetous anamorph of Cytotriplospora pini is saprobic on dead branch of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-5

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces chrysocomus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces chrysospermus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces estonicus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces macnabbii is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces ovisporus is saprobic on fallen, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces variisporus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacryobolus sudans is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Dendrodochium anamorph of Dendrodochium citrinum is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 8-4
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
Verticladium dematiaceous anamorph of Desmazierella acicola is saprobic on dead, fallen, blackened, decaying needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent pycnidium of Phomopsis coelomycetous anamorph of Diaporthe eres is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / feeds on
gregarious, subepidermal then erumpent through cleft epidermis, dull black pycnidium of Diplodina coelomycetous anamorph of Diplodina strobi feeds on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-5
Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Diplomitoporus flavescens is saprobic on fence post of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Diplomitoporus lindbladii is saprobic on fallen, dead log (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Ditiola peziziformis is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
crowded apothecium of Durella suecica is saprobic on cone scale of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Elatophilus nigricornis sucks sap of needle (young, base) of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / gall
aecium of Endocronartium pini causes gall of live, cankered, resin coated branch of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: spring-early summer

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Endophragmiella dematiaceous anamorph of Endophragmiella pinicola is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-9

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Erastia salmonicolor is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed trunk of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Exidia saccharina is saprobic on dead, attached branch of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Fomitopsis pinicola is saprobic on dead log (large) of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
superficial conidioma of Fujimyces coelomycetous anamorph of Fujimyces o is saprobic on dead, fallen cone scale of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
gregarious, +- oblong, conical, immersed, then erumpent, spuriously multilocular stroma of Fusicoccum coelomycetous anamorph of Fusicoccum bacillare is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-4

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Gastrodes grossipes sucks sap of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum quadrifidum is associated with Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / open feeder
larva of Gilpinia virens grazes on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Gloeoporus taxicola is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Gomphidius glutinosus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Gomphidius roseus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / pathogen
Brunchorstia anamorph of Gremmeniella abietina infects and damages live twig of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Guepiniopsis alpina is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Gymnopilus stabilis is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Hamatocanthoscypha laricionis is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-6

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Hebeloma birrum is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Hebelomina neerlandica is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Infundibura conidial anamorph of Helicogloea angustispora is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed needle of litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Helicogloea farinacea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
Helicogloea lagerheimii is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
pycnidium of Hendersonia coelomycetous anamorph of Hendersonia acicola is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked apothecium of Heyderia pusilla is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-11

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Hohenbuehelia atrocaerulea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
discrete or effuse colony of Hormiactella dematiaceous anamorph of Hormiactella asetosa is saprobic on bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-9
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Hormiactella dematiaceous anamorph of Hormiactella fusca is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Hyaloscypha aureliella is saprobic on wood of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 7-11

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Hyaloscypha leuconica is saprobic on old, fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 11-3

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Hydnellum concrescens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Hydnellum ferrugineum is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Hydnellum scrobiculatum is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Hylobius abietis feeds within dead stump of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
short stalked apothecium of Hymenoscyphus lutescens is saprobic on fallen cone (scale) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 7-9

Fungus / saprobe
superficial, stalked apothecium of Hymenoscyphus perplexus is saprobic on rotten trunk of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Hyphodontia spathulata is saprobic on dead, burnt wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Hypochnicium bombycinum is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Hypochnicium erikssonii is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Hypochnicium geogenium is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Inocybe melanopoda is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Inocybe subcarpta is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Inocybe xanthomelas is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Irpicodon pendulus is saprobic on dead, standing trunk of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Ischnoderma resinosum is saprobic on dead wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Jaapia ochroleuca is saprobic on decayed, dead wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Junctospora anamorph of Junctospora pulchra is saprobic on rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 6-11

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, becoming superficial pseudothecium of Keissleriella pinicola is saprobic on decorticate wood of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 12-3

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial pseudothecium of Kriegeriella mirabilis is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 11-4

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Laccaria laccata is ectomycorrhizal with live root of young tree of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Laccaria proxima is ectomycorrhizal with live root of young tree of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Laccaria pumila is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, often clustered apothecium of Lachnellula subtilissima is saprobic on fallen twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-7

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lachnum pulverulentum is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-9

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Lactarius quieticolor is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Lactarius repraesentaneus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Leccinum vulpinum is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Lemalis coelomycetous anamorph of Lemalis aurea is saprobic on dead debris of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Leptoglossus occidentalis sucks sap of unripe seed (in 1-year old cone) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-8
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Leptographium dematiaceous anamorph of Leptographium lundbergii is saprobic on dead, strongly blued wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Leptosporomyces septentrionalis is saprobic on dead, decayed bark of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Leucogaster liosporus is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent through stellately fissured periderm stroma of Cytospora coelomyceteous anamorph of Leucostoma curreyi is saprobic on dead cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-3

Foodplant / saprobe
hysterothecium of Lophium mytilinum is saprobic on twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 7-8

Foodplant / spot causer
apothecium of Lophodermella conjuncta causes spots on live needle of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
immersed conidioma of Leptostroma coelomycetous anamorph of Lophodermium conigenum is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-11
Other: major host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
immersed conidioma of Leptostroma coelomycetous anamorph of Lophodermium pini-excelsae is saprobic on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
immersed conidioma of Leptostroma coelomycetous anamorph of Lophodermium seditiosum is saprobic on attached needle of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / resting place / on
erumpent apothecium of Loxospora elatina may be found on bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Luellia cystidiata is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / feeds on
scattered to subgregarious, immersed pycnidium of Macrophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Macrophoma strobi feeds on leaf of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-6

Foodplant / feeds on
Magdalis memnonia feeds on dead branch of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Marasmius rotula is saprobic on dead, buried twig of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
subcuticular or partially subepidermal pycnium of Melampsora populnea parasitises live needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-6
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial, clustered perithecium of Melanospora chionea is saprobic on fallen, dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 4-10

Fungus / saprobe
subepidermal, then exposed apothecium of Meloderma desmazieri is saprobic on needle of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
conidioma of Sporonema coelomycetous anamorph of Micraspis strobilina is saprobic on fallen cone (apophysis) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 2-3

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Micromphale perforans is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed needle of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
thyriothecium of Microthyrium pinophyllum is saprobic on decaying needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 2-4

Foodplant / saprobe
sessile apothecium of Mollisia fallax is saprobic on old cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-11

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Monochamus sartor feeds within dead, fallen branch of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mucronella calva is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed log of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena cinerella is saprobic on dead, decayed needle of litter of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena clavicularis is saprobic on dead, fallen, decaying litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena epipterygioides is saprobic on dead, decayed, fallen branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena septentrionalis is saprobic on dead, decaying wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
toadstool of Mycena viridimarginata is saprobic on dead, fallen, decaying litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / pathogen
Dothistroma coelomycetous anamorph of Mycosphaerella pini infects and damages live needle of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
hysterothecium of Mytilinidion scolecosporum is saprobic on wood or bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / feeds on
Myzia oblongoguttata feeds on Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed apothecium of Naemacyclus fimbriatus is saprobic on fallen cone (scale) of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Naemospora coelomycetous anamorph of Naemospora strobi is saprobic on dead Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
stromatic, in large groups perithecium of Nectria fuckeliana is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 3-5, 9-12

