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Fraser Fir

Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir.

Comments

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Some (e.g., B.F. Jacobs et al. 1984) have argued that Fraser fir is at the end of a disjunct cline of balsam fir and perhaps does not deserve separate specific status. A.E. Matzenko (1968) took the opposite view, classifying Fraser fir and balsam fir in different taxonomic series of the genus.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Description

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Trees to 25m; trunk to 0.75m diam.; crown spirelike. Bark gray, thin, smooth, with age developing appressed reddish scales at trunk base. Branches diverging from trunk at right angles; twigs opposite, pale yellow-brown, pubescence reddish. Buds exposed, light brown, conic, small, resinous, apex acute; basal scales short, broad, equilaterally triangular, glabrous, resinous, margins entire, apex sharp-pointed. Leaves 1.2--2.5cm × 1.5--2mm, 2-ranked, particularly in lower parts of tree, to spiraled, flexible; cross section flat, grooved adaxially; odor turpentinelike, strong; abaxial surface with (8--)10(--12) stomatal rows on each side of midrib; adaxial surface dark lustrous green, sometimes slightly glaucous, with 0--3 stomatal rows at midleaf, these more numerous toward leaf apex; apex slightly notched to rounded; resin canals large, ± median, away from margins and midway between abaxial and adaxial epidermal layers. Pollen cones at pollination reddish yellow or yellowish green. Seed cones cylindric, 3.5--6 ´ 2.5--4cm, dark purple overlaid with yellowish green bracts, sessile, apex round; scales ca. 0.7--1 ´ 1--1.3cm, pubescent; bracts exserted and reflexed over cone scales. Seeds 4--5 ´ 2--3mm, body brown; wing about as long as body, purple; cotyledons ca. 5. 2 n =24.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Habitat & Distribution

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Mountain forests; of conservation concern; 1500m; N.C., Tenn., Va.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Synonym

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Pinus fraseri Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 2: 639. 1814
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America @ eFloras.org
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Brief Summary

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Abies fraseri, Fraser fir, also called southern balsam fir and she-balsam, is an evergreen, coniferous, small- to medium-sized tree in the Pinaceae (pine) family. It is the only fir endemic to the southern Appalachian Mountains, where it is restricted to high elevations in southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee. Because of the high elevation at which Fraser fir grows, its primary value is for watershed protection and scenic attraction. Extensive stands of Fraser fir have been damaged by the balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), which was first was discovered in North Carolina in 1957 and has since spread to all areas of Fraser fir. Mortality progressed rapidly from 11,000 trees in 1958 to about 1.75 million by 1970. Fir mortality has been extensive in all areas except Mount Rogers in Virginia. Adelgids attack branches, twigs, nodes, and bud bases of fir, but stem attack is the predominant form of infestation. Death usually follows 2 to 5 years after infestation of the bole because of direct translocation impairment. Trees weakened by adelgids are often attacked and further damaged by bark beetles, wood wasps, and other wood-boring insects, which also may introduce fungal pathogens. Incidence of root rot caused by Armillaria mellea was shown to increase with increasing severity of adelgid damage. Damaged and weakened trees are also more susceptible to windthrow and top breakage. Mortality from adelgids and associated damage agents has been estimated at 80% across the tree’s range. Due to this precipitous decline, Fraser fir now appear on the Federal Endangered Species Act list of species of concern, is listed as vulnerable on IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) Red List, is categorized as threatened in Tennessee, and is on the watch list/declining in North Carolina. It is not clear whether the species can recover. Although openings created by adelgid kill usually contain numerous fir seedlings, it is not yet known whether these, too, will be attacked when they reach maturity. Unless new methods of adelgid control are found, the status of Fraser fir in natural stands is extremely uncertain. The remaining stands of Fraser fir have very limited commercial value. However, their location in the cool climate of the loftiest peaks and ridges makes them extremely valuable for watershed protection, as they hold the shallow soil to the steep wet slopes. They are also a unique scenic attraction in a region of growing recreational appeal. Growing and harvesting this species for Christmas trees and boughs is a multimillion-dollar business in the southern Appalachians. Because of its thick green foliage, beautiful shape, fragrance, and needles that are retained unusually well, Fraser fir is unequaled as a Christmas tree, and has frequently been used as the official White House Christmas tree for the President of the U.S. It is also used widely as an ornamental yard tree. Fraser fir seeds and terminal buds are eaten extensively by the red squirrel and other mammals. Various songbird species eat the seeds. (Beck 1990)
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Beck, D.E. <i>Abies fraseri</i> (Pursh) Poir. In Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; Agriculture Handbook 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC.
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Jacqueline Courteau (Jacqueline Courteau)
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Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
Fraser fir
Fraser's fir
balsam Fraser fir
southern balsam fir
southern fir
she-balsam
balsam
eastern fir
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Description

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More info for the term: tree

Fraser fir is a native, evergreen coniferous tree. It is small to
medium sized; the largest on record is 87 feet (26.5 m) tall and 34
inches (86 cm) d.b.h. The usual range is from 50 to 60 feet (15-18 m)
tall and less than 12 inches (30 cm) d.b.h. Average age at death is 150
years [2].

