While there are no known specific animal predators to threaten James’ flamingos, humans take the role of predators through their methods of collecting and selling the eggs of P. jamesi for food. However, the tendency of these flamingos to reside in large groups acts as an anti-predation mechanism against this human behavior.
Known Predators:
James’ flamingos look similar to other species within Phoenicopteridae, with a few distinguishing characteristics. They are the typical pale pink color known of most flamingos, with some black flight feathers and bright crimson streaks around their necks and on their backs. Their heads are also a darker pink compared to their bodies. Phoenicoparrus jamesi usually stands at approximately 0.9 to 1.0 m in height, weighing 1.5 to 3.0 kg with a 1.0 to 1.6 m wingspan. Their small size can make it difficult to distinguish them from the immature Andean flamingos (Phoenicoparrus andinus), their closest relatives.
Unique to James’ flamingos are their characteristically smaller, bright yellow bills with black tips, deep crimson patches around their eyes, and their unusual red legs. Their bills are at least 1.5 cm shorter than that of other species, and they have exceedingly narrower upper jaws, measuring a mere 0.55 cm, which is less than one-half the average width of flamingos. Phoenicoparrus jamesi can thus be identified from other flamingos, such as Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis) that have longer bills and are pinker in color, and Andean flamingos, which are larger in size, with yellow legs and more black in their bills. The latter and James’ flamingos, comprising the Phoenicoparrus genus, share the characteristics of a deep-keeled, sharply curved bill and the lack of a hind toe, or hallux.
Sexual dimorphism has not yet been confirmed, but observational evidence suggests that males are slightly larger in size than females. Immature P. jamesi can also be recognized by the same characters as adult specimens, but they are gray in color with narrow streaks on their backs.
Range mass: 1.5 to 3 kg.
Range length: 90 to 92 cm.
Range wingspan: 1 to 1.6 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger
The exact lifespan of P. jamesi in the wild is unknown, although it has been estimated that it can survive for up to 20 to 30 years. There is evidence of its lifespan being limited by habitat exploitation by humans through mining and also by natural declining conditions of its habitats. Both of these conditions adversely affect resource availability, thus making it difficult for James’ flamingos to thrive. Additionally, climate change has been documented to affect the abundance of diatoms, the primary food source of James’ flamingos, therefore decreasing availability of food resources and shortening their lifespan.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 20 to 30 years.
Within the high plateaus of the Andes Mountains, James’ flamingos prefer to reside in shallow, saline lakes that are conducive to their feeding behaviors. Furthermore, high-altitude salt lakes may be alkaline, favoring algal growth and consequently providing more nutrition for these flamingos. However, they also can be found in certain freshwater environments within tropical regions in South America. Their average habitat elevation is approximately 4000 m above sea level, but they act as partial elevational migrants, traveling to as low as 2300 m above sea level in the non-breeding season and 4870 m above sea level during the breeding season. James’ flamingos must migrate in the winter when the high altitude wetlands freeze, making it impossible to access the diatoms and algae in these lakes.
Range elevation: 2300 to 4870 m.
Average elevation: 4000 m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater
Aquatic Biomes: rivers and streams; temporary pools; brackish water
Wetlands: marsh
James’ flamingos were named after an English naturalist, Henry Berkeley James, who funded numerous voyages to Chile to collect bird specimens. On one of his trips, he obtained a new specimen of flamingo, later named after him in honor of his findings.
To communicate with other individuals, P. jamesi calls with a nasal honking sound. It also communicates through visual mating displays such as head flagging and a wing salute. Head flagging involves stretching its neck vertically upward, then rhythmically rotating its head horizontally back and forth. Phoenicoparrus jamesi executes a wing salute by flipping its tails upward and simultaneously extending its neck in order to show off its ornamental colors. Like most birds, James' flamingos perceives its environment through auditory, visual, tactile, and chemical stimuli.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
James’ flamingos are classified as near threatened because populations declined throughout the twentieth century but have since begun showing signs of improvement, mostly due to conservation techniques that have been put in place. Rapid decline of P. jamesi resulted from several factors over a short time span. Climate change is affecting diatom abundance, resulting in less available food for James' flamingos. Egg poaching, mining activity in Laguna Colorada, and unplanned development of tourism each had strong adverse effects on the survival of P. jamesi in its natural habitat. Mining activity is still occurring, and because of the high demand for water associated with this practice, these wetlands are being threatened.