Foodplant / saprobe
in small groups, erumpent on thin stroma perithecium of Nectria pinea is saprobic on dead branch of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-5
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / open feeder
larva of Neodiprion sertifer grazes on live needle (previous year's) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Neolentinus adhaerens is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
Nephus quadrimaculatus is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Odonticium romellii is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent conidioma of Oncospora coelomycetous anamorph of Oncospora pinastri is saprobic on bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
perithecium of Ophiostoma piceae is saprobic on blue-stained wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent sporodochium of Oramasia dematiaceous anamorph of Oramasia hirsuta is saprobic on dead cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 12-1

Plant / associate
Orthotylus fuscescens is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
Ostoma ferrugineum is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / feeds on
adult of Otiorhynchus singularis feeds on pollen of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Paraphotistus impressus feeds within wood of Pinus sylvestris

Fungus / saprobe
conidioma of Patellina coelomycetous anamorph of Patellina caesia is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Paxillus involutus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of young tree of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
resupinate fruitbody of Peniophora cinerea is saprobic on dead wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora incarnata is saprobic on dead, decayed cone of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora lycii is saprobic on dead, fallen stick of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora pini is saprobic on dead, attached twig of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Cryptosporiopsis anamorph of Pezicula livida is saprobic on dead, fallen branch of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Pezizella chionea is saprobic on fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 4-8
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
immersed, then exposed apothecium of Phacidium infestans parasitises live needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-8

Fungus / saprobe
Ceuthospora coelomycetous anamorph of Phacidium lacerum is saprobic on decaying needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent apothecium of Phaeohelotium purpureum is saprobic on fallen branch of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1

Foodplant / pathogen
fruitbody of Phaeolus schweinitzii infects and damages live root of mature tree of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
effuse colony of Phaeostalagmus dematiaceous anamorph of Phaeostalagmus peregrinus is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / parasite
fruitbody of Phellinus igniarius parasitises live trunk of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / parasite
fruitbody of Phellinus pini parasitises live trunk of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Phellodon confluens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Phellodon melaleucus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Phellodon tomentosus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebia lilascens is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebia subserialis is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebia tremellosa is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed trunk (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiella albida is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiella pseudotsugae is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiella sulphurea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiella tulasnelloidea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiopsis gigantea is saprobic on dead, decayed trunk (cut end) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Phoenicocoris obscurellus sucks sap of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
densely scattered, erumpent pycnidium of Phomopsis coelomycetous anamorph of Phomopsis pithya is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Piloderma bicolor is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed litter of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / feeds on
Pilophorus cinnamopterus feeds on wound induced resinous sap flow of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / sap sucker
Pineus pini sucks sap of live bark of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Pissodes castaneus feeds on dead or dying twig of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Pissodes pini feeds within dead branch of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Pissodes validirostris feeds within cone of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Plant / associate
Plegaderus vulneratus is associated with under bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Pleurocybella porrigens is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Polyscytalum dematiaceous anamorph of Polyscytalum pini is saprobic on decaying, dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-3

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia ceriflua is saprobic on dead wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia floriformis is saprobic on dead wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia fragilis is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia leucomallella is saprobic on dead, decayed (very) log (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia placenta is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia rennyi is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed (very) trunk (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Postia sericeomollis is saprobic on dead, decayed trunk (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
conidioma of Pseudocenangium coelomycetous anamorph of Pseudocenangium succineum is saprobic on fallen, dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Pseudocercospora dematiaceous anamorph of Pseudocercospora deightonii is saprobic on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-2

Foodplant / spot causer
Linodochium anamorph of Pseudohelotium pineti causes spots on whitened needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 7-8

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Pseudomerulius aureus is saprobic on dead, decayed (very) wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Pseudomicrodochium anamorph of Pseudomicrodochium candidum is saprobic on dead twig (small) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 6-12

Fungus / saprobe
erumpent conidioma of Pseudopatellina coelomycetous anamorph of Pseudopatellina conigena is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
Pytho depressus is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
fruitbody of Ramaria suecica is associated with Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Resinicium furfuraceum is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
imago of Rhagium bifasciatum is associated with dead post of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 4-7
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
clustered perithecium of Rosellinia obliquata is saprobic on cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-8

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula caerulea is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula cessans is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula emetica is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula foetens is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula nauseosa is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula sanguinaria is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula sardonia is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula scotica is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula turci is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Sarcodon squamosus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Fungus / saprobe
pycnidium of Epithyrium coelomycetous anamorph of Sarea difformis is saprobic on resin exudate of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Schizopora flavipora is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / feeds on
Sciurus vulgaris feeds on seed of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered or irregularly gregarious, covered by bark, but then semi-erumpent pycnidium of Sclerophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Sclerophoma pithya is saprobic on dead branch (small) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-4

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent to superficial perithecium of Scopinella solani is saprobic on cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 12-8

Fungus / saprobe
colony of Septocylindrium anamorph of Septocylindrium leucum is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Septonema dematiaceous anamorph of Septonema fasciculare is saprobic on rotten bark of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / feeds on
amphigenous, punctiform, subepidermal pycnidium of Septoria coelomycetous anamorph of Septoria acuum feeds on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Sesquicillium anamorph of Sesquicillium candelabrum is saprobic on rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Sistotrema dennisii is saprobic on charred cone of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Sistotrema diademiferum is saprobic on dead, decayed litter of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Sistotrema pistilliferum is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Sistotremastrum niveocremeum is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Skeletocutis alutacea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Skeletocutis amorpha is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Skeletocutis kuehneri is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Skeletocutis vulgaris is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial synnema of Sphaeridium anamorph of Sphaeridium candidum sensu Fuckel is saprobic on dead cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / pathogen
erumpent pycnidium of Sphaeropsis coelomycetous anamorph of Sphaeropsis sapinea infects and damages live cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-4

Foodplant / feeds on
scattered, epiphyllous, covered, black pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Stagonospora pini feeds on needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 8

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Stereum sanguinolentum is saprobic on fallen, dead branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Stictis sp. nov. is saprobic on dead, fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
thyriothecium of Stomiopeltis pinastri is saprobic on dead, fallen, rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 9-3

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpeny conidioma of Strasseria coelomycetous anamorph of Strasseria geniculata is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 1-5