Fraser fir is very shallow rooted [2]. The bark is nearly smooth, with
blisters containing an oleoresin; the bark becomes more scaly on older
trunks. Pollen cones are usually less than 0.4 inch (1 cm) in length,
ovulate cones are 1.6 to 2.2 inches (4-5.5 cm) long [23].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

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Fraser fir is restricted to disjunct populations at higher elevations in
the southern Appalachian Mountains of southwestern Virginia, western
North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee [2].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: fire regime, forest, fuel, wildfire

Fraser fir occurs in habitats that are rarely subject to wildfire.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that forest fires often stop when they reach
the spruce-fir forest boundary [26]. In the southern Appalachians, fuel
moistures and humidity are usually high, and therefore fires are not
intense or widespread [26,29].

FIRE REGIMES :
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this
species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under
"Find FIRE REGIMES".
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: forest, frequency

Fraser fir occurs in a cool-temperate, rain-forest climate with a
well-distributed mean annual precipitation ranging from 75 to 100 inches
(1,900-2,540 mm). Fog is present for 65 percent or more of the growing
season, actual moisture levels are therefore higher than measured
precipitation indicates [2].

Fraser fir occurs on soils with a wide variation in color, depth, and
amount of organic matter; they are usually shallow and rocky, and
bedrock is within 20 to 32 inches of the mineral soil [2]. At upper
elevations where dense and stagnant stands have formed, soils are
usually podsolic and highly acidic. In a spruce-fir forest at 6,500
feet (1,980 m) in elevation, soil pH was 3.6 at the surface and 3.8 6
inches (15 cm) below the surface [4].

Fraser fir generally occurs at elevations ranging from 5,500 feet (1,676
m) to 6,684 feet (2,037 m). It may occur as low as 4,500 feet (1,372 m)
on north slopes and protected coves. At lower elevations, Fraser fir is
a minor component in spruce-fir forests; it increases in frequency with
altitude [2,3,5].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

17 Pin cherry
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
32 Red spruce
34 Red spruce - Fraser fir
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES11 Spruce - fir
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Immediate Effect of Fire

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Fraser fir is probably easily killed by fire [9]. No specific
information on the intensity of fire needed to kill Fraser fir is
available.
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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The red squirrel eats the seeds and the terminal buds of Fraser fir [2].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Key Plant Community Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, codominant, density, forest, relative density, shrub

At the highest elevations Fraser fir forms nearly pure stands; American
mountain ash (Sorbus americana) is usually its only canopy associate.
At mid- and lower elevations Fraser fir occurs with eastern hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis), yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra), and sugar maple
(Acer saccharum). Mountain maple (A. spicatum), striped maple (A.
pensylvanicum), and serviceberry (Amelanchier spp) are common understory
associates. Shrub associates include hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolium),
witherod (V. cassinoides), redberry elder (Sambucus pubens), southern
mountain cranberry (Vaccinium erythrocarpum), catawba rhodendron
(Rhodendron catawbiense), and smooth blackberry (Rubus canadensis)
[2,21]. In red spruce-Fraser fir forests, Fraser fir typically makes up
10 to 70 percent of the relative basal area and from 20 to 90 percent of
the relative density [3].

Publications that name Fraser fir as a dominant or codominant species in
forest classifications include the following:

Ground vegetation patterns of the spruce-fir area of the Great Smoky
Mountains National Park [7]
Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains [30]
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Life Form

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More info for the term: tree

Tree
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management considerations

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More info for the terms: cone, natural, presence, selection, tree

Harvest methods that are recommended for Fraser fir include shelterwood
or group selection; single tree selection may also be feasible [2].

Fraser fir is subject to windthrow [2].