One area, the Eduardo Avaroa National Faunal Reserve in Bolivia, is already being protected to conserve James’ flamingos in this region. There has also been both international and national conservation programs set up in each of the four countries in which these species are endemic. Further suggestions for conserving P. jamesi involve both yearly surveys during its breeding season to continuously monitor its population, and also increasing the region of the currently protected area to include common habitats found in Argentina. Another idea has been to initiate a reserve that covers Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile by amalgamating the management of sites in each country to more efficiently preserve breeding colonies and frequented areas of P. jamesi. This last method is site-based, whereas species-based conservation is another idea. The possibility of identifying James’ flamingos as Natural Monuments, a concept that exists in Argentina, would provide protection for them regardless of their location.
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
There are no known adverse effects of P. jamesi on humans.
Humans hunt and collect the eggs of James’ flamingos in order to sell as food for monetary gain.
Positive Impacts: food
Phoenicoparrus jamesi directly affects the populations of diatoms and aquatic algae in the lakes in which it inhabits. In areas of especially condensed populations of flamingos, competition is increased and this available food depletes at an accelerated rate. Phoenicoparrus jamesi has also been considered to assist in the conservation of wetlands through its habitual use of these areas, continually stirring up the sediment and providing fertilization through its waste products.
Filter-feeding in birds reaches its most advanced form in flamingos, with their highly specialized bills that have been adapted to feed on minute particles. The specific filter-feeding behavior of P. jamesi has a correlation with its preference for shallow bodies of water. It feeds close to the edge of the water, along the banks of lakes where aquatic vegetation is plentiful. Prey can be found a few centimeters below the water’s surface, which are accessed by submerging the bill upside-down and stirring up sediment from the ground. It most often forages within 2 cm of the surface.
The bill structure of P. jamesi accounts for its primary diet and feeding behaviors. There is a definitive relationship between internal jaw filter structures and the size of prey that can be eaten. James’ flamingos have an intermarginal distance between lamellae in both their upper and lower jaws that is the smallest of the Phoenicopteridae family, resulting in an average smaller prey size than other flamingo species. Diatoms are their main food resource, such as those of the genera Cymbella, Gyrosigma, and Navicula. The diatoms ingested by James’ flamingos are an average of 21 to 60 micrometers in length, which is smaller than the food of other flamingos. An additional specialization of the jaw for microscropic prey is its inner submarginal lamellae that form a second filter with even smaller spaces. Through inertial impaction, diatoms are trapped within lamellae because they are denser than water, which flows out of its mouth. James’ flamingos also feed on phytoplankton and blue-green algae.
Plant Foods: algae; phytoplankton
Other Foods: microbes
Foraging Behavior: filter-feeding
Primary Diet: herbivore (Algivore)
Phoenicoparrus jamesi, commonly referred to as either James’ flamingos or puna flamingos, is the rarest of the family Phoenicopteridae and is restricted to the wetlands in the high Andean plateaus of South America. In summer, it is most often found around its regular breeding sites in Bolivia, such as Lagunas Colorada and Guayaques, or in the high altitudes of Argentina. When these wetlands freeze and the climate becomes too extreme for survival, P. jamesi migrates from higher to lower altitudes within the high Andes in Peru and Chile as well as in Bolivia and Argentina.
Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )
Laguna Colorada is the most favorable breeding place for P. jamesi, gathering there in thousands of pairs along with Andean and Chilean flamingos. James’ flamingos are a monogamous species, using breeding displays of their coloration to attract a mate. These practices are highly ritualized and are performed by all six species of Phoenicopteridae. Prior to their breeding season, both sexes of James' flamingos exhibit display rituals, bringing the entire flock of flamingos into synchrony of their reproductive systems. After a flamingo chooses its mate, copulation takes place in the water, by the female submerging her head and spreading her wings so her mate may jump on her back. Pair bonds are reinforced throughout the year, and the two remain together until one dies.
Mating System: monogamous
Breeding is directly affected by rainfall cycles, only occurring if the water level is neither too elevated nor too low. Throughout the summer breeding season of January through March, it is most common for James’ flamingos only to produce a single egg. The nests built for these eggs are conical mounds of mud averaging 45 to 50 cm at the base, 28 to 30 cm at the rim, and 10 cm in height. Since flamingos are found in colonies with several species, the nests of all the species present are typically found in proximity to each other, and they all appear alike externally. However, the eggs of each species are unique in size, with those of P. jamesi being the smallest. Its typical egg weighs 115 g and measures a mere 7.62 cm long.