Foodplant / saprobe
long-rooted fruitbody of Strobilurus tenacellus is saprobic on buried, partially decayed cone of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Stypella vermiformis is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Subulicium lautum is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus bovinus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus collinitus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus flavidus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus granulatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus luteus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus variegatus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / secondary infection
erumpent pycnidium of Sclerophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Sydowia polyspora secondarily infects gall-midge infected needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sympodiella dematiaceous anamorph of Sympodiella acicola is saprobic on rotting needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Tapinella panuoides is saprobic on dead, decaying sawdust of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Tephrocybe fuscipes is saprobic on dead, decaying needle of litter of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Thelephora terrestris is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: captive: in captivity, culture, or experimentally induced

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Therrya fuckelii is saprobic on dead, fallen twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5

Fungus / saprobe
immersed apothecium of Therrya pini is saprobic on brittle, dead, fallen, lacking needles branch (small) of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 2-7
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Thysanophora dematiaceous anamorph of Thysanophora penicillioides is saprobic on dead, rotting, fallen needle of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / resting place / on
fruitbody of Tomentellopsis zygodesmoides may be found on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trechispora alnicola is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trechispora dimitica is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trechispora hymenocystis is saprobic on decayed (very) wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trechispora minima is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trechispora stevensonii is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Plant / associate
basidiome of Tremella translucens is associated with dead, decayed needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Trichaptum abietinum is saprobic on fallen, dead branch (large) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma aestuans is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma apium is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma batschii is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma equestre is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma gausapatum is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma portentosum is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma stans is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Tricholomopsis decora is saprobic on dead, decayed stump of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
sporodochium of Trimmatostroma dematiaceous anamorph of Trimmatostroma scutellare is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 11-4

Foodplant / feeds on
Trisetacus pini feeds on Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Troposporella dematiaceous anamorph of Troposporella monospora is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, shortly stalked apothecium of Tryblidiopsis pinastri is saprobic on dead, attached twig of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 5-7
Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
Tubulicrinis accedens is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Tubulicrinis glebulosus is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Tubulicrinis medius is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Tubulicrinis propinquus is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
Tubulicrinis subulatus is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tylopilus felleus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: minor host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
amphigenous stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Valsa abietis is saprobic on dead needle of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 12-4

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Vesiculomyces citrinus is saprobic on dead, decayed bark of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Xenosperma ludibundum is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus sylvestris
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyela julii feeds within unripe male catkin (sporophylls) of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyela longula feeds within shoot of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyela piliserra feeds within male catkin of Pinus sylvestris
Other: sole host/prey

Fungus / saprobe
effuse or pulvinate colony of Xylohypha dematiaceous anamorph of Xylohypha ortmansiae is saprobic on fallen cone of Pinus sylvestris
Remarks: season: 10-3

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Xylohypha dematiaceous anamorph of Xylohypha pinicola is saprobic on decorticate wood of Pinus sylvestris

Foodplant / saprobe
mostly superficial, but with bases immersed perithecium of Zigno is saprobic on locally bleached, rotten but still firm, dead branch of Pinus sylvestris

The Scots pine is the only pine species native to Northern Europe. These pines can live for centuries. In 2006, one of the oldest known Scots pines (estimated age between 355 and 405 years) fell to the ground in the town of Wolfheze (Province of Gelderland). However in the wadden region, these trees are usually cut down after 80 to 120 years. There is too much salty wind for them to reach a ripe old age. Scots pine is the only native pine to northern Europe. It requires so little food that it even grows on humus-poor wind-blown sand. You find them mostly on the sheltered side of dune woods.

Trees to 40 m tall; bark red-brown, flaking; branchlets dark gray-brown; winter buds red-brown or pale to yellowish brown, ovoid to oblong-ovoid, resinous. Needles 2 per bundle, blue-green, semiorbicular in cross section, (0.5-)3-14 cm × 1-2 mm, stiff, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, vascular bundles 2, resin canals 6-8, marginal, base usually twisted, with persistent sheath. Seed cones dull yellow-brown at maturity, conical-ovoid, 3-6 cm. Apophyses broadly rhombic, flat or shortly pyramidal; umbo small, blunt or mucronate.

Varieties ca. 20 (1 introduced in the flora): North America, Eurasia.

Heilongjiang, Jilin, N Nei Mongol; cultivated in Beijing Shi, Liaoning (Gai Xian) [Kazakhstan, N Mongolia, Russia; SW Asia, Europe]

Mountains, river basins, dry rocky slopes; 400-1600 m.

More info for the term: seed

The climatic conditions that are conducive to fire in Scandinavia are
also conducive to the production of large seed crops [52].

Scots pine

More info for the term: tree

Scots pine is an exotic, medium-sized, two-needle pine. Height at
maturity usually ranges from 50 to 100 feet (15-30 m) [18,42]. The
crown is open and spreading. Needles range from 1.8 to 3.6 inches
(4.5-9.0 cm) in length [57]. The bark is relatively thin [18,57]. A
taproot is frequently developed on sandy soils, but is not a universal
trait for Scots pine. The depth of the taproot ranges from 4.9 to 9.8
feet (1.5-3.0 m), but most of the roots are horizontal and within 7.8
inches (20 cm) of the soil surface [42]. A population of middle-aged
Scots pine in Finland had numerous root grafts between neighboring
trees in networks of up to ten trees. Water and nutrients are
transferred from one tree to another through the grafts (Yli-Vakkuri in
[9]).

Scots pine is long-lived; individuals of nearly 1,000 years of age
occur in northern Sweden [59]. Ages of 200 and 400 years are common in
Scandinavia [22].

Scots pine is the most widely distributed pine in the world. It's
native range includes Scotland, Scandinavia (excluding Denmark),
northern Europe, and northern Asia. It is introduced in many areas in
the United States and Canada, and is naturalized in the Northeast and in
the Great Lakes states [29,32,42].

More info for the terms: basal area, fire cycle, fire exclusion, fire interval, fire regime, fire suppression, fuel, litter, mean fire interval, taiga

Scots pine forests in Sweden are rated as fire-prone and appear to
require repeated fire for their maintenance [15]. In general, pine
forests in Europe (particularly Scots pine forests) which were always
fire-prone have become even more flammable with the advent of fire
exclusion and the discontinuance of the practice of litter collection
for use as animal bedding material, fuel, etc. [26].

In Sweden, Scots pine dominates forests that have burned with a mean
fire interval of 46 years from approximately 1,100 A.D. to the present.
In some areas, the mean fire interval is as short as 30 years, although
the impact of fire has been greatly reduced in the last 100 years with
fire suppression [59]. A fire return interval ranging from 26 to 146
years was calculated for Scots pine/heather forests in eastern Finland
[48]. In the taiga of northern China, the fire cycle for Scots pine
forests was estimated at 130 years [50].

The number of years between fires decreased in areas where Scots pine
basal area increased in Muddus National Park, Sweden. In this area,
Scots pine often predominates at the lower elevations where fire is
more common and is replaced by Norway spruce at the higher elevations
where fire is less frequent [15].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".