Diseases and infesting agents of Fraser fir include various heart rots,
root rots, and the twospotted spider mite. The worst problem, however,
is the introduced balsam woolly adelgid, which weakens trees and makes
them more susceptible to attack by other agents [2]. Infestation by
balsam woolly adelgid was first noted in North Carolina in 1957.
Extensive mortality caused by balsam woolly adelgid infestations has
been noted since the 1960's; a large number of mature Fraser fir have
died as a result of this infestation. Many seedlings and saplings have
been killed or growth suppressed [10], although young Fraser fir have
not been found to support reproducing adults (early instar stages only)
[22]. Dominance of red spruce and birch (Betula spp.) increases in
spruce-fir stands in North Carolina that have been damaged by this pest
[8]. The continuing presence of Fraser fir in natural forests will
depend on a complex of survival, growth, and new reproduction. Current
seedlings will need to survive infestations, compete with a dense
understory of smooth blackberry, and reach reproductive age and height.
At present, seedlings are infested but appear to be overcoming the
effects. Smooth blackberry reduces the early survival of Fraser fir
seedlings, and decreases the number of suitable microsites for seedling
establishment [22].

In some areas high levels of fir recruitment occur after balsam woolly
adelgid infestations [8].

Nitrogen fertilizers may enhance cone production. One study determined
that although nitrogen does appear to increase cone production, it is
usually not the limiting nutrient; phosphorus and magnesium are the most
limiting to cone yield [1].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

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NC TN VA
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Other uses and values

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The primary value of Fraser fir is for watershed protection and scenic
attraction. Fraser fir is also grown for Christmas trees and is planted
as an ornamental [2].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Palatability

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Compared with other species used as ornamentals, Fraser fir is ranked
low in preference for white-tailed deer [6].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Phenology

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More info for the terms: cone, seed

Fraser fir cones open in mid-May to early June. Cones ripen from
September to mid-October, and seed dispersal follows maturation [2].
Reproductive bud differentiation coincides with rapid vegetative growth
and cone development [1].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Plant Response to Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, density, forest, formation, heath, tree

In 1955, an escaped campfire burned approximately one acre of red
spruce-Fraser fir forest in the Plott Balsam Mountains of western North
Carolina. The community was sampled in the early 1980's and was found
to have a tree layer similar in composition to that of postharvest,
second-growth spruce-fir stands that have been recovering for 30 to 50
years. Density and basal area of trees were lower than in the
postharvest communities. Fraser fir was of greater importance than red
spruce. Pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanica) was of greater importance in
the postfire community than expected, contributing to a reduced amount
of reproduction. The reproduction layer was dominated by Fraser fir and
yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), indicating that the site had not
yet fully recovered. Other plant species were found to differ from
those that typically occur in logged or logged and burned red
spruce-Fraser fir forests. Return to a closed-canopy Fraser fir-red
spruce-yellow birch forest is estimated to require many more decades.
The authors speculated that severe fires on steep rocky sites followed
by poor regeneration may be instrumental in the formation of shrubby
heath balds [26].

The most common, immediate postfire invaders in red spruce-Fraser fir
forests are pin cherry, American mountain-ash, and yellow birch.
Hobblebush and smooth blackberry can form very dense patches after fire
disturbance. In a red spruce-Fraser fir postfire community in the Great
Smoky Mountains National Park, yellow birch and pin cherry were still
dominant after 30 years. Fraser fir and red spruce were slow to
establish, and were represented by a few scattered 5- to 10-foot tall
(1.5-3 m) individuals [7].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: root crown, secondary colonizer

Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: layering, litter, natural, peat, seed, stratification

Sexual reproduction: Seed production in Fraser fir begins at about 15
years of age. Good seed crops are produced every other year, with light
crops in intervening years. Seeds are wind dispersed, with 50 percent
falling at least 900 feet (274 m) from the source; seeds can be carried
up to 1 mile (1.6 km) from the source [2].

Seed germination is good on mineral soil, moss, peat, and litter.
Decaying stumps and logs have higher than average rates of seedling
establishment and appear to be the best substrates for germination
[2,7,22]. Germination on surface litter usually results in seedling
mortality due to drought. Stratification does not enhance germination
rates [2]. Seed longevity in the soil is unknown; viability may
decrease after only 1 year of artificial storage [22]. Natural
reforestation is limited where harvesting or fire has opened canopies
and increased the rate of desiccation of the moss and peat layer [2].