The incubation period for the eggs of James’ flamingos is approximately 27 to 31 days. When an egg hatches, the chick initially has a straight bill and weighs an average of 73 g. At this point, the altricial newborn may spend up to 12 days in the nest, afterward becoming darker gray and developing the down-curved bill characteristic of flamingos. After three months, it is typically able to independently survive without additional help from its parents. It takes approximately 3 to 4 years for P. jamesi to reach sexual maturity and thus develop full adult plumage.
Breeding interval: James' flamingos typically breed once yearly.
Breeding season: The breeding season is during the South American summer months, from January through March.
Range eggs per season: 1 to 2.
Average eggs per season: 1.
Range time to hatching: 27 to 31 days.
Range fledging age: 12 (high) days.
Range time to independence: 3 to 4 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 to 4 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 to 4 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous
After a female James’ flamingo has successfully produced an egg, both parents share the responsibilities for incubation. They essentially rotate shifts so that the other can search for food. When P. jamesi prepares to incubate its egg, it straddles the nest, continually spreading its legs apart further and eventually dropping onto the nest with its legs underneath its body. Once an egg begins hatching, its parents often help it escape from its shell. For at least 20 days after hatching, chicks receive food in the form of crop halocrine secretions from their parents’ upper digestive tracts. This “crop milk” is composed of lipids and protein, ensuring that chicks obtain food of mostly constant composition in order to continue their development.
Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)
James's flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi), also known as the puna flamingo, is a species of flamingo that lives at high altitudes in the Andean plateaus of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and northwest Argentina.
It is named for Harry Berkeley James, a British naturalist who studied the bird. James's flamingo is closely related to the Andean flamingo, and the two species are the only members of the genus Phoenicoparrus. The Chilean flamingo, Andean flamingo, and James's flamingo are all sympatric, and all live in colonies (including shared nesting areas).[4] James's flamingo had been thought to be extinct until a population was discovered in a remote area in 1956.[5]
The James's flamingo is smaller than the Andean flamingo, and is about the same size as the Old World species, the lesser flamingo. A specimen of the bird was first collected by Charles Rahmer, who was on a collecting expedition sponsored by Harry Berkeley James, (1846–1892, a manager of a Chilean saltpetre mine born in Walsall, England) after whom the bird was named.[6][7] It typically measures about 90–92 cm (2.95–3.02 ft) long and weighs about 2 kg (4.4 lb).[8] James's flamingos have a very long neck made up of 19 long cervical vertebrae, allowing for a large range of movement and rotation of the head.[9] They are also distinctive for their long, thin legs. The knee is not externally visible: it is located at the top of the leg. The joint at the middle of the leg, which may be mistaken for the knee joint, is actually the ankle joint. Its plumage is very pale pink, with bright carmine streaks around the neck and on the back. When it is perched, a small amount of black can be seen in its wings; these are the "flight feathers". They have bright red skin around their eyes, which in adults are yellow. Their legs are brick red and their bills are bright yellow with a black tip.[9]
The James's flamingo is similar to most of the flamingo species in South America, but the Chilean flamingo is pinker, with a longer bill (which is not yellow), and the Andean flamingo is larger, with more black in the wings and bill, and with yellow legs. The easiest way to distinguish James's flamingos is by their lighter-colored feathers and the bright yellow on their bills. A good method to distinguish the two Phoenicoparrus flamingo species from other flamingo species is to look at their feet. The two Phoenicoparrus species have three toes but no hallux. The feet of the other three species of flamingos have three forward-facing toes and a hallux.[9]
Newly hatched flamingos are gray or white. Their feathers acquire a pink color by the time they are around 2 or 3 years old, due to their carotene-rich diet. The chemicals that color their feathers are the terpenoids: alpha- and beta-carotenes (similar to carotene in carrots).[10] An adult has 12 major feathers designed for flight on each wing. The body is covered in contour feathers, which protect the bird and also help with waterproofing (due to a secretion of oil at the base of the feathers). When the birds are roosting, they face into the wind so that the rain will not blow upwards and soak the underside of their feathers.
Their plumage is pale pink, with bright carmine streaks around their necks and on their backs. When they are perching, a small amount of black can be seen in the wings; these are the flight feathers mentioned above. There are typically 12 to 16 tail feathers. James's flamingos molt their wing- and body feathers according to their breeding schedule and the color of the new feathers depends on the nature of their diet. There is no difference in color between males and females.