More info for the terms: fire exclusion, natural

Fires in Sweden have given rise to uneven-aged stands of Scots pine,
particularly in virgin types that have not been disturbed by humans
[59]. Fire exclusion in Europe has resulted in a conversion of
pine-dominated forests (including Scots pine) to hardwoods [26].

Prescribed burning followed by tilling, followed by natural
reforestation (known as swaling), has been practiced in Europe for many
years. It has been noted that the more frequently a site has been
swaled, the more likely it is that hardwoods will regenerate on the
site. Sites that have been burned and tilled only once often result in
good Scots pine regeneration [55].

Scots pine does not regenerate on dry sites occupied by Norway spruce
due to excessive humus buildup and shading. Such sites can be made more
conducive to Scots pine regeneration by prescribed burning. The humus
layer is directly reduced by fire. In succeeding years, it continues to
decrease in thickness, probably due to decreased root mass. Prescribed
burning improves many external growth factors needed for Scots pine
establishment, including nutrition, moisture availability, and soil
temperature [55].

Prescribed burning has been used in site preparation for the sowing of
Scots pine seeds in Norway and Finland [3,48]. Performance of Scots
pine approximately 10 years after planting was best on burned sites when
compared to performance on sites that were unburned but had slash
removed, or sites that were unburned and retained slash [55]. Rhizina
undulata root rot has been associated with postfire plantations of
Scots pine. As a result, prescribed burning for site preparation has
been discontinued in Finland and Sweden [1,54,55]. It is possible that
the appearance of Rhizina is associated with prescribed fires that are
too low in intensity [55]. However, the rarity of appropriate fire
weather for prescribed burning, and the labor-intensive expense of
prescribed burning have also contributed to the reduction in prescribed
burning in Scandinavia [3].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte

More info for the term: peat

Scots pine is found from sea level to 8,000 feet (2,440 m) elevation,
and grows on a wide variety of soils including peat, though growth on
peat usually results in stunted trees [42]. Growth is best on
well-drained soils [29]. Soil pH ranges from 4.0 to 7.0, but growth is
best between 4.5 and 6.0 [42,56].

Where it is naturalized in northern New York, Scots pine is associated
with black cherry (Prunus serotina), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar
maple (A. saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), quaking aspen
(Populus tremuloides), and eastern white pine [42].

More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES11 Spruce - fir
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
FRES19 Aspen - birch

More info for the terms: seed, wildfire

Young Scots pine trees are easily killed by fire due to their thin bark
and shallow roots. Based on the ability to recover after defoliation,
the fire resistance of 8-year-old Scots pine trees is rated as low
[36]. The heat tolerance of 1-year-old Scots pine seedlings is low
compared to a number of other conifers, including eastern white pine
[24]. Mature trees are better able to withstand fire; old trees in
Muddus National Park, Sweden, have numerous fire scars, showing that
they have survived repeated fires (intensity unreported). However,
severe fire will kill even mature trees [52].

A 1974 surface and crown wildfire in Scotland killed 74 percent of all
Scots pine burned. All Scots pine less than 2 inches (5 cm) dbh were
killed outright. Trees greater then 15.2 inches (38 cm) in diameter did
not have immediate mortality, however [60].

Scots pine seeds are moderately resistant to heat damage, and have a
good chance of surviving fire when buried. Seed germination is
good even at depths of up to 4.6 inches (10 cm) [52].

Scots pine bark is more resistant to heat than that of Norway
spruce, sugar maple, or white ash (Fraxinus americana) [14].

The pine grosbeak feeds on the terminal and lateral buds of Scots pine.
Porcupines consume the bark, and girdle small trees. White-tailed deer
will browse Scots pine [10]. Moose browse it in Scandinavia and Russia
[25,34].

More info for the term: forest

In Europe and Asia, Scots pine forms a boreal forest type with Norway
spruce (Picea abies). Scots pine is listed as a dominant species in
the following classification: Forest types and their significance [7].

More info for the term: tree

Tree

More info for the terms: root collar, seed

Scots pine is usually managed with a shelterwood or uniform compartment
system. In the Northeast and the Great Lakes states, reproduction is
abundant on sandy sites [32].

Scots pine requires high light intensities for good growth, but has
modest nutritional demands [55]. Certain ground vegetation types are
used as site quality indicators for Scots pine in Europe [7,35].
Scots pine performance varies greatly with site and seed source
[12,39,42]. Yields for most species in Scots pine stands in Germany
were improved when shade-tolerant species (Norway spruce and European
beech [Fagus sylvatica]) were grown in the understory. Scots pine
yields, however, were slightly decreased under those conditions [2].
Scots pine growth rates decreased with decreasing acidity in greenhouse
tests; optimum seedling growth is on acidic soils [8].

Scots pine has more branches per whorl than red pine (Pinus resinosa)
or eastern white pine (P. strobus), and is thus weaker at the nodes and
subject to wind damage [42].

Scots pine is intermediate in tolerance to foliar sprays of sodium
chloride [49].

Insects and Disease: Damaging insect species on Scots pine include
pine root collar weevil, pine root tip weevil, European pine sawfly, and
others. Scleroderris canker has become a serious problem in Scots pine
plantations in many areas. Other diseases include Lophodermum
needlecast, brown spot needle disease, and western gall rust [42,43].

CT DE HI IL IN IA ME MA MI MN
NH NJ NY OH PA RI VT WI NB NF
NS ON PE PQ

More info for the term: tree

Scots pine is a highly preferred Christmas tree, accounting for 30
percent of all trees planted for that purpose [42]. As a Christmas tree
crop, it can be highly profitable in agroforestry systems which combine
the production of row crops with tree plantations [30]. Scots pine is
widely planted as an ornamental, and for windbreaks in the central Great
Plains [12,38].

Scots pine is used to monitor the effect of air pollution on plants [13].

When compared to other ornamental species, Scots pine is low in
preference for white-tailed deer [10].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: seed

Scots pine pollen cones open from late May to early June. Pollination
occurs in early summer and is followed by fertilization 12 months later.
Seeds mature and cones ripen from September to October. Seed dispersal
occurs from December to March [27,42].

More info for the terms: seed, wildfire

In Sweden, establishment of Scots pine seedlings at high elevations
increased after fire [15]. Total pine pollen increased after fires in
Swedish core samples dated from 1,430 years BP [4]. A survey of a
burned stand of mature Scots pine in northern China showed numerous
seedlings, but no saplings [50].

Following the 1974 wildfire in Scotland, Scots pine reproduction was
densest on plots with heather. Very few seedlings occurred on sites
where sapling stands had been killed by fire. Regeneration was 2,500
seedlings per hectare at postfire year 6. By postfire year 12, some
seedlings had overtopped the competing vegetation. Postfire mortality
of burned trees was high. By postfire year 6, 45 percent of trees
greater than 2.5 inches dbh was died. Much of the postfire mortality
was attributed to pine shoot beetle (Myelophilus piniperda) attacks on
fire-damaged trees [46,60].