Asexual reproduction: Fraser fir sometimes reproduces by layering when
lower branches come into contact with moist soil. This is not an
important reproductive mechanism [2].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: climax, succession, tree

Obligate Climax Species

Once established, Fraser fir seedlings grow best in full light. Fraser
fir is, however, very shade tolerant and can grow under dense canopies
in a suppressed state for many years. Under these conditions, Fraser
fir may only be 2 to 3 feet (0.6-0.9 m) in height after 20 years of
growth. In full sun, Fraser fir can be 8.2 feet (2.5 m) after 11 years.
When released after years of suppression, growth of Fraser fir can be
very rapid [2]. Fraser fir often forms dense, stagnant pole-sized
stands at higher elevations [4].

In the red spruce-Fraser fir forests of the southern Appalachians,
windfalls that create small gaps (less than [200 sq m]) are the most
important and widely distributed disturbance, with a return interval of
111 to 178 years [7,29]. Gap capture is largely dependent on advance
reproduction; Fraser fir seedling and sapling densities are higher in
gaps than in the understory. There is a probable reciprocal replacement
between red spruce and Fraser fir [29]. Similarly, in a study of the
dynamics of tree replacement in red spruce-Fraser fir forests, saplings
of Fraser fir were more numerous than those of red spruce, and were
found in higher densities under red spruce trees [13]. Both species
require multiple release events in order to reach the canopy [29].

Fraser fir was found in late seral to climax communities developed
during primary succession on rocky slopes [7].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Synonyms

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Abies balsamea (L.) Mill var. fraseri Nutt.
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

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The accepted scientific name for Fraser fir is Abies fraseri (Pursh.)
Poiret. It is a member of the family Pinaceae and is very closely
related to balsam fir (A. balsamea) [16]. Fir trees in Virginia and
West Virginia are intermediate between balsam fir and Fraser fir; the
putative hybrid is recognized as Abies x phanerolepis (Fern.) Liu
(synonymous with Abies intermedia Full.) [18,20].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wood Products Value

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Its limited distribution and occurrence in inaccessible habitats renders
Fraser fir of little economic importance for timber [2].
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Sullivan, Janet. 1993. Abies fraseri. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Associated Forest Cover

provided by Silvics of North America
Fraser fir is a component of four forest cover types (10): Pin Cherry (Society of American Foresters Type 17), Red Spruce-Yellow Birch (Type 30), Red Spruce (Type 32), and Red Spruce-Fraser Fir (Type 34). It is a minor stand component at the lower elevations, increasing in frequency with altitude to form nearly pure stands at elevations above 1920 m (6,300 ft). At the highest elevation, mountain-ash (Sorbus americana) is practically the only canopy associate (32). At middle and lower elevations, red spruce (Picea rubens), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra), and sugar maple (Acer saccharum) are the most common canopy associates (6,7,8,13,16,32). Mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) are frequent understory trees.

Shrubs associated with Fraser fir include hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolium), witherod (V. cassinoides), redberry elder (Sambucus pubens), southern mountain cranberry (Vaccinium erythrocarpum), minnie-bush (Menziesia pilosa), southern bush-honeysuckle (Diervilla sessilifolia), catawba (purple) rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), smooth gooseberry (Ribes rotundifolium), and smooth blackberry (Rubus canadensis).

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Climate

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Fraser fir grows in a cold, moist climate characterized as a cool-temperate (microthermal) rain forest with a well-distributed mean annual precipitation of 1900 to 2540 mm (75 to 100 in) and average summer temperatures of 16° C (60° F) or less. Average annual temperature varies from 6° C (43° F) at the summit of Mount Mitchell in North Carolina to 9° C (48° F) at the 1524-m (5,000-ft) level in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. At Mount Mitchell, average January-February temperature varies from -2° C (28° F) to -1° C (30° F), with 147 days below 0° C (32° F). Average July temperature is 15° C (59° F). The frost-free period is 130 to 140 days.

Fog is a very important environmental factor, reducing transpiration and adding measurably to precipitation as fog drip (21). During the growing season, fog may be present on 65 percent or more of the days.

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Damaging Agents

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Because of shallow soils and shallow root systems, Fraser fir is subject to windfall (7). Patches of windthrown trees are a common sight on exposed ridges. Occasional trees on higher ridges are struck by lightning. Heart rots are common in older trees and may increase susceptibility to wind damage. In Christmas tree plantations, two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) can be particularly damaging, causing discoloration and needle loss. On soils with poor internal drainage, root rot caused by the fungus Phytophthora spp. becomes a major problem.