All flamingo species are capable of flying. The flight feathers are easily distinguished in James's flamingos as they are the only black feathers on the bird.[9] To begin flying, they run a few steps and then begin to flap their wings. When they want to land, they repeat this process in reverse, and as they touch down to a surface, they continue to run as they decelerate and stop flapping their wings. When migrating in a flock, flamingos have been observed to fly at speeds of up to 37 mph (60 km/h). But they may not reach this speed when traveling shorter distances.[11]
Both James's and Andean flamingos feed their chicks through an esophageal secretion that is regurgitated from the crop of the bird.[12] The difference between the two species lies in the composition of the prolactin secretion produced by each bird. Both male and female parents are able to feed the chick. Adult flamingos are the most developed filter feeders of the birds. Of the species, James's flamingo has the finest filter-feeding apparatus.[13] The flamingo feeds on diatoms and other microscopic algae.[4] The shape of the bill is deeply keeled. To feed, the flamingos' long legs allow them to walk into the water and swoop their necks down into an S-shape to allow the beak to enter the water. The S-shape is effective because it allows the head to be placed upright and the bottom of the bill to be placed as shallow or as deep as it pleases. Only lowering the distal end of the bill into the water allows nostrils to remain above water. The water filled with small organisms floods the bill and filtration process begins. The lakes, from which the flamingo typically feeds, are Andean lakes which are mostly fresh water,[14] but if salt water is encountered, the flamingos have salt glands in their nostrils where excess salt is secreted.
The filtering process starts with the tongue, which is very soft and fleshy with channel-like features that direct the food and water to the filtering apparatus. The bill of James's flamingo is the narrowest of its kind. Both the Andean and James's flamingos have deep-keeled bills where the upper jaw is narrower than the lower. The gape of the bill is therefore on the dorsal side of the bill. The bill of James's flamingo is smaller and has a narrower upper jaw. The proximal end of the bill is mostly horizontal, then has a curvature downward and the distal end finishes with a hook-like feature. The inner morphology of the beak is similar to that of the lesser flamingo, where the upper and lower jaws contain lamellae which filter the food. In both the upper and lower jaw, the proximal portion of the bill contains lamellae that are ridge-like with a curvature and distal end become more like hooks. Marginal and submarginal lamellae are found, and James's flamingo has the greatest number of both, which also means a smaller intermarginal distance is seen between them. About 21 lamellae per cm are found in this species, which is more than twice the number found in other flamingos. When the upper and lower jaws close together, the lamellae mesh together to allow the bill to be closed fully.[15] The sizes of the diatoms associated with this size filtering apparatus are about 21–60 μm. Diatoms this size are typically found close to the edge of the water; even in colonies of multiple species, James's flamingos typically feed in the region closest to the edge of the water. The birds are able to use their webbed feet to help kick up microscopic algae if not enough are floating in the water column.[4]
Breeding cycles in flamingos begin at 6 years of age when fully matured. The frequency of breeding is irregular and may skip a year. The entire colony may participate in mating rituals at the same time. The males put on a show by vocalizing and sticking their necks and heads straight up in the air and turning their heads back and forth. The females initiate mating by walking away from the group and a male follows. The female then spreads her wings and the male mounts the female.[9] The female lays one egg on a cone-shaped nest made from mud, sticks, and other materials in the area. The shape of the egg is oval, similar to that of a chicken. It is smaller in size (length and breadth) compared to the other species, including the closely related Andean flamingo.[5]
Both the male and female incubate the egg for 26–31 days before it hatches. The chick breaks through the shell using an egg tooth, which is not actually a true tooth, but is actually a keratinized structure, which falls off after fully hatching. When newly hatched, the chick's bill is straight and red, but later develops a curve and the adult colors of beak. The feathers are white and grey and the legs are pink. The eyes of chicks are gray for their first year. The parents are able to distinguish their chick from others in the colony by appearance and vocalization.[9]
This species was determined to be near threatened by the IUCN in 2008, because the populations of the last three generations of this species have declined.
The greatest threat to the population of this species is human destruction of their habitat. In local culture, stealing the eggs from the nest and sell them was common practice, but since then, measures have been taken to control this. Environmental threats such as heavy rainfall may also have an effect on the breeding of the species. Threats the productivity of the diatoms also threaten the species if enough food is available for them to eat.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) James's flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi), also known as the puna flamingo, is a species of flamingo that lives at high altitudes in the Andean plateaus of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and northwest Argentina.
It is named for Harry Berkeley James, a British naturalist who studied the bird. James's flamingo is closely related to the Andean flamingo, and the two species are the only members of the genus Phoenicoparrus. The Chilean flamingo, Andean flamingo, and James's flamingo are all sympatric, and all live in colonies (including shared nesting areas). James's flamingo had been thought to be extinct until a population was discovered in a remote area in 1956.