Scots pine may regenerate from seeds released from cones of burned
trees [60] as well as from seed from off-site parent trees. Twenty-four
years after a wildfire in Sweden, numerous Scots pine seedlings
occurred on burned sites, concentrated around surviving trees and near
the edges of the burned areas [52].

More info for the term: root crown

Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)

More info for the terms: density, fern, seed

Scots pine reproduces by seed. Sexual maturity can be reached as early
as 5 to 8 years of age; the usual range is from 10 to 15 years of age.
Scots pine continues to produce viable seed for up to 200 years. Good
seed crops are produced every 3 to 6 years, with light crops in
intervening years. Seed cones require alternating wet and dry weather
to open; seeds can be retained until early spring. Seed dispersal
distances range from 164 to 328 feet (50-100 m) from the parent, though
the maximum distance is greater than 0.6 mile (1 km) [42]. Seed quality,
germination, and establishment decrease with distance from the parent
plant [52].

Scots pine seedling establishment occurs on bare mineral soil. In
England, however, where Scots pine is invading heather (Calluna
vulgaris)-bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) heaths, Scots pine
seedlings were found even in dense stands of bracken fern; the limiting
factor on these sites appears to be proximity to seed source, rather
than density of ground vegetation [33].

Moisture stress, in the form of repeated cycles of wetting and drying,
has a pronounced negative effect on Scots pine seed germination [40].
Seedlings establish best with adequate moisture and some shade [42].
Survival is best when seedlings are planted on microsites close to the
tops of hills, and lowest in overly moist depressions [19].

There is no naturally occurring vegetative reproduction [42].

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: litter

Scots pine is intolerant of shade [42]. High mortality rates occur for
Scots pine growing under canopy. Few trees survive more than 50 years
under suppression; most do not survive even 7 years of shade [44,47].
Scots pine is not very responsive to release from suppression; trees
under 20 years old show a modest response [44,47]. Scots pine stands
are usually even-aged, or are uneven-aged with distinct age classes. In
Scandinavia, 50 to 70 percent of the trees in a stand commonly belong to
one age class, with the rest of the trees in the neighboring age classes
[22].

Scots pine usually regenerates in gaps (forming even-aged clumps) or
after stand-replacing disturbances [44,47,50]. In Sweden, most Scots
pine dominated-forests are maintained by fire. In the absence of fire,
Scots pine is usually replaced by Norway spruce (Picea abies). On some
sites, however, uneven-aged Scots pine stands are self maintaining in
the absence of fire. Regeneration peaks on these sites occurred at long
intervals and appear to be more related to favorable climatic conditions
than to any disturbances. The ability of Scots pine to reproduce
without disturbance is attributed to the thin humus and litter layers of
these poor sites [44].

The percentage of pine pollen increased after disturbances in soil core
samples dated from 1,430 years BP to present, in an area where Scots
pine is usually present [4].

The currently accepted scientific name of Scots pine is Pinus
sylvestris L. [42]. Scots pine introduced in North America
are nearly all the typical variety, Pinus sylvestris var.
sylvestris [61].

More info for the terms: cover, tree

Scots pine is planted for erosion control [42]. It is used to reforest
coal mine spoils. Such plantations are valued chiefly for Christmas
tree production, providing screening and wildlife food and cover, and
aesthetics [5,21,56]. In Europe, it is planted to reforest burned sites
[54].

Scots pine is used for pulpwood and sawlogs [42].

Scotch pine has been naturalized in northern New York. The associated trees are black cherry (Prunus serotina), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus).

Scotch pine is adapted to a wide variety of climates as indicated by its extremely large natural range. It grows in areas with an annual precipitation exceeding 1780 mm (70 in) and in areas with an annual precipitation as little as 200 mm (8 in). Scotch pine survives in the Verkhoyansk Mountains of eastern Siberia where winter temperatures have been recorded as low as -64° C (-83° F). In some areas it grows where the subsoil is permanently frozen. Scotch pine can also survive high temperatures, and it is found at middle altitudes in the Mediterranean region. The primary distribution of Scotch pine, however, indicates that it is a tree of the continental climates (18).

Scotch pine in North America is subject to a number of agents that can severely damage or kill the trees. Some of these agents are not present in Europe and Asia and, as a result, the species has not yet had an opportunity to develop genetic resistance.

Fire and wind can damage the trees. Young stands have thin bark and are heavily damaged by fire. Older trees with thicker bark are moderately resistant. Scotch pine has more branches per whorl than red or white pine and this large number of branches makes the tree weak at the nodes. During severe wind storms, trees may snap off at the nodes 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft) above the ground.

Wildlife and insects are also damaging. The pine grosbeak feeds on the terminal and lateral buds of Scotch pine causing numerous small crooks. Trees of Scandinavian provenances are heavily attacked. In Christmas tree plantations, this feeding can cause major economic losses; a single year's feeding can reduce the tree harvest by 50 percent. This is a minor problem to timber growers, however (2). On occasion, porcupine seriously damage Scotch pine plantations by girdling young trees, causing dead tops.

The pine root collar weevil (Hylobius radicis) is a major cause of tree death in young plantations in the Lake States. The weevil girdles the tree at the base, killing it within 3 to 4 years. The damage is especially severe on dry sandy soils. The fast-growing central European trees are particularly susceptible (26). In Michigan, on low quality sites, mortality frequently reaches 70 to 80 percent.

The pine root tip weevil (Hylobius rhizophagus) causes serious damage in Michigan on Scotch pine Christmas trees grown from stump culture. These trees result from leaving the lower limbs on cut trees to grow into a second tree crop. The pine root tip weevil larvae feed on the roots and root tips, resulting in reduced height growth and flagged shoots, and eventual death. In some cases the pine root tip weevil and the pine root collar weevil attack some Scotch pine stands simultaneously, causing more mortality than expected from either insect alone (7).

The European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer) causes moderate damage in Christmas trees and ornamental plantings. Heavy defoliation reduces growth from 10 to 20 percent. The fast-growing Scotch pine variety uralensis shows some resistance to this insect while the slow-growing variety iberica is most susceptible (27).

If Scotch pine is pruned in midsummer, the Zimmerman pine moth may be attracted to the fresh pitch. The larvae feed in the cambial region, causing masses of coagulated pitch and frass to collect. Feeding by several larvae at the same whorl may kill the tree top or the entire tree. Partially girdled stems frequently break at the weakened area during storms (28).

The white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi) burrows into terminal shoots and kills them. This insect is very damaging to trees on light soils but causes only minor damage on better sites (28). The eastern pine shoot borer (Eucosma gloriola) also burrows in the pith of new growth. In Michigan plantations, this insect is universal but causes only minor damage.

The pine spittlebug (Aphrophora parallela) is a serious pest in many Scotch pine Christmas tree plantations. Heavy infestations of spittlebugs may cause twig, branch, and tree mortality. In one 19-year-old Scotch pine plantation in southern Michigan, the pine spittlebug has apparently acted as the vector for the fungus disease Sphaeropsis sapinea; mortality is now 25 percent and is continuing.