All damaging agents are insignificant in comparison to the balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae). It was discovered in North Carolina in 1957 on Mount Mitchell and has since spread to all areas of Fraser fir (1,2,3,4,9,17,18). Mortality progressed rapidly from 11,000 trees in 1958 to about 1.75 million by 1970. Fir mortality has been extensive in all areas except Mount Rogers in Virginia, where infestations dating back to the mid-1960's were first discovered in 1979. Adelgids attack branches, twigs, nodes, and bud bases of fir, but stem attack is the predominant form of infestation. Death usually follows 2 to 5 years after infestation of the bole because of direct translocation impairment.

Further damage by other organisms is associated with attack by the balsam woolly adelgid (11, 12). Weakened trees are often attacked by bark beetles, wood wasps, and other wood-boring insects, which also may introduce fungal pathogens (12). Incidence of root rot caused by Armillaria mellea was shown to increase with increasing severity of adelgid damage. Damaged and weakened trees are also more susceptible to windthrow and top breakage.

Various chemical insecticides have been found effective against the balsam woolly adelgid, but none has been found technically or economically feasible for use over large forested areas (14). Chemical insecticides are useful, however, for small and accessible stands of high value. Control by a variety of introduced predators has been ineffective.

Openings created by adelgid kill usually contain numerous fir seedlings (5), but the long-term consequences of adelgid attack are unknown. Unless new methods of adelgid control are found, the status of Fraser fir in natural stands is extremely uncertain.

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Flowering and Fruiting

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Fraser fir is monoecious. Flower buds usually open from mid-May to early June. Female flowers are borne mostly in the top few feet of the crown and on the outer ends of branches. Male flowers are borne below female flowers, but mostly in the top half of the crown. The fruit is an erect cone, 3.5 to 6 cm (1.4 to 2.4 in) long and 2.5 to 4 cm (1.0 to 1.6 in) wide. The strongly reflexed bracts, much longer than the scales, distinguish Fraser fir from balsam fir.

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Genetics

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Fraser fir was once considered a variety of balsam fir and designated Abies balsamea var. fraseri Nutt., but the two species are now differentiated on the basis of cone-bract and cone-scale length. Abies balsamea has bracts shorter or rarely slightly longer than its scales; A. fraseri has strongly reflexed bracts much longer than its scales (20). Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis in West Virginia and northern Virginia is considered by some to be a natural hybrid of A. balsamea and A. fraseri because it is intermediate in range and the two have certain common characteristics. Others contend that the disjunct Abies subpopulations of the southern Appalachians are relicts of a once-continuous ancestral fir population with clinal variation along a north-south gradient (22,25,30,33).

Artificial crosses of Abies balsamea x A. fraseri have been made successfully. A cultivar, A. fraseri cv. prostrata, is a dwarf shrub with horizontally spreading branches used for ornamental purposes (18).

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Growth and Yield

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Fraser fir is a relatively small tree, rarely more than 24 m (80 ft) tall and 61 cm (24 in) in d.b.h. It is more frequently 15 to 18 m (50 to 60 ft) tall and less than 30 cm (12 in) in d.b.h.

Age at natural death is around 150 years (23). Old-growth stands of mixed spruce-fir may carry very high basal areas of 57 to 60 m²/ha (250 to 260 ft²/acre) with 1,977 to 2,347 trees/ha (800 to 950/acre) 2.5 cm (1.0 in) in d.b.h. and larger (7). In such stands the fir may average 25 to 28 cm (10 to 11 in) in d.b.h. Yields of mixed spruce-fir over large acreages have been reported to average 210 to 350 m³/ha (15,000 to 25,000 fbm/acre), some stands yielding 560 to 700 m³/ha (40,000 to 50,000 fbm/acre) (24). Pulpwood yields averaged 252 to 315 m³/ha (40 to 50 cords/acre). In such stands, fir constituted one-fourth or less of the total volume.

At the highest elevations where fir forms essentially pure stands, it is most frequently 9 to 12 m (30 to 40 ft) tall, and most canopy stems are 18 to 23 cm (7 to 9 in) in d.b.h. Stems as large as 31 cm (12 in) in d.b.h. are very rare in such stands (31).

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Reaction to Competition

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Fraser fir is classified as very tolerant to shade and is considered a climax species. It becomes established and survives for many years under a dense canopy, growing only 2.5 to 5.1 cm (1 to 2 in) per year. When released, it has a marked capacity for recovery. Trees suppressed for 50 years or more have grown rapidly for a time after release (23). Fraser fir tends to form very dense stands which thin slowly and may stagnate in the pole stage (7).

The best means of regenerating fir is probably some method of partial cutting to establish advance reproduction. Harvest methods such as shelterwood or group selection seem ideally suited to accommodate its needs for early shelter but open conditions for later growth. Because of its extreme tolerance, it could probably be handled under a single-tree selection system as well.