Lophodermium needlecast caused by the fungus Lophodermium seditiosum is the most serious disease of Scotch pine Christmas tree plantations. The major loss is due to premature defoliation resulting in unsalable Christmas trees. In general, the longer needle provenances are resistant to this disease. The problem is minor in forest stands (8).

Scotch pine is also a host for brown spot needle disease of southern pines (Scirrhia acicola). This disease, like Lophodermium, causes premature defoliation and is primarily limited to Christmas tree plantations. The long needle provenances are also more resistant to this disease (16).

Western gall rust (Endocronartium harknessii) is common on Scotch pine in the Lake States and the Northeast. Individual trees may have several hundred galls. In most cases damage is limited to branch mortality and growth loss.

As described earlier, Scotch pine is susceptible to scleroderris canker. This disease is present in many areas in Europe, and as a result, certain Scotch pine provenances show some resistance. Scotch pine is more resistant to scleroderris canker than red pine, and in some areas, red pines have been eliminated from the stand while Scotch pines are still alive. Scleroderris canker can be spread on cut Scotch pine Christmas trees. Therefore, State quarantines have been established to prevent the movement of this disease into noninfected areas (15).

When southern seed sources of Scotch pine are planted too far north of their normal range, severe foliage winter injury develops. This winter injury causes both branch and tree mortality. In the Lake States, a large number of Christmas tree plantations have been destroyed by this problem.

Many of these problems in Scotch pine plantations are the result of planting this species on very poor sites or planting the wrong seed source. Scotch pine has the inherent ability to produce excellent, straight-boled stands under the proper conditions. Hundreds of Scotch pine plantations throughout the Lake States and the Northeast are equal to or better than the best red pine stands. When Scotch pine is planted on very poor sites, however, or when improper seed sources are used, damage by insects is so severe as to make the final stand useless for timber production.

Although Scotch pine is primarily a monoecious species, some shoots, branches, and even entire trees are predominantly of one sex. Male flower primordia are formed in late summer at the base of the bud that will make the next year's growth. During the winter their presence can be noted as a slight swelling, and the preferred male catkins are easily visible if a bud is dissected. About 2 weeks after growth begins in the spring, the male catkins enlarge to 0.6 to 0.7 cm. (0.2 to 0.3 in) long and shed pollen. At this time they are yellow.

The male catkins are borne at the base of the twigs, replacing leaf clusters. They are most common in the lower part of the crown and on short lateral twigs. Because they replace leaves, an excess of pollen production can lead to sparse foliage. A Pennsylvania breeder who selected for early flower production for two generations obtained a variety that produced plentiful pollen but few needles and it was worthless as a Christmas tree.

Female flower primordia are also formed in late summer but are microscopic. They are borne at the tips of buds for the next year's growth. There may be one, two, or three on a single bud. They first become visible after the buds expand in the spring. The primordia enlarge into female flowers or strobili about 2 weeks after growth begins in the spring, at a time when the new growth has completed 75 percent of its elongation for the season. Because of this, shearing of the outside branches such as is practiced by Christmas tree growers removes all female flowers. Indeed, trees sheared in June will not produce seed for the next 3.5 years.

Flowering occurs in late May or early June. On any one tree nearly all pollen is shed and nearly all the female flowers are receptive during the same 2- or 3-day period. In any one stand most trees flower within a day or two of each other. Trees of different provenances may differ in blooming time by several days, however; trees of northern provenances bloom the earliest.

Pollen production tends to be concentrated on short lateral twigs in the lower half of a tree crown. Female flowers are borne on the most vigorous shoots. They tend to be concentrated on upper branches but may occur in any part of the crown receiving full sunlight.

Pollination occurs in early summer, at a time when the female strobili are from 0.6 to 0.7 cm (0.2 to 0.3 in) long. Shortly after pollination, the scales of the female strobili thicken, and the pollen grains germinate and send out a short pollen tube. At this time the female strobili become reflexed instead of pointing forward. For the next 12 months the germinated pollen remains dormant and the female strobili grow little. A little more than a year after pollination, the germinated pollen grains renew growth and fertilize the ovules. In June, soon after fertilization, the conelets rapidly elongate and reach full size by early summer. Seeds mature and cones ripen in early October. The cones require alternating periods of dry and wet weather to open and shed few seed until early winter. Indeed, many seeds are retained on the tree until early spring.

Seeds from any one tree can be sorted visually by color into those that are full and those that are empty-empty seeds are much lighter in color (often nearly white) than full ones. On any one tree the full seeds are fairly uniform in color and size, but both traits vary considerably from tree to tree. Trees from the same stand may produce seeds ranging from tan to almost black and from all one color to speckled. Seed size varies in a geographic pattern-seeds from the extreme northern latitudes are half the size of those from the southern part of the range.

Population Differences and Races In Europe, seed source studies on Scotch pine go back almost 200 years, and the literature on genetic variation is large. In the United States, an international seed source trial was conducted in 1938. This trial included trees grown from seed collected in Scandinavia and north-central Europe. In 1961, seeds from 162 natural stands and 24 plantations in Europe and Asia were outplanted in 12 test plantations in Michigan. The results of these seed source studies show the extreme importance of beginning with the correct seed source. The fastest-growing varieties from central Europe grew 2.5 times as tall and produced 15 times as much wood as the slowest-growing variety. In Michigan, the variety carpatica from eastern Czechoslovakia was most suitable for timber production because of its fast growth and good stem form. The next best was variety haguenensis from Belgium, Vosges Mountains of France, and adjacent West Germany. These varieties may perform poorly in other parts of the United States, however. Information on performance of many seed sources is now available for most of the Lake States and the Northeast (3,6,14,23,27,28).

The diversity within Scotch pine is extremely great. A conservative estimate of the number of geographic varieties ranges from 19 to 22. There is also considerable variation within named varieties. Sources differ in many characteristics including seed size, germination, dormancy, and color; cone color; tree form; growth; structure of root system; flowering characteristics; needle color and length; susceptibility to cold, heat, and drought; and resistance to insects and disease. Seed size increases from North to South. In general, southern sources grow faster than northern sources. The more southern sources are more susceptible to low temperatures. The needles of trees from Siberian and Scandinavian seed sources turn yellow in winter while those from Spain, southern France, and the Balkans remain green (18,21).

The only standard names applied to the various geographic varieties are the Latin names published by Ruby and Wright in 1976 (11). Unfortunately, those names are not in common use among seed dealers and nursery managers. Hence, a grower who wants var. aquitana from southern France must know that it also goes by the names French Highland, Aquitaine, French Blue, French Green (this name also applies to another variety), and Royal French Blue. Therefore, it is best when ordering nursery stock to specify the region from which the seed should come, that is, Central Mass of southern France, northern Italy, etc. Generally speaking, seed or seedlings ordered in this manner will come true to form. The names Austrian Hill and Riga should be used with particular caution, however, as they may be applied to trees of very different genetic composition.

Hybrids Hybrids between recognized varieties can be made but are not common. In the Michigan seed source study, one seed source from northern France was evidently a hybrid because it produced trees with characteristics intermediate between varieties haguenensis and aquitana (28). Scotch pine can be hybridized with Japanese red pine (P. densiflora) and Austrian pine (P. nigra).

Scotch pine shows tremendous variation in yield, both by site and by geographic seed source. In seed source tests, some varieties grew 2.5 times as fast as others on the same site (28). The average height of 150-year-old trees in Scotland is from 13.7 to 16.8 m (45 to 55 ft). On well-drained sites, an occasional tree as tall as 22.9 m (75 ft) is found (18).

In a Michigan study in which dominant crop trees were released, the released trees averaged 13.7 m (45 ft) in height and 18 cm (6.9 in) in d.b.h. at 21 years. The plantation was grown from seed from Magdeburg, Germany, and the soil is a fox sandy loam on a well-drained site (13). A 32-year-old, unthinned Scotch pine plantation in the same area averaged 19 cm (7.3 in) in d.b.h. and 18.6 m (61 ft) in height. This seed source was probably central Europe. A Scotch pine plantation in northern New York averaged 26.0 m (85.5 ft) tall and 48 cm (19 in) d.b.h. at age 74 to 77 years. The largest tree in this stand was 29.0 m (95.25 ft) tall and 51 cm (20.2 in) in d.b.h. One of the earliest Scotch pine plantations in the United States was planted in 1879 near Boonville, NY. The seed source was probably southern Germany (9). Although no stand data are available, the largest tree still standing in 1981 was 26.8 m (88 ft) tall and 66 cm (26 in) in d.b.h.

Thinning a Scotch pine plantation in southern Michigan increased diameter growth but reduced total volume production (12). At 42 years the unthinned portion of the stand averaged 23 cm (9.2 in) in d.b.h. and contained a volume of 263.8 m³/ha (3,768 ft/acre). Basal area was 36.0 m²/ha (157 ft²/acre). The area receiving five light thinnings at 5-year intervals to a basal area of 19.5 to 21.8 m²/ha (85 to 95 ft²/acre) had an average d.b.h. of 30 cm (11.8 in) but volume was only 155.2 m³/ha (2,217 ft³/acre) and basal area was 25.7 m²/ha (112 ft²/acre). The heaviest thinning with five thinnings at 5-year intervals to a basal area of 14.9 to 17.2 m²/ha (65 to 75 ft²/acre) produced an average d.b.h. of 34 cm (13.3 in) with 117.5 m³/ha (1,679 ft³/acre) of volume and 20.7 m²/ha (90 ft²/acre) of basal area.

Scotch pine, like red pine, is intolerant of shade. Overtopped saplings eventually are lost to suppression. Where Scotch pine has been intermixed with red or white pine at planting, the Scotch pine grows so much more aggressively during the first few years that its roots crowd out roots of the other species leaving only Scotch pine.

Many open-grown trees in poorly stocked stands are bushy and crooked with large-diameter branches. This habit appears to be due more to stand stocking than to genetic factors.

Much of the experience with Scotch pine in the United States has been in Christmas tree plantations. In these stands, the trees are usually planted at a spacing of 2 by 2 m (6.6 by 6.6 ft) and are harvested within 8 to 15 years. Early growth in these plantations can be doubled by removing grass and weed competition either by mowing or by using chemical herbicides.

In Norway and Sweden, Scotch pine is normally managed under a uniform or shelterwood system, in compartments of about 4 ha (10 acres). The regeneration cut is made to coincide with a heavy seed year. This can be predicted 1 year in advance because the cones take 2 years to mature. At the time of regeneration, the number of overstory trees is reduced to approximately 50/ha (20/acre) by one or two fellings to provide the required light conditions for young seedlings and to reduce root competition for water and nutrients. The seed trees normally are felled when the reproduction is well established- usually within 5 to 10 years (18).

Scotch pine frequently, but not always, develops a taproot. One study in Europe found 64 percent of the trees with taproots. Often, the lateral roots turn and grow down vertically, acting as a taproot. Taproots are more common on sandy soils than on moraine or gravel soils. The average depth of taproots is from 1.5 to 3.0 m (4.9 to 9.8 ft). The bulk of the root system consists of horizontal roots close to the surface. The majority of these horizontal roots are within 20 cm (7.8 in) of the surface. The horizontal root system is smaller on good soils than on poor soils. The depth of the horizontal root system is also related to soil moisture-it is deeper on the drier soils. On vigorous trees, the length of the longest horizontal roots ranged from 4.5 m (14.8 ft) for 14-year-old trees to 17.1 m (56.0 ft) for 52-year-old trees. Root systems on rocky soils are usually shorter than on sandy soils. The size of the stem and the length of horizontal roots are closely interdependent. A small tree will have a small root system regardless of the tree age, and the root system of a large Scotch pine may cover an area of 0.125 ha (0.3 acre) (5).

Individual trees in Michigan, under favorable growth conditions, begin to produce male and female flowers at from 5 to 8 years, although the average is between 10 and 15 years (26). Scotch pine continues to produce viable seeds until at least age 200, although seed quality and size are greatly reduced at this age (18).

Good seed crops are produced at intervals of from 3 to 6 years with light crops in most intervening years. The number of cleaned seeds per kilogram ranges from 74,500 to 244,700 (33,800 to 111,000/lb). If properly stored, the seeds remain viable for 15 years. One kilogram (2.2 lb) of average size cones produces approximately 3,300 seeds (21).

Scotch pine cones begin to open in late October, and seed dispersal continues into December. At times, large quantities of seed are dispersed onto snow cover. Seed dispersal for natural restocking of cutover areas is normally limited to between 50 and 100 in (164 to 328 ft) from the parent tree. Maximum seed dispersal is much greater, however. In northern New York, the establishment of second-generation natural Scotch pine seedlings up to at least 1 km (0.6 mi) from the seed source is the rule rather than the exception (29).

Seed crops in New York and Nebraska have been damaged primarily by coneworm larvae (Dioryctria spp.). Tip moths (Rhyacionia spp.), which destroy shoots bearing newly formed or developing conelets, are common in Scotch pine seed orchards.

Seeds tested in the laboratory differ in their degree of dormancy according to geographical seed source, individual tree selection, and seed maturity. Most, however, will germinate immediately if placed in warm, moist conditions. Germination is epigeal (21). Artificial light has been shown to increase germination by 83 percent for some seed sources (4).

Field germination is best under full or partial sunlight. Seedling establishment is best when adequate moisture is available and some shade is present. In northern New York, Scotch pine has established itself rapidly on abandoned old fields on very light soils.