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Rooting Habit

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The root system of Fraser fir is usually shallow because it customarily occupies shallow soils. Root growth is more rapid and rooting depth greater, however, than that of its frequent associate, red spruce (8). Roots are able to penetrate to depths greater than 61 cm (24 in) where soil is available, permitting fir to occupy somewhat drier sites than red spruce (7).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Seed production may begin when trees are 15 years old. Good seed crops occur every other year with light crops in the intervening year. The number of seeds ranges from 119,000 to 174,000/kg (54,000 to 79,000/lb) and averages 134,500 (61,000). The combination of lightweight winged seeds, steep slopes, and high winds makes for good seed dispersal. Seeds may be moved as much as 1.6 km (1 mi), with 50 percent falling over 274 m (900 ft) from their source. Fruit ripens and is dispersed from September through mid-October.

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Seedling Development

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Germination is epigeal. It approximates 50 percent of sound seeds and appears to be correlated with length of the maturation period. Germination of seeds collected on August 31 was 18 percent but increased to 66 percent for seeds gathered during cone disintegration about September 23 (26). During poor seed years, the yield and quality of seed decrease and insect damage increases (27,28). In a good year, seeds averaged 78 percent filled, with only 3 percent infested by insects. In a poor year, only 36 Percent were filled, and 29 percent of that were infested by a seed chalcid, Megastigmus specularis.

Fraser fir seeds germinate well on mineral soil, moss, peat, decaying stumps and logs, and even on litter that is sufficiently moist. When seeds germinate on surface litter, the seedlings usually die during dry weather. Moss and peat commonly remain damp, however, and the appearance of moss on the forest floor indicates sufficient moisture to make germination possible with survival throughout the growing season (19).

Stratification of Fraser fir seeds may not be wholly necessary. Stratification for 60 days in peat moss at 3° C (38° F) increased the speed of germination but did not affect the number of seeds germinating. Germination and initial establishment are best under a forest cover. The greatest obstacle to natural reforestation is the desiccation of the moss and peat layer after cutting or fire, followed by surface drying of the mineral soil. Once established, growth is best in full light. Under a dense canopy, Fraser fir may be only 0.6 to 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft) tall in 20 years. In old-growth, all-aged stands, it may take 40 years to attain sapling size. In the absence of shade, it grows much faster. Planted seedlings in cutover forest averaged 2.5 m (8.2 ft) tall in 11 years, with 0.6 m (2 ft) of growth in the 11th year. Under favorable conditions of weed control and fertilization, Christmas tree plantings grow to 1.8 m (6 ft) in 6 to 8 years.

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Soils and Topography

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There is considerable variation in color, depth, and organic matter content in the soils that support Fraser fir. A typical profile has well-developed organic and A1 horizons and a B horizon differentiated by color but not by accumulations of clay or iron.

Soils are shallow and rocky, with bedrock within 50 to 80 cm (20 to 32 in) of the mineral soils surface (23). The upper 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) of the mineral soil are typically black and greasy, underlaid by a leached gray or yellowish-brown sandy subsoil. Organic surface layers are occasionally thick but usually quite thin, ranging from 2 to 7 cm (0.8 to 2.8 in). The soils are extremely acid; the A horizon pH is about 3.5 and the B horizon pH 3.8 to 4.2. Soil under fir stands above 1920 m (6,300 ft) may be very shallow, with only 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of a black A horizon lying directly on bedrock (7). Most soils on which Fraser fir grows are Inceptisols.

Fraser fir grows at elevations as low as 1372 m (4,500 ft) on north slopes and protected coves but is found mostly above 1676 m (5,500 ft). It grows at 2037 m (6,684 ft) on top of Mount Mitchell, the highest point in eastern North America.

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Special Uses

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The remaining stands of Fraser fir have very limited commercial value. However, their location in the cool climate of the loftiest peaks and ridges makes them extremely valuable for watershed protection, as they hold the shallow soil to the steep wet slopes. They are also a unique scenic attraction in a region of growing recreational appeal.

Growing and harvesting this species for Christmas trees and boughs is a multimillion-dollar business in the southern Appalachians. Because of its thick green foliage, beautiful shape, fragrance, and needles that are retained unusually well, Fraser fir is unequaled as a Christmas tree (29,32). It is also used widely as an ornamental yard tree.

Fraser fir seeds and terminal buds are eaten extensively by the red squirrel.