At present, almost all the Scotch pine plantations in North America are from planted nursery stock. Two-year-old stock averages from 8 to 20 cm (3 to 8 in) in height. Early nursery practice was to grow the seedlings very close together-from 2,150 to 3,230/m² (200 to 300/ft²) of seedbed. The result was a tall, spindly seedling that bent to the ground when subjected to wet snow during the first winter. These young trees developed a crook at the base. As they developed, the growing tip overcompensated for this crook resulting in an S-shaped stem. The trees eventually returned to a vertical growth habit, but the crook remained. When nursery stock is grown at lower density, 540 seedlings per square meter (50/ft²), the resulting stock is sturdier and is able to resist snow bending during its early years.

The idea that certain varieties (especially Riga) are always straight wherever grown and that other varieties (such as German and Belgian) are generally crooked is too simple and not always true. Form is as much a matter of site as of variety. On some sites most trees grow crooked whereas on other sites trees of any variety are usually straight. Scotch pine inherently grows straight unless the leader is damaged, when it is apt to be very crooked. The tendency for a variety to be straight or crooked depends on its susceptibility to a particular pest or other damaging agent, and on the presence of that pest or damaging agent in that locality. For example, when the Zimmerman moth (Dioryctria zimmermani) is present in high numbers, Greek trees, which are generally not attacked, are straight, while Belgian trees, which are very susceptible, are very crooked. Where pine grosbeaks are present in large numbers, the Belgian trees, which are resistant to this pest, are straight whereas trees of the Riga variety are likely to be crooked.

Poor quality sites seem to have a larger number of pests and a larger number of poorly formed trees than good quality sites.

Scotch pine produces one whorl of branches per year. A fast-growing tree may have branches 0.8 m (2-5 ft) apart resulting in a thin crown. To promote closer branching and denser crowns for Christmas tree production, the trees are sheared by removing the tips of all the new shoots. Following shearing, the leaf fascicles near the cut ends develop adventitious buds. These buds are not formed if shearing is done during late summer.

Scotch pine seedlings grow rapidly in their early years. In Nebraska, after 8 field seasons, trees ranged in height from 2.5 to 5.0 m (8.2 to 16.4 ft) depending on the seed source. Trees from central European seed grew fastest while those from Scandinavian and Siberian origins grew slowest (10). On good sites throughout the Lake States and the Northeast, trees of the fast-growing varieties can grow 0.8 m (2.5 ft) per year.

In Michigan shoot growth begins in early May in the central part of the State and in mid-May in the Upper Peninsula. The new shoots elongate rapidly and achieve 90 percent of their growth within 3 weeks.

Insects have not been a serious problem under nursery conditions, although a pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia adana) has injured some new Scotch pine shoots in several Michigan nurseries (22). The most serious nursery problem of Scotch pine seedlings is Lophodermium needlecast, usually attributed to L. pinastri but now assigned to L. seditiosum. This disease has killed or seriously damaged millions of Scotch pine seedlings in at least 40 tree nurseries in the Northeast, Lake States, Pacific Northwest, and Canada. Nursery stock infected with Lophodermium has also been shipped from nurseries to outplanting sites where further damage has occurred in the young plantations (8).

In Europe, Scotch pine grows on a wide variety of soil types. In Scotland it is found on the most ancient rocks and also on the most recent glacial deposits. The cool, humid climate of Scotland, along with the nature of the parent material, which is usually siliceous and acidic, frequently results in a deep litter and raw humus layer. The soils exhibit various degrees of podzolization. Scotch pine grows well on these soils but best growth is on freely drained sands and gravels, often on knolls and terraces. These soils have only a thin layer of raw humus and are weakly podzolized. Although Scotch pine grows on peat land in certain areas, usually it is badly stunted (18).

Studies of the mineral nutrient content of the foliage of several Scotch pine provenances at three sites in Michigan show that Scotch pine has evolved an efficient mechanism to extract nutrients from the infertile sites to which it is relegated in its native range. Significant differences were found among seed sources in their ability to accumulate nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, and boron. Magnesium was one of the key minerals in Scotch pine nutrition at all three sites. The faster-growing seed sources accumulated higher levels of foliar magnesium (17).

Although Scotch pine can grow on soils with pH from 4.0 to 7.0, it grows best on soils in the 4.5 to 6.0 range (1). In the Lake States, Scotch pine is planted most commonly on level or gently rolling sand plains-chiefly at elevations between 300 m (1,000 ft) and 460 m (1,500 ft). In the Eastern States, it has been planted not only on outwash plains, but also on mountain slopes at elevations from a few meters above sea level to about 820 m (2,700 ft) in the Adirondacks. Scotch pine grows well on the loess soils of northern Idaho and eastern Washington, under rainfall conditions prevailing in the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) zone.

Scotch pine grows most commonly on soils in the orders Spodosols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Histosols, Alfisols, and Mollisols.

Scotch pine is the most widely planted pine introduced in North America. It is also the preferred large-volume Christmas tree in the United States- approximately 30 percent of the 35 million Christmas trees harvested annually are Scotch pine (20).

Because it survives on poor droughty sites, Scotch pine has been used to control erosion in many areas. However, the poor vigor of many of these stands on dry, infertile sites has made them susceptible to serious insect attack and many of them have little potential to produce timber (28).

Scotch pine has also been used to a large extent in ornamental plantings. It grows better than red pine on compacted clay soils frequently found around homesites. Because Christmas tree plantations are a ready source of trees, many trees are removed from these plantations as ornamental stock. Many Scotch pine have also been planted along roadsides throughout the Lake States.

Scotch pine is similar in fiber and wood characteristics to red pine and is usable for both pulpwood and saw logs.

In nature, Scotch pine does not reproduce vegetatively. It is not difficult, however, to graft scions from the larger trees onto potted understock of Scotch pine. In a Swedish study, cuttings from young seedlings (50 to 100 days old) rooted readily, but cuttings from shoots of 3-year-old plants rooted poorly (19).

Scotch pine has been widely planted in the United States, especially in the Northeast, Lake States, Central States, and Pacific Northwest. It is now considered naturalized in parts of New England and the Lake States (29). The species has also been planted across southern Canada.

Scotch pine is the most widely distributed pine in the world. It grows naturally from Scotland almost to the Pacific Ocean and from above the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. Its altitudinal range is from sea level to about 2440 m (8,000 ft).

Pinaceae -- Pine family

Darroll D. Skilling

Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), also called Scots pine, is an introduced species in North America, brought here from Europe probably in colonial days. Although it is used for both pulpwood and sawlogs, its principal value in the United States appears to be as a Christmas tree, as an ornamental, and for erosion control.

Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves grey-green, Leaves blue-green, Leaves not blue-green, Leaves white-striped, Needle-like leaves somewhat rounded, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 2, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with missing or very weak prickle, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds black, Seeds gray, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.

Pinus sylvestris, the Scots pine (UK), Scotch pine (US) or Baltic pine, is a species of tree in the pine family Pinaceae that is native to Eurasia. It can readily be identified by its combination of fairly short, blue-green leaves and orange-red bark.