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Vegetative Reproduction

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Under natural conditions, layering may occur when lower branches come in contact with moist soil, but it is not an important reproductive mechanism. Fraser fir planting stock may be produced by rooting cuttings under controlled temperatures and moisture. A high percentage of stem cuttings from young trees can be induced to root. In one study, rooting was 92 percent in cuttings from 5-year-old trees, compared with 54 percent from 12-year-olds and 29 percent from 22-year-olds. Rooting of cuttings from 32- to 65-year-old trees averaged 4 to 6 percent and varied with crown position (15). It is possible to propagate Fraser fir by stump culture (32). When a Christmas tree is cut, the bottom whorl of limbs is left on the stump. After these turn upward, the most vigorous limb is allowed to develop into another tree.

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Brief Summary

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Pinaceae -- Pine family

Donald E. Beck

Fraser fir (Abies fraseri), also called southern balsam fir and she-balsam, is a small- to medium-size tree. It is the only fir endemic to the southern Appalachian Mountains. The largest tree on record measures almost 86 cm (34 in) in d.b.h., 26.5 m (87 ft) tall, and has a crown spread of 15.8 m (52 ft). Because of the high elevation at which Fraser fir grows, its primary value is for watershed protection and scenic attraction.

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Distribution

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Fraser fir has a disjunct distribution, restricted to high elevations in the southern Appalachian Mountains of southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee.


- The native range of Fraser fir.

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Physical Description

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Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Primary plant stem smooth, Tree with bark smooth, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex obtuse, Leaf apex mucronulate, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone exerted, Seeds purple, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings narrower than body, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Fraser fir

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The Fraser fir (Abies fraseri) is an endangered species of fir native to the Appalachian Mountains of the Southeastern United States.

Taxonomy

Abies fraseri is closely related to Abies balsamea (balsam fir), of which it has occasionally been treated as a subspecies (as A. balsamea subsp. fraseri (Pursh) E.Murray) or a variety (as A. balsamea var. fraseri (Pursh) Spach).[4][5][6][7] Some botanists regard the variety of balsam fir named Abies balsamea var. phanerolepis as a natural hybrid with Fraser fir, denominated Abies × phanerolepis (Fernald) Liu.[5]

Names

Fraser fir on the slopes of Clingmans Dome

The species Abies fraseri is named after the Scottish botanist John Fraser (1750–1811), who made numerous botanical collections in the region.[5] It is sometimes misspelled "Frasier," "Frazer" or "Frazier."

In the past, it was also sometimes known as "she-balsam" because resin could be "milked" from its bark blisters,[8] in contrast to the "he balsam" (or Picea rubens, the red spruce) which could not be milked. It has also occasionally been called balsam fir, inviting confusion with A. balsamea.[9]

Description

Close-up view of Fraser fir foliage

Abies fraseri is a small evergreen coniferous tree typically growing between 10 and 15 m (30 and 50 ft) tall, but rarely to 25 m (80 ft), with a trunk diameter of 40–50 cm (16–20 in), but rarely 75 cm (30 in). The crown is conical, with straight branches either horizontal or angled upward at 40° from the trunk; it is dense when the tree is young and more open in maturity. The bark is thin, smooth, grayish brown, and has numerous resinous blisters on juvenile trees, becoming fissured and scaly in maturity.

The leaves are needle-like; arranged spirally on the twigs but twisted at their bases to form two rows on each twig; they are 10–23 mm (3878 in) long and 2–2.2 mm (564332 in) broad; flat; flexible; rounded or slightly notched at their apices (tips); dark to glaucous green adaxially (above); often having a small patch of stomata near their apices; and having two silvery white stomatal bands abaxially (on their undersides). Their strong fragrance resembles that of turpentine.

The cones are erect; cylindrical; 3.5–7 cm (1+122+34 in) long, rarely 8 cm (3+14 in), and 2.5–3 cm (1–1+18 in) broad, rarely 4 cm (1+12 in) broad; dark purple, turning pale brown when mature; often resinous; and with long reflexed green, yellow, or pale purple bract scales. The cones disintegrate when mature at 4–6 months old to release the winged seeds.[4][5][6]

Ecology

Reproduction and growth

Fraser fir is monoecious, meaning that both male and female cones (strobili) occur on the same tree.[10] Cone buds usually open from mid-May to early June. Female cones are borne mostly in the top few feet of the crown and on the distal ends of branches. Male cones are borne below female cones, but mostly in the upper half of the crown. Seed production may begin when trees are 15 years old. Seeds germinate well on mineral soil, moss, peat, decaying stumps and logs, and even on detritus or litter that is sufficiently moist.[11]

Distribution and habitat

Fraser fir forest, with many trees killed by balsam woolly adelgid

Abies fraseri is restricted to the southeastern Appalachian Mountains in southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, where it occurs at high elevations, from 1,200 m (3,900 ft) to the summit of Mount Mitchell, the highest point in the region at 2,037 m (6,684 ft). It lives in acidic moist but well-drained sandy loam, and is usually mixed with Picea rubens (red spruce). Other trees it grows with include Tsuga caroliniana (Carolina hemlock), Betula alleghaniensis (yellow birch), Betula papyrifera (paper birch), and Acer saccharum (sugar maple). The climate is cool and moist, with short, cool summers and cold winters with heavy snowfall.[4][5]

Pests

Abies fraseri can be severely damaged by a non-native insect, the balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae) from Europe. The insect's introduction and spread led to a rapid decline in Fraser fir across its range, with over 80 percent of mature trees having been killed. The rapid regeneration of seedlings with lack of canopy has led to good regrowth of healthy young trees where the mature forests once stood. However, when these young trees get old enough for the bark to develop fissures, they may be attacked and killed by the adelgids as well.

For this reason, the future of the species was still uncertain, though the Mount Rogers (Virginia) population has largely evaded adelgid mortality. The decline of the Fraser fir in the southern Appalachians has contributed to loss of moss habitat which supports the endangered spruce-fir moss spider (Microhexura montivaga), an obligate of Fraser fir-red spruce stands.[7]

By the late 1990s, the adelgid population had decreased. While two-thirds of adult trees had been killed by the 1980s, a study of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park showed that as of 2020, the number of adult trees had increased over the previous 30 years, with three times as many on Clingmans Dome, Tennessee's highest peak.[12]

Threats

The Fraser fir is an endangered species.[13] Threats include climate change and the aforementioned balsam woolly adelgid.

Cultivation and uses

Although not important as a source of timber, the combination of dense natural pyramidal form, strong limbs, soft long-retained needles, dark blue-green color, pleasant scent and excellent shipping characteristics, has led to Fraser fir being widely used as a Christmas tree.[14] Fraser fir has been used more times as the White House Christmas tree than any other tree.

The Christmas decoration trade is a multimillion-dollar business in the southern Appalachians. North Carolina produces the majority of Fraser fir Christmas trees.[15] It requires from seven to ten years in the field to produce a 1.8–2.1-meter-tall (6–7-foot) tree. In 2005, the North Carolina General Assembly passed legislation making the Fraser fir the official Christmas tree of North Carolina.

The Fraser fir is cultivated from seedlings in several northern states in the USA and across the border in adjacent parts of the Canadian province of Quebec, especially for the Christmas tree trade.[13] It is also grown in Bedgebury National Pinetum and other collections in the United Kingdom.[13]

See also

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Abies fraseri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T32101A2810241. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T32101A2810241.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  3. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 3 October 2014.
  4. ^ a b c Farjon, A. (1990). Pinaceae. Drawings and Descriptions of the Genera. Koeltz Scientific Books ISBN 3-87429-298-3.
  5. ^ a b c d e Liu, T.-S. (1971). A Monograph of the Genus Abies. National Taiwan University.
  6. ^ a b Flora of North America: Abies fraseri
  7. ^ a b Gymnosperm Database: Abies fraseri
  8. ^ Frankenberg, D. (2000). Exploring North Carolina's Natural Areas: Parks, Nature Preserves, and Hiking Trails. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4851-7. p343
  9. ^ Sutton, M. & Sutton, A. (1985). Eastern forests (Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-73126-1. p363
  10. ^ Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir Archived 2016-10-25 at the Wayback Machine, Silviculture Manual, Volume 1, US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Retrieved 20 October 2014
  11. ^ Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir. Archived 2016-04-25 at the Wayback Machine The National Christmas Tree Association, Retrieved 20 Oct 2014
  12. ^ McDarris, Anne (April 22, 2020). "Earth Day: After decades of devastation, a comeback for WNC forests". Asheville Citizen-Times. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
  13. ^ a b c "Fraser Fir". Global Trees. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  14. ^ Hendrix, Steve, "A Christmas tree’s remarkable journey", The Washington Post, December 21, 2011.
  15. ^ "Fraser Fir". North Carolina Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 24 November 2010.

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Fraser fir: Brief Summary

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The Fraser fir (Abies fraseri) is an endangered species of fir native to the Appalachian Mountains of the Southeastern United States.

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